Module 

1: Introduction to Networking

Decimal representation of IP addresses and network masksThis page summarizes the topics discussed in this
module.

A connection to a computer network can be broken down into the physical connection, the logical connection, and
the applications that interpret the data and display the information. Establishment and maintenance of the physical
connection requires knowledge of PC components and peripherals. Connectivity to the Internet requires an adapter
card, which may be a modem or a network interface card (NIC).

In the early 1960s modems were introduced to provide connectivity to a central computer. Today, access methods
have progressed to services that provide constant, high-speed access.

The logical connection uses standards called protocols. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) suite is the primary group of protocols used on the Internet. TCP/IP can be configured on a workstation
using operating system tools. The ping utility can be used to test connectivity.

A web browser is software that is installed on the PC to gain access to the Internet and local web pages.
Occasionally a browser may require plug-in applications. These applications work in conjunction with the browser
to launch the program required to view special or proprietary files.

Computers recognize and process data using the binary, or Base 2, numbering system. Often the binary output of a
computer is expressed in hexadecimal to make it easier to read. The ablility to convert decimal numbers to binary
numbers is valuable when converting dotted decimal IP addresses to machine-readable binary format. Conversion of
hexadecimal numbers to binary, and binary numbers to hexadecimal, is a common task when dealing with the
configuration register in Cisco routers.

Boolean logic is a binary logic that allows two numbers to be compared and a choice generated based on the two
numbers. Two networking operations that use Boolean logic are subnetting and wildcard masking.

The 32-bit binary addresses used on the Internet are referred to as Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.

Module 2: Networking Fundamentals

This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.

Computer networks developed in response to business and government computing needs.

Applying standards to network functions provided a set of guidelines for creating network
hardware and software and provided compatibility among equipment from different companies.
Information could move within a company and from one business to another.

Network devices, such as repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches and routers connect host devices
together to allow them to communicate. Protocols provide a set of rules for communication.
The physical topology of a network is the actual layout of the wire or media. The logical
topology defines how host devices access the media. The physical topologies that are commonly
used are bus, ring, star, extended star, hierarchical, and mesh. The two most common types of
logical topologies are broadcast and token passing.

A local-area network (LAN) is designed to operate within a limited geographical area. LANs
allow multi-access to high-bandwidth media, control the network privately under local
administration, provide full-time connectivity to local services and connect physically adjacent
devices.

A wide-area network (WAN) is designed to operate over a large geographical area. WANs allow
access over serial interfaces operating at lower speeds, provide full-time and part-time
connectivity and connect devices separated over wide areas.

A metropolitan-area network (MAN) is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a city or
suburban area. A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a common geographic area.

A storage-area network (SAN) is a dedicated, high-performance network used to move data

between servers and storage resources. A SAN provides enhanced system performance, is
scalable, and has disaster tolerance built in.

A virtual private network (VPN) is a private network that is constructed within a public network
infrastructure. Three main types of VPNs are access, Intranet, and Extranet VPNs. Access VPNs
provide mobile workers or small office/home office (SOHO) users with remote access to an
Intranet or Extranet. Intranets are only available to users who have access privileges to the
internal network of an organization. Extranets are designed to deliver applications and services
that are Intranet based to external users or enterprises.

The amount of information that can flow through a network connection in a given period of time
is referred to as bandwidth. Network bandwidth is typically measured in thousands of bits per
second (kbps), millions of bits per second (Mbps), billions of bits per second (Gbps) and trillions
of bits per second (Tbps). The theoretical bandwidth of a network is an important consideration
in network design. If the theoretical bandwidth of a network connection is known, the formula
T=S/BW (transfer time = size of file / bandwidth) can be used to calculate potential data transfer
time. However the actual bandwidth, referred to as throughput, is affected by multiple factors
such as network devices and topology being used, type of data, number of users, hardware and
power conditions.

