Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389

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Fibre/matrix stress transfer through a discrete interphase.

Part 1: single-fibre model composites
S.A. Hayes*, R. Lane, F.R. Jones
Department of Engineering Materials, Sheffield University, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, UK

Abstract
This paper reports a study of the effect of an interphase on strain development in fibre-fragments. In order to form an interphase, an epoxy
resin with known properties was applied to the surface of unsized reinforcing fibres and cured. These were then embedded in a matrix resin
coupon, prior to fragmentation testing. The study included an examination of the effect of interphase thickness, by applying multiple coats of
one of the resins, and the effect of the interphase properties, by varying the coating resins. It was found that the average fragment lengths at
saturation were difficult to distinguish, as a result of the scatter introduced by the statistical distribution of fibre strengths. However, the strain
interval between onset of fragmentation and saturation was found to be more sensitive to variations in the interphase properties.
A finite element model was used to examine the strain development in the fragments in more detail. The mechanical properties of the fibre,
interphase and matrix were accurately incorporated into the model, providing a realistic representation of the state of strain in the experi-
mental samples. The predicted deformations around the fibre-break provided an explanation for the experimental observations. 䉷 2001
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: A. Carbon fibre; A. Resins; B. Fragmentation; B. Interface/interphase; Finite element modelling

1. Introduction fibres modify the properties of the matrix over a region of

An interphase is unavoidable in the production of poly-
mer matrix composites and can form in a number of ways
[1], for example:
(i) the presence of adsorbed contaminants on the fibre
surface, which are not desorbed during impregnation
and cure;
(ii) diffusion of chemical species to the interface between
fibre and matrix;
(iii) acceleration or retardation of polymerisation at the
interface;
(iv) the deliberate inclusion of sizing resin at the time of
fibre manufacture.
The effect of an interphase on the performance of the
composite is not well characterised, since its precise nature
is difficult to predict. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
[2–4] has been used to examine the mechanical and thermal
properties in the immediate vicinity of reinforcing fibres. In
this way, it has been clearly shown that sized reinforcing
* Corresponding author. Tel.: ⫹44-114-222-5516; fax: ⫹44-114-222-
5943.
E-mail address: s.a.hayes@sheffield.ac.uk (S.A. Hayes).
1359-835X/01/$ - see front matter 䉷 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S1359-835 X( 00)00 127-5
around 0.5 mm. However, to date it has proved impossible to
obtain quantitative data on the gradation in mechanical
properties, as calibration of the measurements using SPM
depends on complex geometric considerations [3].
The mathematical analysis of the stress transfer between
fibre-fragments and matrix has been widely attempted.
These analyses either employ a shear-lag analysis [5],
which because of its one-dimensional (1D) nature, contain
a series of simplifying assumptions; or more complex
models such as the Bessel function approach [6] and those
based on variational mechanics [7,8]. The inclusion of an
interphase region into these analyses has, however, been
neglected in many cases, although some authors have
attempted this. Nairn and Liu [6] considered the presence
of an unknown interphase to be analogous to an imperfect
interface, with the degree of imperfection being dependent
on the properties of the interphase. Their methodology
allowed the degree of imperfection to be determined by
establishing a best-fit parameter from experimental data.
Other authors have employed theoretical methods, which
incorporate the interphase properties, including its thickness
[7,9,10].
One problem with the above analyses is the consideration
of the matrix and interphase as elastic. In practical terms, the
majority of resins used in the production of polymer-matrix
380 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389
Table 1
Resin formulations by weight
Constituent/blend 5050 6040
Epikote 828 50 60
Araldite GY298 50 40
Capcure 3-800 59.42 63.9
NMA 22.26 23.93
composites can be considered to be elasto-plastic in nature,
displaying a distinct yield point. It has been demonstrated
that yielding has a significant influence on the load transfer
between matrix and fibre and, therefore, the assumption of
elasticity is misleading [11]. In order to overcome this
limitation, various authors have attempted to incorporate
the effect of plasticity into the elastic analyses [6,11].
Tripathi et al. [11] incorporated plasticity into the varia-
tional mechanics model of Nairn [8] by considering only
the interfacial shear stress. Therefore the effects of the 3D
stresses in the vicinity of the fibre-break were neglected.
Nairn and Liu [6] employed a yield analysis based on the
calculated octahedral shear stress and a von Mises yield
criterion in their Bessel function analysis of the stresses
around the fibre. This approach was used to predict the
extent of yield along the fibre, and was shown to be consis-
tent with experimental results. However, in their model, the
interphase region was assumed to have no thickness and
hence a detailed analysis of the extent of yield, for different
interphase and matrix properties, is not possible. Thus, the
inclusion of plasticity into the elastic analyses of stresses
around broken fibres has not yet been satisfactorily
achieved.
Finite element analysis has also been used to examine the
load transfer between matrix and fibre, in the presence of an
interphase [1,12,13]. Jacobs and Verpoest [12] presented a
linear elastic finite element model of a coated fibre
embedded in a matrix. Their study was largely aimed at
determining the fracture processes during debonding,
however, it showed that the presence of a stiff coating
decreased the ineffective fibre length, while a soft one
increased it. This confirmed predictions from the elastic
mathematical models. The finite element model of Lane et
al. [13] incorporated the elasto-plastic nature of the matrix
and interphase by digitisation of the true stress/true strain
curves obtained from real polymeric systems. Thus,
the occurrence of yielding around the fibre-break, within
the interphase and matrix, could be monitored. It was
shown that the load transferred to the fibre was
dependent on the properties of both the matrix and
