RESEARCH NOTE - ANIMAL HEALTH & WELFARE PERITUS – NRMC

THE STRESS RESPONSE OF BROILER CHICKENS AND HOW IT CAN IMPACT ON BOTH
PRODUCTION AND PRODUCT QUALITY
Martin Lobâo(1)

ABSTRACT
Broiler production has become an increasingly important commercial, smallholder and family based livestock activity. Despite the
irrefutable benefits offered in this highly intensive production system, many have neglected the implications that this system can impact on
birds’ health and welfare. Broiler chickens are frequently exposed to constant stress factors on that affects and limits their physiological,
mental and genetic potential to perform to the highest expected economic level. They often suffer physical, mental and other stress factors
that impacted not only on their ability to produce efficiently but also on the overall productivity of the broiler enterprise. It is important
that producers are mindful of these constraints and attempt to minimise these stress factors on their animals. This paper accentuates the
major stress factors on broiler chickens and how they impact on both production and product quality.

Keywords: broiler production, welfare, climate stress, environment stress, nutritional stress, physiological stress, physical
stress, psychological stress, product quality

1. INTRODUCTION
Most of today’s problems in broiler production is
related to or caused by a combination of factors such
as management, nutrition, immuno-suppression and
exposure to disease agents and stresses. Stress is an
important cause of reduced performance and increase
susceptibility to diseases. Broilers under intensive
production systems are frequently exposed to stress
factors, reducing their ability to perform effectively
up to their highest genetic potential. It is therefore
important to have an effective management program
to minimize their effect on the birds’ performance
and health (Rosales 1994).
Stress response studies require an integrated
know how of the animal’s response to both external
and internal factors as highlighted above. Thus an
attempt to give detail information on these integrated
mechanisms for all types of animals is far beyond the
scope of this paper. Further, a large pool of
information is available in various sources for
interested people to use. But the report only focuses
on how stress affects both product and production of
broiler chickens. It gives a brief definition of stress
and the common sources of stress and attempts to
explain briefly the impact of stress on production and
the impacts on product quality.
external demands, which enable flocks to adapt to
new or abnormal situations (Rosales, 1994). This
adaptation process causes the release of hormones
and requires the redistribution of body reserves
including energy and protein at the cost of decreased
growth, reproduction, and health. After extended or
repeated periods of stress, birds become fatigued and
weak; they often succumb to starvation and
infectious diseases. Stress can be described as
detrimental effects of a variety of situations on the
health and performance of poultry (Rosales, 1994).
3. STRESS FACTORS
These sources of stress can be grouped as such; -
climatic stress (extreme heat and cold, high humidity);
environmental stress (bright light, wet litter, poor
ventilation); nutritional stress (shortages of nutrients,
feed intake problems); physiological stress (rapid
growth, process of maturing sexually); physical stress
(catching, immobilization, injections, transport); social
stress (overcrowding, poor body); and the
psychological stress (fear, harsh care, weight
uniformity). Some of the most common causes of
stress in broilers during broiler production include,
poor brooding and litter conditions, contaminated
premises, temperature extremes, inadequate
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2. WHAT IS STRESS? ventilation and handling and transportation.

Stress was originally described as a "fight or flight
syndrome". It is any physical or mental disruption that
lowers resistance and the ability of an animal to
perform up to its expected potential (Demerow,
1994). It is also defined as a set of responses to
A simplified classification of stress suggested by
Kettlewel (1989) are Mental, Physical and Mixed
(mental and physical) factors. Another classification
of stress was proposed by Grandin (1998) and
includes psychological and physical stress. These

1 Research Scientist, National

Agricultural Research Institute, Highlands Regional Centre – Tambul, P. O. Box 120, MT. HAGEN, WHP.
Papua New Guinea. Email: martin.lobao@nari.org.pg or martin.lobao@gmail.com

