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CONDUCT OF APPRAISAL

1 Key Features of the Scheme

COMMITMENT

For the Scheme to work it is essential that all those involved should approach it
with a serious commitment to success.

CONFIDENTIALITY AND SECURITY

If members of staff are to undertake a serious examination of their plans for


development they must be entirely confident about the confidentiality of the
process. Any doubts about confidentiality will seriously undermine the entire
scheme. These comments about confidentiality apply equally to the security of
records.

DEVELOPMENT

The fundamental purpose of the Staff Appraisal Scheme is to encourage the


development of staff and of the institution. This developmental emphasis will be
an essential part of the Action Plans generated during the appraisal interviews.
The identification of scope for development does not carry with it any assumption
of weakness in that area, in many cases staff will seek to build on existing
strengths.

Action Plans will be followed up in a number of ways. These procedures will be


confidential to those directly involved:

- appraisers will be asked at their own appraisal about the development of their
appraisees

- Heads of Department will be asked at their appraisal about the extent to which
they have fostered the development of the staff in their department.

- Heads of Department will be invited by the STD Office to suggest areas where
training and development might be made generally available.

- a statement of training and development activities will be produced as part of


the appraisal process.

- appraisees will be able to approach STD directly.

These initiatives will lead to a wide range of outcomes including informal groups
within or between departments, attendance at external conferences and courses,
STD workshops, and ongoing work with individuals or small groups.
TRAINING

Training will be mandatory for appraisers and available for appraisees.

PROMOTION AND DISCIPLINE

There are links with promotion, and hence to assessment, but these are limited in
scope and should not be seen as central to the scheme. There can be no
presumption that a series of favourable appraisals will ensure promotion. Links
with discipline, except to the extent of allowing appraisees to adduce appraisal
material to contest disciplinary proceedings, are excluded from the scheme.

2 The Process of Appraisal

The stages of the process are shown in the Scheme. These comments highlight
particularly important features of those stages.

APPOINTMENT OF APPRAISERS

The Head of Department will circulate a List of Appraisers to all appraisees. Any
appraisee will be able to indicate, in confidence to the Head of Department, any
individual they would not wish to be appraised by. The Head of Department will
try to respect these views when deciding who is appraised by whom. Objections
to the appointment of appraiser are to be negotiated with the Head of
Department or the Conciliation Officer. Departments will need to take care to
have an adequate number of trained appraisers. It is recommended that normally
no appraiser should appraise more than ten members of staff.

PREPARATION FOR THE INTERVIEW

Both the appraisee and the appraiser should spend some time preparing for the
interview. The Report on Activities should be given to the appraiser some days
before the interview and this should be read carefully and form the basis for the
completion of the Appraiser's Checklist.

Appraisers of research staff should discuss the context of the appraisees work
with the Project Supervisor before the interview. In this way it should be possible
for the Action Plan and Training Needs Statements to be realistic given the time
and financial constraints of the project supporting the appraisees salary.

The appraisee's Advance Preparation Form - like the Appraiser's Checklist - is a


personal document, but its completion will help focus attention on key issues.
SETTING TIME ASIDE

Appraisees and appraisers must work together to set aside an adequate amount
of uninterrupted time for the interview. Secretaries will need to be clearly briefed
about the importance of preventing interruptions. It is recommended that
appraisers should not undertake more than two appraisal interviews in a single
day. The time allocated for the interview should be not less than one hour. In
some cases it may be sensible to adjourn the interview - to allow the collection of
further information or to confer with other staff - before arriving at the action plan.

DURING THE INTERVIEW

The appraisal interview is a two-way process. Comments, positive and negative,


will pass in both directions and considerable skill and sensitivity will be needed
during the interview if it is to be successful. The key objective is to produce a
workable action plan that will meet the objectives of both the appraisee and the
department. This will need serious and skilful negotiation. No long-term benefit
will ensue from a failure to confront differences.

APPRAISER'S STATEMENT

This should be written after discussion has taken place. It should be long enough
to comment usefully on each area of the appraisee's activity. Bland generalities
are entirely inappropriate.

APPRAISEE'S COMMENT

The appraisee should be free to comment in any way that seems appropriate.

ACTION PLAN

This is a joint action plan; the appraisee will usually be the key figure, but action
by the appraiser is likely to be needed too. If the appraiser is not the Head of
Department then this plan will be commented on by the Head of Department. In
some cases it may make sense to consult the Head of Department before
finalising the plan.

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS STATEMENT

In tandem with the construction of the Action Plan training and development
needs may be identified. If there are likely to be costs associated with these
needs the Head of Department should be consulted before finalising the
statement.

FOLLOW UP
It is not sufficient to agree an action plan and then to wait until the next appraisal
to discuss its implementation. All those involved should seek - through informal
conversations or more structured discussions - to monitor the success of the
plan. One method of monitoring is the requirement for the appraisee and
appraiser to hold a follow up meeting within six months of the appraisal interview.
The meeting should review progress on the Action Plan and Training Needs
Statement. If either party is unhappy with the progress to date or can see
obstacles in the future the Head of Department should be asked to attend the
meeting.

Monitoring beyond this meeting is also important and arrangements for this
should be described in the notes of the meeting.

3 Departmental Responsibilities

Departments have considerable control over the operation of the Scheme. The
responsibility for this rests with Heads of Department, but they will want to ensure
the widest acceptance of their proposals by their departmental colleagues. It may
be appropriate to convene a special departmental meeting to consider these
issues, and there will need to be periodic revision of the Departmental
Guidelines.

SCHEDULING

Departments are free to make their own decisions about the scheduling of
appraisal interviews as long as they conform to the requirements stipulated by
the Staff Review Committee. For the purpose of monitoring the appraisal scheme
year shall be the calendar year.