interphase. However, the effect of interphase thickness
was not examined.
The effect of the interphase on the properties of both
model and bulk composites has also been examined using
experimental techniques [14,15]. It was shown by Lopatta-
nanon et al. [14] that the properties of a thin interphase
significantly altered the nature of load transfer, with some
systems exhibiting full debonding, while others did not
debond. This was attributed to varying levels of adhesion
through control of the functionality of the fibre-surface/
plasma-coating. However, while the adhesive influence of
the different interphase materials was examined, the
mechanical and physical properties of the interphase were
ignored. Hamada et al. [15] examined the effect of an inter-
phase on the properties of bulk composites. Their study
involved applying an interphase resin to tows of fibre by
drawing them through a resin solution. It was found that
the inclusion of a flexible interphase improved the damage
tolerance of the composite, although the modulus of the
composite was reduced.
The current study examines the effect of an interphase,
with known properties, on the load transferred to a single
reinforcing fibre. This includes a consideration of the inter-
phase thickness, as well as the elasto-plastic nature of the
resins used. The effect of the interphase is assessed using the
fragmentation test geometry. Finite element analysis has
been employed to provide further understanding of the
experimental results.
2. Experimental
2.1. Experimental study
In order to produce the specimens, two resins with differ-
ing properties were required. These were prepared by blend-
ing Epikote 828 (Shell) and Araldite GY298 (Ciba-Geigy)
in varying proportions, the resins being identified by the
proportion of Epikote 828 followed by the proportion of
Araldite GY298. In this way, the systems were defined as,
5050 and 6040, where 5050 has 50% Epikote 828 and 50%
Araldite GY298 by weight. The blends of resin were cured
using a stoichiometric mixture of two hardeners (Capcure 3-
800 (Henkel) and NMA (Stag Polymers and Sealants)). This
ensured that chemically similar resins, with varying
mechanical properties, were obtained. The proportions of
each constituent in the two blends are shown in Table 1.
The resin blends were cured using a two-stage process of
4 h at 80⬚C and 3 h at 130⬚C. To maintain fibre alignment in
the coupons during cure, the samples were restrained during
the post-curing step, in order to minimise the effect of differ-
ing thermal expansion coefficients of the fibre, interphase
and matrix. Once the specimens had cooled to room
temperature, they were removed from the mould prior to
testing. The magnitude of the residual strain was not
measured after post-curing, but it is expected that they
will vary slightly from sample to sample. However, the
difference between the stress free temperatures is expected
to be small.
To form an interphase, single untreated-unsized carbon
fibres (Tenax HTA 5000) were separated from the fibre tow
and mounted across a wire frame, facilitating further hand-
ling. Each fibre could then be coated by drawing it across
 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389
Fig. 1. True stress/true strain curves for the resin formulations used in this study.
the surface of a glass rod, which had been dipped into the
formulated resin. This enabled a controlled coating to be
applied to the fibre. The coated fibre, on its wire frame,
was then suspended in an oven while the coating was
cured. In the case of fibres used in the study of the effect
of interphase thickness, this process was repeated to build
up coating thickness.
The coated fibres were taken and embedded in a matrix
resin, to form fragmentation specimens. The specimens
were cast, in silicone-rubber dog-bone moulds, with a
gauge length of approximately 35 mm, and cured using
the standard cure schedule. Samples consisting purely of
resin, without an embedded fibre, were produced and their
mechanical properties determined. From the experimental
stress/strain curves, the true stress/true strain curves were
calculated using standard equations and are shown in Fig. 1.
Fragmentation tests were carried out using an automated
mini-tester, whose development is discussed elsewhere
[17]. This facilitated simple observation of the fragmenta-
tion process and enabled digital photographs of the frag-
ments to be readily obtained for subsequent analysis. The
photographs were captured at a fixed magnification and the
fragment lengths were measured using a custom written
computer program, which was calibrated using a graticule
imaged at the same magnification as the fragments. Testing
was carried out on a minimum of four samples of each type.
2.1.1. Effect of interphase mechanical properties
In order to study the effect of the interphase mechanical
properties on the strain transfer between matrix and fibre,
four matrix/interphase pairs were studied:
(i) 5050 (uncoated);
(ii) 5050/6040;
(iii) 6040/5050;
381
(iv) 6040 (uncoated).
where the first blend quoted is the matrix system. The
systems containing an interphase had a coating of approxi-
mately 0.2 mm thickness, as measured using a scanning
electron microscope.
2.1.2. Effect of interphase thickness
The effect of interphase thickness was studied by employ-
ing a single matrix/interphase system consisting of a 6040
matrix with a 5050 interphase. To increase the interphase
thickness, the fibres were coated with the 5050 blend, either
1, 2, 3 or 4 times prior to embedding in the 6040 matrix. The
thickness of the coating after 1, 2, 3 and 4 applications were
found to be approximately 0.2, 1.5, 2.1 and 3 mm, respectively.
2.2. Finite element analysis
A 2D axisymmetric finite element analysis, representing
half of the fragment, was employed. A schematic of the
resultant model is shown in Fig. 2, with the dimensions of
each constituent. The geometry was chosen to represent a
fibre embedded in an infinite block of resin, with the matrix
dimensions selected to eliminate edge-effects. This was
achieved by ensuring that the von Mises stress attained on
the right-hand edge of the model was less than 1% of the
maximum von Mises stress anywhere within the model. The
model was created using ANSYS 5.4 and meshed, using
axisymmetric boundary conditions, with first-order struc-
tural-solid elements (type Plane 42), such that the fibre
contained 500, the interphase 750 and the matrix 5500
elements. The mesh density was concentrated in the region
of the fibre-break and along the interphase, with a minimum
element size of 0.2 mm by 0.4 mm. Symmetry boundary
conditions were applied to the bottom and left-hand
382 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389