Data can be encoded on analog or digital signals. Analog bandwidth is a measure of how much
of the electromagnetic spectrum is occupied by each signal. For instance an analog video signal
that requires a wide frequency range for transmission cannot be squeezed into a smaller band. If
the necessary analog bandwidth is not available the signal cannot be sent. In digital signaling all
information is sent as bits, regardless of the kind of information it is. Unlimited amounts of
information can be sent over the smallest digital bandwidth channel.
The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer to another. Dividing
the network into layers provides the following advantages:

 Reduces complexity
 Standardizes interfaces
 Facilitates modular engineering
 Ensures interoperability
 Accelerates evolution
 Simplifies teaching and learning

Two such layered models are the Open System Interconnection (OSI) and the TCP/IP
networking models. In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each of which
illustrates a particular network function: application, presentation, session, transport, network,
data link, and physical. The TCP/IP model has the following four layers: application, transport,
Internet, and network access.

Although some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the OSI
model, the layers of the two models do not correspond exactly. The TCP/IP application layer is
equivalent to the OSI application, presentation, and session layers. The TCP/IP model combines
the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.

No matter which model is applied, networks layers perform the following five conversion steps
in order to encapsulate and transmit data:

1. Images and text are converted to data.

2. The data is packaged into segments.
3. The data segment is encapsulated in a packet with the source and destination addresses.
4. The packet is encapsulated in a frame with the MAC address of the next directly
connected device.
5. The frame is converted to a pattern of ones and zeros (bits) for transmission on the media.

Module 3: Networking Media

This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.

Copper cable carries information using electrical current. The electrical specifications of a cable determines the kind
of signal a particular cable can transmit, the speed at which the signal is transmitted and the distance the signal will
travel.

An understanding of the following electrical concepts is helpful when working with computer networks:

 Voltage – the pressure that moves electrons through a circuit from one place to another
 Resistance – opposition to the flow of electrons and why a signal becomes degraded as it travels along the
conduit
 Current – flow of charges created when electrons move
  Circuits – a closed loop through which an electrical current flows

Circuits must be composed of conducting materials, and must have sources of voltage. Voltage causes current to
flow, while resistance and impedance oppose it. A multimeter is used to measure voltage, current, resistance, and
other electrical quantities expressed in numeric form.

Coaxial cable, unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP) are types of copper cables that can be
used in a network to provide different capabilities. Twisted-pair cable can be configured for straight through,
crossover, or rollover signaling. These terms refer to the individual wire connections, or pinouts, from one end to the
other end of the cable. A straight-through cable is used to connect unlike devices such as a switch and a PC. A
crossover cable is used to connect similar devices such as two switches. A rollover cable is used to connect a PC to
the console port of a router. Different pinouts are required because the transmit and receive pins are in different
locations on each of these devices.

Optical fiber is the most frequently used medium for the longer, high-bandwidth, point-to-point transmissions
required on LAN backbones and on WANs. Light energy is used to transmit large amounts of data securely over
relatively long distances The light signal carried by a fiber is produced by a transmitter that converts an electrical
signal into a light signal. The receiver converts the light that arrives at the far end of the cable back to the original
electrical signal.

Every fiber-optic cable used for networking consists of two glass fibers encased in separate sheaths. Just as copper
twisted-pair uses separate wire pairs to transmit and receive, fiber-optic circuits use one fiber strand to transmit and
one to receive.

The part of an optical fiber through which light rays travel is called the core of the fiber. Surrounding the core is the
cladding. Its function is to reflect the signal back towards the core. Surrounding the cladding is a buffer material that
helps shield the core and cladding from damage. A strength material surrounds the buffer, preventing the fiber cable
from being stretched when installers pull it. The material used is often Kevlar. The final element is the outer jacket
that surrounds the cable to protect the fiber against abrasion, solvents, and other contaminants.

The laws of reflection and refraction are used to design fiber media that guides the light waves through the fiber
with minimum energy and signal loss. Once the rays have entered the core of the fiber, there are a limited number of
optical paths that a light ray can follow through the fiber. These optical paths are called modes. If the diameter of the
core of the fiber is large enough so that there are many paths that light can take through the fiber, the fiber is called
multimode fiber. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core that only allows light rays to travel along one mode
inside the fiber. Because of its design, single-mode fiber is capable of higher rates of data transmission and greater
cable run distances than multimode fiber.

