CCS Systems

CARBONDIOXIDE CAPTURING AND STORAGE

ABSTRACT

Approximately one third of all CO2 emissions due to human activity come from fossil
fuels used for generating electricity, with each power plant capable of emitting several
million tones of CO2 annually. A variety of other industrial processes also emit large
amounts of CO2 from each plant, for example oil refineries, cement works, and iron and
steel production. These emissions could be reduced substantially, without major changes
to the basic process, by capturing and storing the CO2. Other sources of emissions, such
as transport and domestic buildings, cannot be tackled in the same way because of the
large number of small sources of CO2.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an approach to minimize global warming by

capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants
and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere CCS applied to a modern
conventional power plant could reduce CO2 emissions to the atmosphere by
approximately 80-90% compared to a plant without CCS.

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INTRODUCTION

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas that occurs naturally in the atmosphere.
Human activities are increasing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere thus
contributing to Earth’s global warming. CO2 is emitted when fuel is burnt – be it in large
power plants, in car engines, or in heating systems. It can also be emitted by some other
industrial processes, for instance when resources are extracted and processed, or when
forests are burnt.Currently, 30 Gt per year of CO2 is emitted due to human activities.The
increase in concentration of carbon in the past two hundred years is shown in the Fig 1.1

Fig 1.1 Increase in concentration of CO2 in past two centuries

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Fig 1.2 Increase in global temperature in past 200 years.

One possible option for reducing CO2 is to store it underground. This technique is
called Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS).

In Carbon capture and storage (CCS), carbon dioxide (CO2) is capured from large
point sources (A point source of pollution is a single identifiable localized source of air,
water, thermal, noise or light pollution).such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it
instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. Although CO2 has been injected into
geological formations for various purposes, the long term storage of CO2 is a relatively
untried.

CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce CO2 emissions to
the atmosphere by approximately 80-90% compared to a plant without CCS.

Fig 1.3 Power plants with and with out CCS.

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The section2 presents the general framework for the assessment together with a
brief overview of CCS systems. Section 3 then describes the major sources of CO2, a step
needed to assess the feasibility of CCS on a global scale. Technological options for CO2
capture are then discussed in Section 4, while Section 5 focuses on methods of CO2
transport. Following this, each of the storage options is addressed on section 6. Section
6.1 focuses on geological storage, Section 6.2 on ocean storage, and Section 6.3 on
mineral carbonation of CO2 section 7 discus the risk of CO2 leakage, The overall costs
and economic potential of CCS are then discussed in Section 8, followed by the
conclusion in Section 9.

CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE

One technique that could limit CO2 emissions from human activities into the
atmosphere is Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS). It involves collecting, at its
source, the CO2 that is produced by power plants or industrial facilities and storing it away
for a long time in underground layers, in the oceans, or in other materials

The process involves three main steps:

1. capturing CO2, at its source, by separating it from other gases produced by an

industrial process
2. transporting the captured CO2 to a suitable storage location (typically in
compressed form)
3. storing the CO2 away from the atmosphere for a long period of time, for instance
in underground geological formations, in the deep ocean, or within certain mineral
compounds.

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Fig 2.1 The three main components of the CCS process

Fig 2.2 The Esbjerg Power Station, a CO2 capture site in Denmark

3. SOURCES OF CO2 EMISSIONS SUITABLE FOR CAPTURE AND STORAGE

Several factors determine whether carbon dioxide capture is a viable option for a
particular emission source:

• the size of the emission source,

• whether it is stationary or mobile,
• how near it is to potential storage sites, and
• how concentrated its CO2 emissions are.

Carbon dioxide could be captured from a large stationary emission sources such as
a power plants or industrial facilities that produce large amounts of carbon dioxide. If
such facilities are located near potential storage sites, for example suitable geological
formations, they are possible candidates for the early implementation of CO2 capture
and storage (CCS).
Small or mobile emission sources in homes, businesses or transportation are not
being considered at this stage because they are not suitable for capture and storage.

Fig 3.1 The Gibson coal power plant, a good example of a large stationary source.

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Process Number of sources Emissions (MtCO2 yr-1)

Fossil fuels Power 4,942 10,539
Cement production 1,175 932
Refineries 638 798
Iron and steel industry 269 646
Petrochemical industry 470 379
Oil and gas processing N/A 50
Other sources 90 33
Biomass
Bioethanol and bioenergy 303 91
Total 7,887 13,466

Table 3.1 Profile by process or industrial activity of worldwide large stationary CO2 sources
with emissions of more than 0.1 MtCO2 per year.

In 2000, close to 60% of the CO2 emissions due to the use of fossil fuels were
produced by large stationary emission sources, such as power plants and oil and
gas extraction or processing industries (see Table 3.1).