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RESEARCH NOTE - ANIMAL HEALTH & WELFARE
classifications summarize most of the factors
associated with stress on any poultry production
system.
3.1. Mental stress factors
Mental stresses in broiler chickens are a very
complicated process. Since broilers live a relatively
short life (5-8 weeks) and for them to perform up to
their genetic potential whilst coping with different
stress factors is certainly a very challenging process.
Sudden disruptions of their life-style are likely to be
bewildering to broilers, as they have neither the time
nor the experience to react to such disturbances.
Like other non aggressive animals, broilers are very
fearful. Fear is an important mental stressor that
causes negative effect on the welfare of the birds.
Broilers continuously exposed to mental stress
especially during social group disruption, time of
catching, crating and other stress such as
transportation.
3.2. Physical stress factors
According to Kettlewel (1989), physical stressors
are factors that cause physical injuries and mental
stress (to some extent). Broiler chickens often exhibit
signs of physical stress during time of harvesting and
transportation, which mainly involve catching of
birds (in groups) by the legs, handling of birds
(inversion, inverted crates), loading of birds and
crates, transportation (environmental such as wind,
microclimate conditions and vibrations), unloading
of birds and so on. Other injuries sometimes occur
when the feeders and drinkers are removed during
feeding times as well as to prepare for the birds to be
transported for slaughtering.
3.3. Mixed (mental and physical) stress factors
Pursuant to Siegel (1995), environment is a
composite of interacting stressors that can include, in
a broadest sense, all the conditions in which the birds
live. That includes external stressors such as
temperature, light, social and behavioral
environments; and the internal stressors such as
pathogens, toxins and metabolic disorders). Hence
the transportation and handling of the birds pose a
mixed factor of mental (fear, pain and anxiety) and
physical (environment, wind, extreme heats and cold,
and so on).
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4. STRESS EFFECT ON PRODUCTION
As defined earlier, stress is any physical or
mental disruption including metabolic disorders that
lowers resistance or a set of responses to external
demands, which causes the birds to adapt to new or
abnormal situations. This adaptation process causes
the release of hormones and requires the
redistribution of body reserves including energy and
protein at the cost of decreased growth, reproduction,
and health. Rosales (1994) argued that constant
exposure to infectious agents is a common source of
stress. Nonetheless, challenges may not result in
overt disease. Only when sub-clinical infections due
to poor bio-security and sanitation persist, excessive
activation of the immune system will result in a
condition known as immunological stress. This
condition results in a series of changes in
carbohydrate, protein, trace mineral, and lipid
metabolism induced by mediators of the immune
response including leukocytic cytokines (monokines
and lymphokines) (Rosales, 1994). Birds experiencing
stress undergo a variety of internal metabolic and
hormonal responses. Necessary adjustments for
survival require the bird to use energy and other
nutrient: intended for growth, immunity, feathering,
and reproduction (Rosales, 1994).
During the growing period, stressed birds do not
gain weight and have reduced feed efficiency
(Rosales, 1994). Exposure to stress in poultry has
three stages: alarm reaction phase, adaptive phase
and exhaustion phase.
During the initial phase that is called the alarm
reaction, factors causing stress (stressors) stimulate
postganglionic necurons and the medullary tissue of
the adrenal gland, which release catecholamines
including adrenalin and or noradrenalin. These
catecholamines prepare the bird for ‘fight or flight,’
commanding a rapid release of glucose.
The second adaptive or resistance phase
stimulates the hypothalamus, which in turn,
commands the adrenal cortex to release a
glucocorticoid hormone known as corticosterone
(Post et al., 2003). This hormone is responsible for the
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formation of glucose from the body's reserves of
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
Finally, if the bird does not recover from the stressor