Fiber is described as immune to noise because it is not affected by external noise or noise from other cables. Light
confined in one fiber has no way of inducing light in another fiber. Attenuation of a light signal becomes a problem
over long cables especially if sections of cable are connected at patch panels or spliced.

Both copper and fiber media require that devices remains stationary permitting moves only within the limits of the
media. Wireless technology removes these restraints. Understanding the regulations and standards that apply to
wireless technology will ensure that deployed networks will be interoperable and in compliance with IEEE 802.11
standards for WLANs.

A wireless network may consist of as few as two devices. The wireless equivalent of a peer-to-peer network where
end-user devices connect directly is referred to as an ad-hoc wireless topology. To solve compatibility problems
among devices, an infrastructure mode topology can be set up using an access point (AP) to act as a central hub for
the WLAN. Wireless communication uses three types of frames: control, management, and data frames. To avoid
collisions on the shared radio frequency media WLANs use Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA).
WLAN authentication is a Layer 2 process that authenticates the device, not the user. Association, performed after
authentication, permits a client to use the services of the access point to transfer data.\

Module 4: Cable Testing

This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.

Data symbolizing characters, words, pictures, video, or music can be represented electrically by
voltage patterns on wires and in electronic devices. The data represented by these voltage
patterns can be converted to light waves or radio waves, and then back to voltage patterns.
Waves are energy traveling from one place to another, and are created by disturbances. All
waves have similar attributes such as amplitude, period, and frequency. Sine waves are periodic,
continuously varying functions. Analog signals look like sine waves. Square waves are periodic
functions whose values remain constant for a period of time and then change abruptly. Digital
signals look like square waves.

Exponents are used to represent very large or very small numbers. The base of a number raised
to a positive exponent is equal to the base multiplied by itself exponent times. For example, 103 =
10x10x10 = 1000. Logarithms are similar to exponents. A logarithm to the base of 10 of a
number equals the exponent to which 10 would have to be raised in order to equal the number.
For example, log101000 = 3 because 103 = 1000.

Decibels are measurements of a gain or loss in the power of a signal. Negative values represent
losses and positive values represent gains. Time and frequency analysis can both be used to
graph the voltage or power of a signal.

Undesirable signals in a communications system are called noise. Noise originates from other
cables, radio frequency interference (RFI), and electromagnetic interference (EMI). Noise may
affect all signal frequencies or a subset of frequencies.

Analog bandwidth is the frequency range that is associated with certain analog transmission,
such as television or FM radio. Digital bandwidth measures how much information can flow
from one place to another in a given amount of time. Its units are in various multiples of bits per
second.

On copper cable, data signals are represented by voltage levels that correspond to binary ones
and zeros. In order for the LAN to operate properly, the receiving device must be able to
accurately interpret the bit signal. Proper cable installation according to standards increases LAN
reliability and performance.

Signal degradation is due to various factors such as attenuation, impedance mismatch, noise, and
several types of crosstalk. Attenuation is the decrease in signal amplitude over the length of a
link. Impedance is a measurement of resistance to the electrical signal. Cables and the connectors
used on them must have similar impedance values or some of the data signal may be reflected
back from a connector. This is referred to as impedance mismatch or impedance discontinuity.
Noise is any electrical energy on the transmission cable that makes it difficult for a receiver to
interpret the data sent from the transmitter. Crosstalk involves the transmission of signals from
one wire to a nearby wire. There are three distinct types of crosstalk: Near-end Crosstalk
(NEXT), Far-end Crosstalk (FEXT), Power Sum Near-end Crosstalk (PSNEXT).

STP and UTP cable are designed to take advantage of the effects of crosstalk in order to
minimize noise. Additionally, STP contains an outer conductive shield and inner foil shields that
make it less susceptible to noise. UTP contains no shielding and is more susceptible to external
noise but is the most frequently used because it is inexpensive and easier to install.

Fiber-optic cable is used to transmit data signals by increasing and decreasing the intensity of
light to represent binary ones and zeros. The strength of a light signal does not diminish like the
strength of an electrical signal does over an identical run length. Optical signals are not affected
by electrical noise, and optical fiber does not need to be grounded. Therefore, optical fiber is
often used between buildings and between floors within a building.

The TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies ten tests that a copper cable must pass if it will be used
for modern, high-speed Ethernet LANs. Optical fiber must also be tested according to
networking standards. Category 6 cable must meet more rigorous frequency testing standards
than Category 5 cable.

Module 5: Cabling LANs and WANs

This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.

Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and can be implemented on a variety of media. Ethernet
technologies provide a variety of network speeds, from 10 Mbps to Gigabit Ethernet, which can be applied to
appropriate areas of a network. Media and connector requirements differ for various Ethernet implementations.

The connector on a network interface card (NIC) must match the media. A bayonet nut connector (BNC) connector
is required to connect to coaxial cable. A fiber connector is required to connect to fiber media. The registered jack
(RJ-45) connector used with twisted-pair wire is the most common type of connector used in LAN implementations.
Ethernet

When twisted-pair wire is used to connect devices, the appropriate wire sequence, or pinout, must be determined as
well. A crossover cable is used to connect two similar devices, such as two PCs. A straight-through cable is used to
connect different devices, such as connections between a switch and a PC. A rollover cable is used to connect a PC
to the console port of a router.

Repeaters regenerate and retime network signals and allow them to travel a longer distance on the media. Hubs are
multi-port repeaters. Data arriving at a hub port is electrically repeated on all the other ports connected to the same
network segment, except for the port on which the data arrived. Sometimes hubs are called concentrators, because
hubs often serve as a central connection point for an Ethernet LAN.

A wireless network can be created with much less cabling than other networks. The only permanent cabling might
be to the access points for the network. At the core of wireless communication are devices called transmitters and
receivers. The transmitter converts source data to electromagnetic (EM) waves that are passed to the receiver. The
receiver then converts these electromagnetic waves back into data for the destination. The two most common
wireless technologies used for networking are infrared (IR) and radio frequency (RF).

There are times when it is necessary to break up a large LAN into smaller, more easily managed segments. The
devices that are used to define and connect network segments include bridges, switches, routers, and gateways.

A bridge uses the destination MAC address to determine whether to filter, flood, or copy the frame onto another
segment. If placed strategically, a bridge can greatly improve network performance.

A switch is sometimes described as a multi-port bridge. Although there are some similarities between the two, a
switch is a more sophisticated device than a bridge. Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges and can
support new functionality, such as virtual LANs.

Routers are responsible for routing data packets from source to destination within the LAN, and for providing
connectivity to the WAN. Within a LAN environment the router controls broadcasts, provides local address
resolution services, such as ARP and RARP, and may segment the network using a subnetwork structure.

Computers typically communicate with each other by using request/response protocols. One computer issues a
request for a service, and a second computer receives and responds to that request. In a peer-to-peer network,
networked computers act as equal partners, or peers. As peers, each computer can take on the client function or the
server function. In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on a dedicated computer called a server.
The server responds to the requests of clients.

WAN connection types include high-speed serial links, ISDN, DSL, and cable modems. Each of these requires a
specific media and connector. To interconnect the ISDN BRI port to the service-provider device, a UTP Category 5
straight-through cable with RJ-45 connectors, is used. A phone cable and an RJ-11 connector are used to connect a
router for DSL service. Coaxial cable and a BNC connector are used to connect a router for cable service.

In addition to the connection type, it is necessary to determine whether DTE or DCE connectors are required on
internetworking devices. The DTE is the endpoint of the user’s private network on the WAN link. The DCE is
typically the point where responsibility for delivering data passes to the service provider. When connecting directly
to a service provider, or to a device such as a CSU/DSU that will perform signal clocking, the router is a DTE and
needs a DTE serial cable. This is typically the case for routers. However, there are cases when the router will need to
be the DCE.

Module 6: Ethernet Fundamentals

This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.