Four major clusters of emissions from such stationary emission sources are: the Midwest and eastern USA, the
northwestern part of Europe, the eastern coast of China and the Indian subcontinent (see Figure 3.2).

Fig 3.2 Global Distribution of large CO2 sources

Many stationary emission sources lie either directly above, or within reasonable distance
(less than 300km) from areas with potential for geological storage (see Fig 3.2 & Fig 3.3)

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Fig 3.3 Possible storage sites

4. CO2 CAPTURE

The purpose of CO2 capture is to produce a concentrated stream of CO2 at high

pressure that can readily be transported to a storage site. Although, in principle, the entire
gas stream containing low concentrations of CO2 could be transported and injected
underground, energy costs and other associated costs generally make this approach
impractical. It is therefore necessary to produce a nearly pure CO2 stream for transport
and storage. Applications separating CO2 in large industrial plants, including natural gas
treatment plants and ammonia production facilities, are already in operation today.
Currently, CO2 is typically removed to purify other industrial gas streams. Removal has
been used for storage purposes in only a few cases; in most cases, the CO2 is emitted to
the atmosphere. Capture processes also have been used to obtain commercially useful
amounts of CO2 from flue gas streams generated by the combustion of coal or natural gas.
However, there have been no applications of CO2 capture at large (e.g., 500 MW) power
plants.

Three systems are available for power plants: post-combustion, pre-combustion,

and oxy fuel combustion systems. The captured CO2 must then be purified and
compressed for transport and storage.

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Fig 4.1 CO2 capture process.

4.1 Post-Combustion Systems

This system separate CO2 from the flue gases produced by the combustion of the
primary fuel in air. These systems normally use a liquid solvent to capture the small
fraction of CO2 (typically 3–15% by volume) present in a flue gas stream in which the
main constituent is nitrogen (from air). For a modern pulverized coal (PC) power plant or
a natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) power plant, current post-combustion capture
systems would typically employ an organic solvent such as monoethanolamine (MEA).

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Fig 4.2 Gas turbine combine cycle with post-combustion

4.2 Pre-Combustion Systems

In this process the primary fuel in a reactor with steam and air or oxygen to
produce a mixture consisting mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (“synthesis gas”).
Additional hydrogen, together with CO2, is produced by reacting the carbon monoxide
with steam in a second reactor (a “shift reactor”). The resulting mixture of hydrogen and
CO2 can then be separated into a CO2 gas stream, and a stream of hydrogen. If the CO2 is
stored, the hydrogen is a carbon-free energy carrier that can be combusted to generate
power and/or heat. Although it is costly than post-combustion systems, the high
concentrations of CO2 produced by the shift reactor (typically 15 to 60% by volume on a
dry basis) and the high pressures often encountered in these applications are more
favorable for CO2 separation.

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Fig 4.3 Pre-combustion capture of CO2

4.3 Oxyfuel Combustion Systems

This system use oxygen instead of air for combustion of the primary fuel to
produce a flue gas that is mainly water vapour and CO2. This results in a flue gas with
high CO2 concentrations (greater than 80% by volume). The water vapour is then
removed by cooling and compressing the gas stream. Oxyfuel combustion requires the
upstream separation of oxygen from air, with a purity of 95–99% oxygen assumed in
most current designs. Further treatment of the flue gas may be needed to remove air
pollutants and non- condensed gases (such as nitrogen) from the flue gas before the CO2
is sent to storage. As a method of CO2 capture in boilers, oxyfuel combustion systems are
in the demonstration phase. Oxyfuel systems are also being studied in gas turbine

Current post-combustion and pre-combustion systems for power plants could

capture 85–95% of the CO2 that is produced. Higher capture efficiencies are possible,
although separation devices become considerably larger, more energy intensive and more
costly. Capture and compression need roughly 10–40% more energy than the equivalent
plant without capture, depending on the type of system. Due to the associated CO2
emissions, the net amount of CO2 captured is approximately 80–90%. Oxyfuel
combustion systems are, in principle, able to capture nearly all of the CO2 produced.
However, the need for additional gas treatment systems to remove pollutants such as
sulphur and nitrogen oxides lowers the level of CO2 captured to slightly more than 90%.

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5. CO2 TRANSPORTATION

After capture, the CO2 must be transported to suitable storage sites. Today
Pipelines operate as a mature market technology and are the most common method for
transporting CO2. Gaseous CO2 is typically compressed to a pressure above 8 MPa in
order to avoid two-phase flow regimes and increase the density of the CO2, thereby
making it easier and less costly to transport. CO2 also can be transported as a liquid in
ships, road or rail tankers that carry CO2 in insulated tanks at a temperature well below
ambient, and at much lower pressures.