included in the current model, to provide a more realistic

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of the finite element model geometry used in
this study.
representation of the fragmentation process. In order to
introduce the fibre-break, a single layer of elements 1 mm
thick was eliminated in the region of the fibre-end, using the
ANSYS ‘ekill’ command. This reduced the mechanical
properties of the elements by a factor of 1 × 10 ⫺6 and is
thus representative of a crack of 2 mm thickness. Such a
geometry has been found to give similar results to models
containing thinner cracks, but with improved speed and
stability of the solution. No thermal step was included in
the analysis, because precise modelling of the residual stress
state in the samples was considered to be impractical,
without full knowledge of the stress-free temperature and
the temperature dependence of the expansion coefficients of
the resins, or any stress relaxation that occurs. Therefore, the
model cannot provide a precise representation of the experi-
mental observations, but the trends can be used to interpret
the experimental data.

Table 2
Average fragment length, at saturation in the fragmentation test, as a 3. Results
function of interphase properties

System Average fragment length (mm)

3.1. Experimental study

5050 (uncoated) 0.55 ^ 0.16 3.1.1. Effect of interphase mechanical properties

5050/6040 0.49 ^ 0.17
6040/5050 0.42 ^ 0.13
6040 (uncoated) 0.43 ^ 0.13
edges with a displacement being applied to the top edge.
Applied strains of 0.25 and 2% were examined to allow the
development of plasticity along the length of the fragment to
be examined.
The properties of the matrix and interphase resin were
equivalent to those examined in the experimental study,
the true stress/true strain curves for each resin being digi-
tised into the FE model. This allowed the software to
employ a von Mises yield criterion to describe the deforma-
tion behaviour of each element. The fibre was considered to
be carbon with an axial modulus of 220 GPa and a trans-
verse modulus of 14 GPa, the Poisson’s ratios being 0.2 and
0.25, respectively. We have previously reported a signifi-
cant difference between the strain transfer characteristics of
a short embedded filament and fragments of a continuous
reinforcing fibre [16], as a result of strain transfer across the
fibre-end in the former. Therefore a fibre-break was
The average fragment lengths at saturation for each
system were measured and are shown in Table 2, along
with their standard deviations. The average fragment length
was calculated from approximately 200 individual frag-
ments. The scatter in the data results from the statistical
variation in the fibre strength. It can be seen that there is
little difference between the average lengths, particularly
when the degree of scatter in the measurements is consid-
ered. It may be concluded that the matrix system has an
influence, because the average fragment length in the
5050 matrix is higher than in the 6040 matrix. However,
the validity of this observation is open to question, given the
large standard deviation in the data sets. Thus, it is consid-
ered impractical to comment on the influence of the inter-
phase on the strain transfer process.
Considering the mechanics of fragmentation, the process
can be characterised by onset and saturation, with the strain
transfer between matrix and fibre influencing both of these
events. As such, the applied strains at these points are of
interest for analysis, and are reported in Table 3, although
further processing of this data, to remove the influence of

Table 3
Applied strain interval over which fragmentation of embedded fibres occurred, as a function of interphase properties

System Average applied Average applied Average strain interval

strain at onset (%) strain at saturation (%) between onset and saturation (%)

5050 (uncoated) 3 6 3
5050/6040 3 8 5
6040/5050 2 6 4
6040 (uncoated) 4 9 5
 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389 383

Table 4 thickness, indicates that the strain interval tends to decrease

Average fragment lengths for the 6040/5050 system with differing inter-
phase or coating thickness, at saturation in the fragmentation process. The