Ethernet is not one networking technology, but a family of LAN technologies that includes Legacy, Fast Ethernet,
and Gigabit Ethernet. When Ethernet needs to be expanded to add a new medium or capability, the IEEE issues a
new supplement to the 802.3 standard. The new supplements are given a one or two letter designation such as
802.3u. Ethernet relies on baseband signaling, which uses the entire bandwidth of the transmission medium.
Ethernet operates at two layers of the OSI model, the lower half of the data link layer, known as the MAC sublayer
and the physical layer. Ethernet at Layer 1 involves interfacing with media, signals, bit streams that travel on the
media, components that put signals on media, and various physical topologies. Layer 1 bits need structure so OSI
Layer 2 frames are used. The MAC sublayer of Layer 2 determines the type of frame appropriate for the physical
media.
The one thing common to all forms of Ethernet is the frame structure. This is what allows the interoperability of the
different types of Ethernet.

Some of the fields permitted or required in an 802.3 Ethernet Frame are:

 Preamble
 Start Frame Delimiter
 Destination Address
 Source Address
 Length/Type
 Data and Pad
 Frame Check Sequence

In 10 Mbps and slower versions of Ethernet, the Preamble provides timing information the receiving node needs in
order to interpret the electrical signals it is receiving. The Start Frame Delimiter marks the end of the timing
information. 10 Mbps and slower versions of Ethernet are asynchronous. That is, they will use the preamble timing
information to synchronize the receive circuit to the incoming data. 100 Mbps and higher speed implementations of
Ethernet are synchronous. Synchronous means the timing information is not required, however for compatibility
reasons the Preamble and SFD are present.

The address fields of the Ethernet frame contain Layer 2, or MAC, addresses.

All frames are susceptible to errors from a variety of sources. The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field of an Ethernet
frame contains a number that is calculated by the source node based on the data in the frame. At the destination it is
recalculated and compared to determine that the data received is complete and error free.

Once the data is framed the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer is also responsible to determine which computer
on a shared-medium environment, or collision domain, is allowed to transmit the data. There are two broad
categories of Media Access Control, deterministic (taking turns) and non-deterministic (first come, first served).

Examples of deterministic protocols include Token Ring and FDDI. The carrier sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD) access method is a simple non-deterministic system. The NIC listens for an absence of a
signal on the media and starts transmitting. If two nodes or more nodes transmit at the same time a collision occurs.
If a collision is detected the nodes wait a random amount of time and retransmit.

The minimum spacing between two non-colliding frames is also called the interframe spacing. Interframe spacing is
required to insure that all stations have time to process the previous frame and prepare for the next frame.

Collisions can occur at various points during transmission. A collision where a signal is detected on the receive and
transmit circuits at the same time is referred to as a local collision. A collision that occurs before the minimum
number of bytes can be transmitted is called a remote collision. A collision that occurs after the first sixty-four octets
of data have been sent is considered a late collision. The NIC will not automatically retransmit for this type of
collision.

While local and remote collisions are considered to be a normal part of Ethernet operation, late collisions are
considered to be an error. Ethernet errors result from detection of frames sizes that are longer or shorter than
standards allow or excessively long or illegal transmissions called jabber. Runt is a slang term that refers to
something less than the legal frame size.

Auto-Negotiation detects the speed and duplex mode, half-duplex or full-duplex, of the device on the other end of
the wire and adjusts to match those settings.
Module 7: Ethernet Technologies

This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.

Ethernet is a technology that has increased in speed one thousand times, from 10 Mbps to 10,000 Mbps, in less
than a decade. All forms of Ethernet share a similar frame structure and this leads to excellent interoperability.
Most Ethernet copper connections are now switched full duplex, and the fastest copper-based Ethernet is
1000BASE-T, or Gigabit Ethernet. 10 Gigabit Ethernet and faster are exclusively optical fiber-based
technologies.

10BASE5, 10BASE2, and 10BASE-T Ethernet are considered Legacy Ethernet. The four common features of
Legacy Ethernet are timing parameters, frame format, transmission process, and a basic design rule.

Legacy Ethernet encodes data on an electrical signal. The form of encoding used in 10 Mbps systems is called
Manchester encoding. Manchester encoding uses a change in voltage to represent the binary numbers zero and
one. An increase or decrease in voltage during a timed period, called the bit period, determines the binary value
of the bit.