The first long-distance CO2 pipeline came into operation in the early 1970s. In the
United States, over 2,500 km of pipeline transports more than 40 MtCO2 per year from
natural and anthropogenic sources, and it is mainly used for EOR. These pipelines operate
in the ‘dense phase’ mode (in which there is a continuous progression from gas to liquid,
without a distinct phase change), and at ambient temperature and high pressure. In most
of these pipelines, the flow is driven by compressors at the upstream end, although some
pipelines have intermediate (booster) compressor stations.

In some situations or locations, transport of CO2 by ship may be economically

more attractive, particularly when the CO2 has to be moved over large distances or
overseas. Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG, principally propane and butane) are
transported on a large commercial scale by marine tankers. CO2 can be transported by
ship in much the same way (typically at 0.7 MPa pressure), but this currently takes place
on a small scale because of limited demand. The properties of liquefied CO2 are similar to
those of LPG, and the technology could be scaled up to large CO2 carriers if a demand for
such systems were to materialize.

Road and rail tankers also are technically feasible options. These systems
transport CO2 at a temperature of -20ºC and at 2 MPa pressure. However, they are
uneconomical compared to pipelines and ships, except on a very small scale, and are
unlikely to be relevant to large-scale CCS.

Fig 5.1 An LPG tanker-CO2 can be transported in the similar way.

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6. CO2 STORAGE (SEQUESTRATION)

Various forms have been conceived for permanent storage of CO2. These forms
include gaseous storage in various deep geological formations (including saline
formations and exhausted gas fields), liquid storage in the ocean, and solid storage by
reaction of CO2 with metal oxides to produce stable carbonates.

6.1 Geological Storage.

Also known as geo-sequestration, this method involves injecting carbon dioxide,

directly into underground geological formations. Geological formations are currently
considered the most promising sequestration sites, and these are estimated to have a
storage capacity of at least 2000 Gt CO2 (currently, 30 Gt per year of CO2 is emitted due
to human activities). Oil fields, gas fields, saline formations, unminable coal seams, and
saline-filled basalt formations have been suggested as storage sites. Various physical
(e.g., highly impermeable caprock) and geochemical trapping mechanisms would prevent
the CO2 from escaping to the surface. CO2 is sometimes injected into declining oil fields
to increase oil recovery (enhanced oil recovery).CO2 storage in hydrocarbon reservoirs or
deep saline formations is generally expected to take place at depths below 800 m, where
the ambient pressures and temperatures will usually result in CO2 being in a liquid or
supercritical state. Under these conditions, the density of CO2 will range from 50 to 80%
of the density of water. This is close to the density of some crude oils, resulting in
buoyant forces that tend to drive CO2 upwards. Fig6.1.1 shows some of the methods used
in geological storage.

This option is attractive because the storage costs may be partly offset by the sale
of additional oil that is recovered

Unminable coal seams can be used to store CO2 because CO2 adsorbs to the
surface of coal. However, the technical feasibility depends on the permeability
of the coal bed. In the process of absorption the coal releases previously
absorbed methane, and the methane can be recovered (enhanced coal bed
methane recovery). The sale of the methane can be used to offset a portion of
the cost of the CO2 storage.

Saline formations contain highly mineralized brines, and have so far been
considered of no benefit to humans. Saline aquifers have been used for storage of
chemical waste in a few cases. The main advantage of saline aquifers is their large
potential storage volume and their common occurrence. This will reduce the distances
over which CO2 has to be transported. The major disadvantage of saline aquifers is that
relatively little is known about them, compared to oil fields.

For well-selected, designed and managed geological storage sites, IPCC estimates
that CO2 could be trapped for millions of years, and the sites are likely to retain over 99%
of the injected CO2 over 1,000 years.

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Fig 6.1.1 Geological storage options.

Reservoir type Lower estimate of storage Upper estimate of storage

capacity (GtCO2) capacity (GtCO2)

Oil and gas fields 675a 900a

Unminable coal seams 3-15 200

(ECBM)
Deep saline formations 1,000 Uncertain, but possibly 104

Table 6.1.1 Storage capacity for several geological storage options.

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6.2 Ocean Storage

A potential CO2 storage option is to inject captured CO2 directly into the deep
ocean (at depths greater than 1,000 m), where most of it would be isolated from the
atmosphere for centuries. This can be achieved by transporting CO2 via pipelines or ships
to an ocean storage site, where it is injected into the water column of the ocean or at the
sea floor. The dissolved and dispersed CO2 would subsequently become part of the global
carbon cycle. Fig 6.1.2 shows some of the main methods that could be employed. Ocean
storage has not yet been deployed or demonstrated at a pilot scale, and is still in the
research phase. However, there have been small- scale field experiments and 25 years of
theoretical, laboratory and modeling studies of intentional ocean storage of CO2.