6040 (uncoated) and 5050 (uncoated) systems, are reference systems repre-
senting an interface and an infinite interphase, respectively
Coating thickness (mm) Average fragment length (mm)
0 (6040 (uncoated)) 0.43 ^ 0.13
0.2 0.41 ^ 0.11
1.5 0.43 ^ 0.11
2.1 0.47 ^ 0.12
3.0 0.45 ^ 0.11
Infinite (5050 (uncoated)) 0.55 ^ 0.16
residual strain is required. This is achieved by quoting the
strain interval between onset and saturation, because frag-
mentation will be initiated when the residual strain in the
fibre has been overcome. Therefore the residual strain can
be considered to offset the data. Thus, although the precise
numerical values of the onset strain and saturation strain
will depend on the residual strain, the strain interval
between them will be independent of it. It should also be
borne in mind that the quoted values are rounded, because
the readings were only taken at 1% intervals. Thus, a frag-
ment occurring at 3.1% would be first recorded at 4%. In
this way, the apparent spread in the data would probably be
reduced if more frequent observation had been employed.
However, this was not practical because of the occurrence of
strain relaxation during the observation process. It can be
seen that the 5050 (uncoated) and 6040/5050 systems
displayed very similar strains at onset and saturation. Simi-
larly the 6040 (uncoated) and 5050/6040 systems displayed
similar strains at onset and saturation, but the interval
between these events was greater.
3.1.2. Study of the effect of interphase thickness
The average fragment lengths at saturation for each coat-
ing thickness are shown in Table 4, the 6040 (uncoated)
system and the 5050 (uncoated) system acting as upper
and lower bounds for the analysis, respectively. It can be
seen that increasing coating thickness has little effect on the
average fragment lengths and it is thus not suitable for
detailed characterisation. However, Table 5, which shows
the average strain at onset and saturation for each coating
with increasing coating thickness.
3.2. Finite element study
Observation of the failure mechanisms in the experimen-
tal samples revealed a very low degree of debonding. In fact
debonding was not observed in the majority of fragments,
while both elastic and plastic stress transfer processes were
readily observed in all cases. As a result of this observation,
a finite element model was formulated with perfectly
bonded interfaces, which was representative of the experi-
mental observations.
The key quantity that determines the fracture of an
embedded fragment is the maximum axial strain attained
during loading. Hence, the effect of the matrix/interphase
system can be examined by comparing the tensile strain at
the axial centre of a fragment. Two matrix/interphase
systems were examined using the finite element model, a
system with a 6040 matrix and a 5050 interphase and the
inverse system with a 5050 matrix and a 6040 interphase.
Thus, a system with a soft interphase and a system with a
stiff interphase were examined. Interphase thicknesses of
0.2, 2 and 11.5 mm were examined in each case. In addition
two controls without an interphase were examined, one with
a 6040 matrix and the other with a 5050 matrix. All of these
systems were examined at an applied strain of 0.25%, where
strain transfer was mainly elastic, and at 2%, where strain
transfer was influenced by plastic deformation.
Two sources of error in the analysis must be considered
prior to examining the data, the effect of the properties of the
‘eliminated’ elements, which were used to create the fibre-
break, and the effect of the discontinuity in strain across the
fibre-end. The elements that were eliminated will influence
the strain transfer across the fibre-end, because they were
not entirely removed, only reduced by a factor of 1 × 10 ⫺6.
Thus, a small amount of strain transfer between the broken
portion of the fibre and unbroken portion will occur, which
will lead to a small error in the strain state at the fibre-end.
Furthermore, the finite element method averages the strains
between nodes, resulting in an inaccuracy when dramatic
changes in the element properties occur. Therefore, the
reported strains in the immediate vicinity of a fibre-break