and the availability of body reserves and hormones
from the adrenal gland are inadequate, a third or
exhaustion phase leads to fatigue of the homeostatic
mechanisms and death (Rosales 1994).
RESEARCH NOTE - ANIMAL HEALTH & WELFARE
Information concerning the effects of
corticosteroids similar to those produced under stress
has shown that corticosteroids in poultry can cause
decreased body weight gains and atrophy of the
spleen, thymus, and bursa of Fabricius; decreased
antibody responses (Post et al, 2003); enhanced
susceptibility to coccidiosis and higher oocyst
production (Long and Millard, 1976); decreased
levels of lymphokines (biologically active molecules
produced by activated T-lymphocytes), interferon
(protein secreted by infected cells to inhibit viral
replication), and decreased numbers of both T-
lymphocytes (thymus dependant lymphocytes) and
natural killer cells (Kenneth et al., 1997; Rosales,
1994). Extreme heat or cold can affect the
performance of broilers by reducing body weight
gain, in addition to increasing mortality and
susceptibility to disease. The influence of this type of
stress during the brooding period can have
devastating effects on the immunity and future
performance of the broilers (Rosales, 1994). There is
evidence that climatic stressors can also affect B-cell
immunity (antibody production), as well as T-cell
mediated immunity (Elrom, 2000). Under normal
conditions, the intestinal microflora is able to prevent
the translocation of pathogenic bacteria to the blood
stream and liver, provided that the intestinal mucosa
is intact. When this barrier is damaged by stress,
invasion of the blood stream, stimulation of the
immune system and mortality occurs in chickens
exposed to pathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli)
(Rosales, 1994).
Stress causes decreased antibody responses to
vaccination and increased susceptibility to different
diseases (Rosales 1994). Stress can cause changes in
the numbers of leucocytes (heterophil / lymphocyte
ratios), a situation which for a short period increases
the resistance to E. coli infection (Elram, 2000, and
Rosales, 1994). As reviewed by Rosales (1994),
prolonged periods of stress and reduced feed intake
are recognized as the major causes of reductions in
lymphocyte numbers and atrophy of lymphoid
organs. According to Rosales (1994), the impact of
stress in broiler breeders and can also affect to broiler
meat birds are;
 Increase level of hormonal levels such as
corticosterone, insulin or glucagon
 Increased metabolic rate and resting energy
 Increased reliance on glucose as an energy source
(Hypoglycemia)
 Elevation of plasma free fatty acids
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 Decreased growth and increased muscle
degradation
 Release of acute-phase cytokines
 Redistribution of trace minerals
 Decreased voluntary feed intake (Anorexia)
 Increased body temperature and
 Immuno-suppression
5. STRESS EFFECTS ON PRODUCT
QUALITY
Quality of poultry meat is an important aspect, in
any commercial broiler enterprise. The product
quality in this case carcass or meat is largely
determined by a low microbial contamination
(Schedle et al., 2006) and the acidification process of
the meat post-mortem (Duclos et al., 2007). As
suggested Schedle et al., (2006), one way to reach a
low microbial contamination is a starving period
before slaughter, which is able to lower the risk of
contamination with droppings. Contreras-Castillo et
al., (2007) also reported that before slaughter, while
the chickens are still on the farms, their feed is
withdrawn and they are submitted to a feed
withdrawal period that aims to reduce the
gastrointestinal contents and consequently feacal
contamination of the carcass during transport and
evisceration. Weight loss by the birds during the
period between feed withdrawal periods is referred
to as live shrink or shrinkage and eight hours has
been suggested as the minimum time to empty the
broilers’ gastrointestinal contents (Contreras-Castillo
et al., 2007). Edible yield is affected due to weight loss
when feed withdrawal is more than six hours and
broilers begin to draw moisture and nutrients from
their own body tissues (Contreras-Castillo et al.,
2007). The degree of shrinkage caused by feed
withdrawal is affected by bird age, gender, diet
density, house, and environmental control, and
ambient temperature, length of feed withdrawal,
transportation, and plant holding conditions. Carcass
weight loss initially results from fluid loss through