Fig 6.2.1 Ocean storage methods.

Fig 6.1.2 CO2can be injected into the deep ocean from oil platforms.

CO2 injection, however, can harm marine organisms near the injection point. It is
furthermore expected that injecting large amounts would gradually affect the whole
ocean. Because of its environmental implications, CO2 storage in oceans is generally no
longer considered as an acceptable option

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6.3 Mineral Storage

Through chemical reactions with some naturally occurring minerals, CO2 is

converted into a solid form through a process called mineral carbonation and stored
virtually permanently. This is a process which occurs naturally, although very slowly.

These chemical reactions can be accelerated and used industrially to artificially

store CO2 in minerals. However, the large amounts of energy and mined minerals needed
makes this option less cost effective.

Earthen Oxide Percent of Crust Carbonate Enthalpy change

(kJ/mol)

SiO2 59.71

Al2O3 15.41

CaO 4.90 CaCO3 -179

MgO 4.36 MgCO3 -117

Na2O 3.55 Na2CO3

FeO 3.52 FeCO3

K2O 2.80 K2CO3

Fe2O3 2.63 FeCO3

21.76 All Carbonates

Table 6.3.1 Principal metal oxides of Earth's Crust. Theoretically up to 22% of this
mineral mass is able to form carbonates.

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7. RISK OF LEAKAGE

The risks due to leakage from storage of CO2 in geological reservoirs fall into two
broad categories: global risks and local risks. Global risks involve the release of CO2 that
may contribute significantly to climate change if some fraction leaks from the storage
formation to the atmosphere. In addition, if CO2 leaks out of a storage formation, local
hazards may exist for humans, ecosystems and groundwater. These are the local risks.

Fig 8.1 Geological leakage routes

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8. COST OF CO2 CAPTURE AND STOREGE OPERATIONS

CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce CO2 emissions to
the atmosphere by approximately 80-90% compared to a plant without CCS. Capturing
and compressing CO2 requires much energy and would increase the fuel needs of a coal-
fired plant with CCS by about 25%. These and other system costs are estimated to
increase the cost of energy from a new power plant with CCS by 21-91%.

Natural gas Pulverized Integrated gasification

combined cycle coal combined cycle

Without capture 0.03 - 0.05 0.04 - 0.05 0.04 - 0.06

(reference plant)

With capture and 0.04 - 0.08 0.06 - 0.10 0.06 - 0.09

geological storage

With capture and 0.04 - 0.07 0.05 - 0.08 0.04 - 0.08

Enhanced oil recovery

Table 8.1 Costs of energy with and without CCS (2002 US$ per kWh)

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9. CONCLUSION

Large reductions in emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere are likely to be needed to

avoid major climate change. Capture and storage ofCO2, in combination with other CO2
abatement techniques, could enable these large reductions to be achieved with least
impact on the global energy infrastructure and the economy. Capture and storage is
particularly well suited to use in central power generation and many energy-intensive
industrial processes. CO2 capture and storage technology also provides a means of
introducing hydrogen as an energy carrier for distributed and mobile energy users.

For power stations, the cost of capture and storage is about $50/t ofCO 2 avoided.
This compares favorably with the cost of many other options considered for achieving
large reductions in emissions. Use of this technique would allow continued provision of
large-scale energy supplies using the established energy infrastructure. There is
considerable scope for new ideas to reduce energy consumption and costs of CO2 capture
and storage which would accelerate the development and introduction of this technology

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REFERENCES

1. Department of Trade and Industry (UK), Gasification of Solid and Liquid Fuels
for Power Generation, report TSR 008, Dec. 1998

2. Department of Trade and Industry (UK), Supercritical Steam Cycles for Power
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3. Durie R, Paulson C, Smith A and Williams D, Proceedings of the 5thInternational

Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, CSIRO(Australia)
publications, 2000

4. Eliasson B, Riemer P W F and Wokaun A (editors), Greenhouse Gas Control

Technologies, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference, Elsevier Science
Ltd., Oxford 1999

5. Herzog H, Eliasson B and Kaarstad O, Capturing Greenhouse Gases, Scientific

American, Feb. 2000, 54-61

6. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 1995 -The

Science of Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, 1996

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Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, Transport &Environmental Aspects of Carbon
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8. IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, Abatement of Methane Emissions,

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12. www.ipcc.ch

13. www.Greenfacts.org

14. www.ieagreen.org.uk

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