Table 5
Applied strain interval over which fragmentation of embedded fibres occurred, in the 6040/5050 system, at differing interphase or coating thicknesses. The
6040 (uncoated) and 5050 (uncoated) systems, are reference systems representing an interface and an infinite interphase, respectively

Coating thickness (mm) Average applied Average applied strain Average strain interval between
strain at onset (%) at saturation (%) onset and saturation (%)

0 (6040 (uncoated)) 4 9 5
0.2 2 6 4
1.5 3 6 3
2.1 3 6 3
3 4 6 2
Infinite (5050 (uncoated)) 3 6 3
384 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389

Fig. 3. Strain development within a fragment in the presence of soft interphases of differing thickness, at 0.25% applied strain, showing: (a) the strain profile
along half of the fragment; (b) axial fibre strain in the first 100 mm of the fragment.

can be inaccurate, but the inaccuracy will be confined to this
region. Thus the data beyond the ‘minima’ in the strain
profiles (⬎5 mm from the fibre-break) can be considered
to be unperturbed by the element elimination. The model
was optimised for efficient analysis.
3.2.1. Elastic strain transfer
The results of the analysis at an applied strain of 0.25%
are shown, for the soft interphase in Fig. 3, and for the stiff
interphase in Fig. 4. Figs. 3a and 4a show the strain profile
from the fibre-break to the fibre mid-point, while Figs. 3b
and 4b show the strain profile over the first 100 mm of the
fragment.
In Fig. 3, in the absence of an interphase, it can be seen
that the rate of strain transfer is more rapid in the stiff 6040
(uncoated) system than in the soft 5050 (uncoated) system
and that the maximum strain attained is also slightly higher.
It can also be seen that the rate of strain transfer from the
stiff matrix to the fibre is hardly affected by the presence of a
0.2 mm soft interphase. However, on increasing the
thickness of the interphase to 11.5 mm the characteristics
approximate to those of the 5050 (uncoated) system. The
interphase thickness has a more significant effect at the
fibre-end, where the shear stresses are highest (Fig 3b). In
Fig. 4, the introduction of a stiff 6040 interphase into the
5050 matrix is seen to have an analogous effect, with the
interphase becoming more significant as its thickness
increases. In this case the effect is an increase in strain
transfer rate with increasing interphase thickness, because
of the higher relative modulus of the interphase.
3.2.2. Plastic strain transfer
The results of the analysis at an applied strain of 2% are
shown in Fig. 5 for the case of a soft interphase and in Fig. 6
for the case of a stiff interphase. Figs. 5a and 6a show the
strain profile from the fibre-break to the fibre mid-point,
 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389 385

Fig. 4. Strain development within a fragment in the presence of stiff interphases of differing thickness, at 0.25% applied strain, showing: (a) the strain profile
along half of the fragment; (b) axial fibre strain in the first 100 mm of the fragment.