In addition to a standard bit period, Ethernet standards set limits for slot time and interframe spacing. Different
types of media can affect transmission timing and timing standards ensure interoperability. 10 Mbps Ethernet
operates within the timing limits offered by a series of no more than five segments separated by no more than
four repeaters.

A single thick coaxial cable was the first medium used for Ethernet. 10BASE2, using a thinner coax cable, was
introduced in 1985. 10BASE-T, using twisted-pair copper wire, was introduced in 1990. Because it used
multiple wires 10BASE-T offered the option of full-duplex signaling. 10BASE-T carries 10 Mbps of traffic in
half-duplex mode and 20 Mbps in full-duplex mode. 

10BASE-T links can have unrepeated distances up to 100 m. Beyond that network devices such as repeaters,
hub, bridges and switches are used to extend the scope of the LAN. With the advent of switches, the 4-repeater
rule is not so relevant. You can extend the LAN indefinitely by daisy-chaining switches. Each switch-to-switch
connection, with maximum length of 100m, is essentially a point-to-point connection without the media
contention or timing issues of using repeaters and hubs.

100-Mbps Ethernet, also known as Fast Ethernet, can be implemented using twisted-pair copper wire, as in
100BASE-TX, or fiber media, as in 100BASE-FX. 100 Mbps forms of Ethernet can transmit 200 Mbps in full
duplex.

Because the higher frequency signals used in Fast Ethernet are more susceptible to noise, two separate encoding
steps are used by 100-Mbps Ethernet to enhance signal integrity.

Gigabit Ethernet over copper wire is accomplished by the following:

 Category 5e UTP cable and careful improvements in electronics are used to boost 100 Mbps per wire
pair to 125 Mbps per wire pair.
 All four wire pairs instead of just two. This allows 125 Mbps per wire pair, or 500 Mbps for the four
wire pairs.
 Sophisticated electronics allow permanent collisions on each wire pair and run signals in full duplex,
doubling the 500 Mbps to 1000 Mbps.

On Gigabit Ethernet networks bit signals occur in one tenth of the time of 100 Mbps networks and 1/100 of the
time of 10 Mbps networks. With signals occurring in less time the bits become more susceptible to noise. The
issue becomes how fast the network adapter or interface can change voltage levels to signal bits and still be
detected reliably one hundred meters away at the receiving NIC or interface. At this speed encoding and
decoding data becomes even more complex.

The fiber versions of Gigabit Ethernet, 1000BASE-SX and 1000BASE-LX offer the following advantages:
noise immunity, small size, and increased unrepeated distances and bandwidth. The IEEE 802.3 standard
recommends that Gigabit Ethernet over fiber be the preferred backbone technology.

Module 8: Ethernet Switching

This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.

Ethernet is a shared media, baseband technology, which means only one node can transmit data at a time.
Increasing the number of nodes on a single segment increases demand on the available bandwidth. This in turn
increases the probability of collisions. A solution to the problem is to break a large network segment into parts
and separate it into isolated collision domains. Bridges and switches are used to segment the network into
multiple collision domains.

A bridge builds a bridge table from the source addresses of packets it processes. An address is associated with
the port the frame came in on. Eventually the bridge table contains enough address information to allow the
bridge to forward a frame out a particular port based on the destination address. This is how the bridge controls
traffic between two collision domains.

Switches learn in much the same way as bridges but provide a virtual connection directly between the source
and destination nodes, rather than the source collision domain and destination collision domain. Each port
creates its own collision domain. A switch dynamically builds and maintains a Content-Addressable Memory
(CAM) table, holding all of the necessary MAC information for each port. CAM is memory that essentially
works backwards compared to conventional memory. Entering data into the memory will return the associated
address.

Two devices connected through a switch port become a small collision domain. These small physical segments
are called microsegments. Microsegments connected using twisted pair cabling are capable of full-duplex
communications. In full duplex mode, when separate wires are used for transmitting and receiving between two
hosts, there is no contention for the media. Thus, a collision domain no longer exists.

There is a propagation delay for the signals traveling along transmission medium. Additionally, as signals are
processed by network devices further delay, or latency, is introduced.