the excretion of faeces and urine but longer feed
withdrawal periods may contribute to a decrease in
tissue substance and muscle glycogen levels
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Duclos et al., (2007) stated that the quality of
poultry products can be partitioned into several
attributes, mainly the sensory (colour, tenderness,
flavour, juiciness) and the physical (muscle yield,
water-holding capacity, cooking loss) attributes of
chicken carcasses and meat, which vary with growth
rate and body composition. A carcass of good quality
RESEARCH NOTE - ANIMAL HEALTH & WELFARE
is maximal meat yield with limited fatness. Duclos et
al., (2007) stated that after bleeding, cessation of O2
supply modifies muscular metabolism during the
initiation of rigor mortis, the muscle relies on the
anaerobic glycolytic pathway. Glycolysis leads to the
accumulation of lactic acid and protons. Therefore,
the acidification process depends upon the amount of
glycogen stores and the rate of the glycolysis. Acid
meats are characterized by a low ultimate pH (pHu <
5.7), meats with a high ultimate pH also show defects
in their colour, texture, and water-holding capacity,
and more so high pH meat is usually dark, firm, and
dry (Duclos et al., 2007). These types of meats can
occur in poultry as effects of stress.
These mentioned parameters are stressors and as
outlined may affect the physical and chemical
characteristics of the meat, which will determine the
quality of the end product.
6. CONCLUSION
Broilers under intensive production systems
constantly expose to frequent stress factors. This
includes climatic stress, environmental stress,
nutritional stress, physiological stress, physical stress,
social stress and psychological stress. No matter how
much resistance a chicken has its resistance will be
reduced to some extent by stress. It is important as
well as an imperative under animal welfare
guidelines for industries and owners to have in place
effective management program to minimize their
effect on the birds’ performance and health. Stress
cannot be avoided and is a part of every chicken’s
life. Broiler industries and farmers can be able to
minimize these stresses through good management
of the sources of these impacts on production. Any
management tool that minimizes stress will result in
improved productivity, including improved
efficiency of feed conversion in broiler.
7. REFERENCE
Contreras-Castillo, C., Pinto, A. A., Souza G. L.,
Beraquet N. J., Aguiar, A. P., Cipolli, K. M. V. A. B.,
Mendes, S. C. M. I., and Ortega E. M., (2007). Effects
of Feed Withdrawal Periods on Carcass Yield and
Breast Meat Quality of Chickens Reared Using an
Alternative System, J. Appl. Poult. Res. 16: 613-622
Damerow, G., (1994). The Chicken Health Book
Handbook. Storey Publication, 210 MASS MoCA
Way, North Adams, MA 01247.
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Duclos, M. J., Berri, C. and Le Bihan-Duval, E.,
(2007). Muscle Growth and Meat Quality, J. Appl.
Poult. Res. 16: 107-112.
Elrom, K. (2000). Handling and Transport of Broilers
Welfare, Stress, Fear and Meat Quality. J. Vet.
Medicine (Israel) 55(2):1-9.
Grandin T.: (1998). Information resources for
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Odriscol, J., ed.: AWIC Resources Series No. 4, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, National Agriculture
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Beltsville, M.D., 1998.
Kenneth, T., Briggs, M., Gershwin, E. and Daniel W.
Anderson., (1997). Consequences of petrochemical
ingestion and stress on the immune system of
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Long, P. L., and B. J. Millard, (1976). The detection of
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Kettlewell P.J., (1989). Physiological aspects of
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Post, J., Rebel, J. M. J, and A. A. H. M. ter Huurne.,
(2003). Physiological Effects of Elevated Plasma
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Rosales, G., (1994). Managing Stress In Broiler
Breeders: A Review. J. Appl. Poult Res. 3: 199-207.
Schedle, K., Haslinger, M., Leitgeb, R., Bauer, F.,
Ettle, T., Windisch, W., (2006). Carcass and meat
quality of broiler chickens at different starving period
before slaughter. J. Vet. Zootech. 35(57):85-88.
Siegel, H. S., (1995). Stress, strains and resistance. Br.
Poult. Sci. 36: 3-22,
Southern, K.J., Rasekh, J.G., Hemphill, F.E and
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