while Figs. 5b and 6b show the 100 mm length leading up to
the fibre mid-point.
In Fig. 5, in the absence of an interphase, it can be seen
that the stiffer 6040 (uncoated) system again displays a
higher rate of strain transfer from resin to fibre than the
softer 5050 (uncoated) system. It also reaches a higher strain
at the fibre mid-point. Furthermore, the extent of plasticity is
greater for the 5050 (uncoated) system, with plastic defor-
mation occurring over approximately 80% of the fragment
length, as opposed to approximately 50% for the 6040
(uncoated) system.
Fig. 5a shows that the introduction of a soft 5050 inter-
phase between the 6040 matrix and the fibre, regardless of
its thickness gives a strain transfer rate identical to the
5050 (uncoated) system, in the region where interphase
plasticity dominates (over approximately 80% of the frag-
ment length). Fig. 5b shows the region over which strain
transfer occurs elastically (towards the fibre mid-point),
here the strain transfer rate is observed to be slightly
dependent on the interphase thickness, analogously to
the strain transfer processes observed at low applied strain
(Fig. 3).
386 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389

Fig. 5. Strain development within a fragment in the presence of soft interphases of differing thickness, at 2% applied strain, showing: (a) the strain profile along
half of the fragment; (b) axial fibre strain in the 100 mm length between 200 and 300 mm from the fibre-end.

The introduction of a stiff 6040 interphase into the softer 4. Discussion

5050 matrix is more complex, as shown in Fig. 6. At a
thickness of 0.2 mm the interphase has no effect on the strain
transfer characteristics of the 5050 (uncoated) system.
However, on increasing the thickness of the interphase to
2 mm, the characteristics are indistinguishable from those of
the 6040 matrix without an interphase (Fig. 6a). Within the
mid-section of the fibre, where elastic strain transfer domi-
nates (Fig. 6b), a slight dependence on the interphase thick-
ness is observed, which is analogous to the effect at a low
applied strain (Fig. 4).
4.1. Study of the effect of interphase properties
It was expected that a difference would be observed
between the average fragment lengths obtained from the
different sample types. However, because of the statistical
scatter in the experimental data, analysis of the average
fragment lengths was inconclusive and no positive differen-
tiation was possible (Table 2). This suggests that the use of
the average fragment length to characterise fibre/matrix
 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389 387

Fig. 6. Strain development within a fragment in the presence of stiff interphases of differing thickness, at 2% applied strain, showing: (a) the strain profile along
half of the fragment; (b) axial fibre strain in the 100 mm length between 200 and 300 mm from the fibre-end.