How a frame is switched affects latency and reliability. A switch can start to transfer the frame as soon as the
destination MAC address is received. Switching at this point is called cut-through switching and results in the
lowest latency through the switch. However, cut-through switching provides no error checking. At the other
extreme, the switch can receive the entire frame before sending it out the destination port. This is called store-
and-forward switching. Fragment-free switching reads and checks the first sixty-four bytes of the frame before
forwarding it to the destination port.

Switched networks are often designed with redundant paths to provide for reliability and fault tolerance.
Switches use the Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP) to identify and shut down redundant paths through the network.
The result is a logical hierarchical path through the network with no loops.

Using Layer 2 devices to break up a LAN into multiple collision domains increases available bandwidth for
every host. But Layer 2 devices forward broadcasts, such as ARP requests. A Layer 3 device is required to
control broadcasts and define broadcast domains.

Data flow through a routed IP network, involves data moving across traffic management devices at Layers 1, 2,
and 3 of the OSI model. Layer 1 is used for transmission across the physical media, Layer 2 for collision
domain management, and Layer 3 for broadcast domain management.

Module 9: TCP/IP Protocol Suite and IP Addressing

This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) TCP/IP reference model has four layers: the application layer, transport
layer, Internet layer, and the network access layer. The application layer handles high-level protocols, issues of
representation, encoding, and dialog control. The transport layer provides transport services from the source host to
the destination host. The purpose of the Internet layer is to select the best path through the network for packet
transmissions. The network access layer is concerned with the physical link to the network media.

Although some layers of the TCP/IP reference model correspond to the seven layers of the OSI model, there are
differences. The TCP/IP model combines the presentation and session layer into its application layer. The TCP/IP
model combines the OSI data link and physical layers into its network access layer.

Routers use the IP address to move data packets between networks. IP addresses are thirty-two bits long according
to the current version IPv4 and are divided into four octets of eight bits each. They operate at the network layer,
Layer 3, of the OSI model, which is the Internet layer of the TCP/IP model.

The IP address of a host is a logical address and can be changed. The Media Access Control (MAC) address of the
workstation is a 48-bit physical address. This address is usually burned into the network interface card (NIC) and
cannot change unless the NIC is replaced. TCP/IP communications within a LAN segment require both a destination
IP address and a destination MAC address for delivery. While IP address are unique and routable throughout the
Internet, when a packet arrives at the destination network there needs to be a way to automatically map the IP
address to a MAC address. The TCP/IP suite has a protocol, called Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which can
automatically obtain MAC addresses for local transmission. A variation on ARP called Proxy ARP will provide the
MAC address of an intermediate device for transmission to another network segment.

There are five classes of IP addresses, A through E. Only the first three classes are used commercially. Depending
on the class, the network and host part of the address will use a different number of bits. The Class D address is used
for multicast groups. Class E addresses are reserved for research use only.

An IP address that has binary zeros in all host bit positions is used to identify the network itself. An address in which
all of the host bits are set to one is the broadcast address and is used for broadcasting packets to all the devices on a
network.

Public IP addresses are unique. No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP address
because public IP addresses are global and standardized. Private networks that are not connected to the Internet may
use any host addresses, as long as each host within the private network is unique. Three blocks of IP addresses are
reserved for private, internal use. These three blocks consist of one Class A, a range of Class B addresses, and a
range of Class C addresses. Addresses that fall within these ranges are discarded by routers and not routed on the
Internet backbone.

Subnetting is another means of dividing and identifying separate networks throughout the LAN. Subnetting a
network means to use the subnet mask to divide the network and break a large network up into smaller, more
efficient and manageable segments, or subnets. Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field and
a host field. The subnet field and the host field are created from the original host portion for the entire network.

A more extendible and scalable version of IP, IP Version 6 (IPv6), has been defined and developed. IPv6 uses 128
bits rather than the 32 bits currently used in IPv4. IPv6 uses hexadecimal numbers to represent the 128 bits. IPv6 is
being implemented in select networks and may eventually replace IPv4 as the dominant Internet protocol.

IP addresses are assigned to hosts in the following ways:

 Statically – manually, by a network administrator

 Dynamically – automatically, using reverse address resolution protocol, bootstrap protocol (BOOTP), or
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)