adhesion, without considering the degree of scatter in the
data, can give erroneous results. Therefore, care should be
taken in using analyses that rely on the fragment length at a
particular point in the fragmentation process, i.e. saturation.
The results of this study indicate that the strain interval
between onset and saturation of the fragmentation process
can be used to characterise the strain transfer processes
(Table 3). The results of the finite element models can be
used to interpret how fragmentation proceeds and influences
the strain-interval. At lower strains, the transfer in the vici-
nity of fibre-breaks will be largely elastic and will thus
depend on both the matrix and interphase properties
(Figs. 3 and 4) although a small amount of plasticity may
be present due to the strain concentration in the vicinity of
the fibre-break. The length of fibre required for the strain to
attain its plateau level will thus be lower for the 6040
(uncoated) system and longer for the 5050 (uncoated)
system. The two systems with interphases will fall in-
between. The difference in the plateau levels attained for
each system will be negligible and the length over which the
level is attained will also be a small fraction of the overall
fragment length, in the early stages of the process. Thus, the
difference in build-up will have little influence on the frag-
mentation process while the strain transfer is elastic.
In contrast, as the applied strain increases, and the aver-
age fragment length is reduced, plastic deformation will
become prevalent and a significant alteration in the strain
transfer process will be observed. On the occurrence of
plastic deformation, the fibre length over which the plateau
level is attained is greatly increased, more so for the 5050
388 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389
(uncoated system than for the 6040 (uncoated) system (Figs.
5 and 6). This will result in the 5050 (uncoated) system
reaching saturation sooner than the 6040 (uncoated) system,
as the strain transfer characteristics of the latter system will
be substantially better.
In the presence of an interphase, the situation is modified
such that the 6040/5050 system, with its soft interphase, has
an identical strain development length to the 5050
(uncoated) system in the yielded region, but the strain devel-
ops more rapidly in the elastic region of the strain develop-
ment profile and will thus attain a slightly higher plateau
level when the fragments are short (Fig. 5). Therefore, it
would be expected that the fragmentation process would
proceed slightly further, resulting in a higher saturation
strain than for the 5050 (uncoated) system. This is seen to
be the case in Table 3, as the 5050 (uncoated) system has the
lowest strain interval, with the 6040/5050 system having a
slightly greater one.
The 5050/6040 system, with its stiff interphase, would be
expected to display better strain transfer than the 5050
(uncoated) system, and worse than or equal to that for the
6040 (uncoated) system, once yielding occurs (Fig. 6). This
arises from the fact that yield will not be restricted to the
interphase, as it consists of the stiff 6040 resin, but may also
occur in the matrix, which consists of the soft 5050 resin. If
present, yield in the matrix will reduce the high rate of strain
transfer, which would be expected from the interphase prop-
erties, but its presence will depend on the interphase thick-
ness. Therefore, it would be predicted that the strain interval
should be greater than those observed for the 5050
(uncoated) and 6040/5050 systems, but less than or equal
to that for the 6040 (uncoated) system, depending on the
precise interphase thickness.
These observations give a predicted order for the strain
intervals as 5050 (uncoated), 6040/5050, 5050/6040 and
6040 (uncoated). The results in Table 3 show these predic-
tions to be correct.
4.2. Study of the effect of interphase thickness
Considering Table 5, the strain at onset of the fragmen-
tation process can be seen to be variable. This is again due
to the differing residual strains between the sample types,
and also the inherent errors in the observation process.
Generally, it can be seen that as the thickness of the
soft interphase increases the strain interval between
onset and saturation of the fragmentation process
decreases. The one exception to this observation is the
sample with a 3 mm coating, which displays an apparently
shorter interval than is observed with an infinite coating
thickness (5050 (uncoated) specimen). In this case,
however, it is likely that this is a consequence of the
errors in the observation process, where differences in
average strains of onset and saturation are magnified.
With reference to Fig. 3, in the 6040 (uncoated) system
while strain transfer is largely elastic (at low applied
strains) the strain development occurs over a shorter
length of fragment compared to the 5050 (uncoated)
system. The systems with an interphase fall between
these two bounds. As the interphase thickness increases,
the strain development profile approaches that for the
5050 (uncoated) system, with the influence of the matrix
reduced. Once plastic deformation occurs within the
yielded length, the strain profiles are largely similar for
all of the coated systems, regardless of coating thickness
(Fig. 5). However, outside the yielded length, the strain
transfer depends on the coating thickness, with thicker
coatings attaining a lower plateau level than thinner
ones. Therefore as the thickness of the interphase
increases, it reaches a point where the influence of the
matrix is negligible and the interphase properties domi-
nate, whether the deformation is elastic or plastic. In the
experimental study, this is seen to occur at an interphase
thickness of approximately 1.5 mm. The results of the
finite element analysis are shown to correlate with the
experimental data.
According to finite element analysis, the situation would
be inverted in the case of a stiff interphase, with a thicker
layer giving better strain transfer than a thinner one and thus
an increased strain interval (Fig. 6).
5. Conclusions
The presence of an interphase region between fibres and
matrix in a composite system, can significantly affect the
load transfer characteristics, even when the interphase is
very thin.
The average fragment lengths measured at saturation
showed a large amount of scatter, due to the statistical distri-
bution of fibre strengths. This prevented accurate distinction
between the fragment lengths obtained for the different
matrix/interphase systems. As a result of this, it is suggested
that this parameter is insufficiently sensitive and precise for
the determination of the effect of an interphase on strain
transfer efficiency.
The interval between onset and saturation in the fragmen-
tation process did highlight differences between the
samples, revealing that the fragmentation sequence is very
dependent on deformation processes in the interphase.
Examination of the strain interval in a fragmentation test
may therefore be beneficial.
Plasticity was found to have a significant influence on the
fragmentation process, at high applied strains. It greatly
modifies the strain development characteristics, which ulti-
mately control the fragmentation process. This will be parti-
cularly important in analyses based on observation only at
saturation of the process, where maximum plasticity will be
present.
These results suggest that by controlling the interphase
characteristics, the ultimate properties of a composite can be
engineered.
 S.A. Hayes et al. / Composites: Part A 32 (2001) 379–389
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support
of the Advanced Composites Group and also the Engineer-
ing and Physical Sciences Research Council. This work has
been carried out in conjunction with the European Union
Interphase Network.
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