OBJECTIVES AND INDICATORS

Departments are required to embody their key objectives, and the main
indicators to be used in appraisal interviews, in broad-brush written statements of
policy referred to as Departmental Guidelines. These objectives and indicators
should be specific enough to be meaningful and must be acceptable within the
department. Great care should be devoted to their production. They will form the
basis for the conduct of appraisal interviews and for the formulation of action
plans.

APPRAISERS

It is expected that the Head of Department will consult senior staff on the
identification of appraisers.
FOLLOW UP ACTIONAction plans, if they are to be meaningful, may have
resource and management implications. Departments must address these
implications.

Why Instructional System


Design?

Besides Instructional System Design (ISD), there are several traditional


systematic approaches to training such as Performance-Based Training (PBT)
and Criterion Referenced Instruction (CRI). These approaches have some
common elements:

o Competency Based (Job Related): The learners are required to master a


Knowledge, Skill, or Attitude (KSA). The training focuses on the job by having the
learners achieve the criteria or standards necessary for proper task performance.
o Sequential: Lessons are logically and sequentially integrated.
o Tracked: A tracking system is established that allows changes and updates to the
training materials to be performed efficiently.
o Evaluated: Evaluation and corrective action allows continuous improvement and
maintenance of training information that reflects current status and conditions.

So, why ISD? Simply stated, this process provides a means for sound decision
making to determine the who, what, when, where, why, and how of training. The
concept of a system approach to training is based on obtaining an overall view of
the training process. It is characterized by an orderly process for gathering and
analyzing collective and individual performance requirements, and by the ability
to respond to identified training needs. The application of a systems approach to
training insures that training programs and the required support materials are
continually developed in an effective and efficient manner to match the variety of
needs in an ever rapidly changing environment.

ISD is often called SAT (System Approach to Training) or ADDIE (Analysis,


Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate).

Systems and Processes


A system is defined as a set of concepts or parts that must work together to
perform a particular function. An organization is a system or a collection of
systems. Every job in an organization is used by a system to produce a product
or service. The product or service is the means by which a organization supports
itself.

There are four inputs necessary in every system to produce a product or service:

o People: The workers making up a group and linked by a common activity.


o Material: The raw products which go into the system.
o Technology: The technique for achieving a practical purpose or goal.
o Time: The measured period during which an action or process begins and ends.

People
+
Material
+
Technology
+
Time
----------
OUTPUT

Every system must also have at least one output in order to survive. The output
can be a material product, such as a television or computer software; or a
service, such as a protection agency or an insurance policy. The output of a
particular system in an organization may be the final product, a service sold to its
customers, or a product or service to aid or enhance the organization in its goal
to produce a marketable product or service.

An example of a system might be a production team (p e o p l e ) who transform


electronic components, cases, parts, etc. (m a t e r i a l s ) into computers by
working on an production line (t e c h n o l o g y ), and completing each production
run within a given deadline (t i m e ). The final products (o u t p u t ) are then used in
the organization to sell to its customers. Someone developed this system by:

1. Analyzing what was required by the organization.


2. Designing the system to meet the needs of the organization.
3. Developing the system using the outputs of the analysis and design phase.
4. Implementing it.
5. Evaluating the project throughout its creation and implementation.

This process could have been an haphazard creation, which generally waste
time and money; a planned action; or a combination of both. A Systems
Approach to Training is a planned creation of a training program. It is a
development program that uses step-by-step processes to solve problems.

A large company may have several systems, which are generally broken down
into departments or groups, while a small company may only have one system.
All of these systems have three basic functions:

o Input: Something must be going into the system, otherwise, it is a mysterious


sphere where products or services mystically radiate from it. The basic inputs of a
system are material, people, technology, and time. Training is mostly concerned
where people and technology meet.
o Process: Some type of work must be accomplished in the system. This work is
the technology performed that changes the material input into the systems output.
Look for the means to help workers master and apply the unique technology
governing their tasks.
o Output: A desired service or product must be produced. If there is no output, then
it is a black hole where things go in, but nothing emerges. The goal in training is to
allow the workers to use the available technology efficiently and effectively to
produce the desired product or service.
Processes

A process is a planned series of actions that advances a material or procedure


from one stage of completion to the next within a system. A system generally has
several processes in it. Like a system, it also has an input and an output. In the
system example given above, a couple of example processes within the
computer production system might be:

1. The circuit-board assembly team (p e o p l e ) who solders electronic parts


(m a t e r i a l s ) onto circuit boards by working on a specialized production line
(t e c h n o l o g y ), and completing each production run within a given deadline
(t i m e ). The final products (o u t p u t ) are then used by other members of the
production team in the assembly of a computer.
2. An inspection team (p e o p l e ) who test each computer (m a t e r i a l s ) by using
specialized test equipment and software (t e c h n o l o g y ), and completing each
production run within a given deadline (t i m e ). The computers are then passed on
to the packing team who boxes and palletizes them.

Notice that in these examples there is always a customer and a supplier. These
can either be internal or external. Parts are received from vendors and then
moved from various stages throughout the production line. The final process
would be the completed computers going from the warehouse or showroom to
outside customers (the sales process). Lets look at a training department, which
can also be viewed as a system:

o Input: People who need to acquire skills.


o Process: Learning takes place within the system
o Output: Trained people.

Some of the processes that take place in a training department include:

o Registration: people who want to learn -> registration forms completed -> people
who are now registered for class.
o Development: training need -> develop courseware -> a training program.
o Computer Training Class: students who need to learn MS Word -> learning
program -> trained employees.
Being able to break an organization into systems and process will help you in
your training development. By identify a process within a system, you will be able
to concentrate on a small chunk of a very large piece. For example, when you
are analyzing a job, you break it into duties, tasks, and steps to make your task
more manageable.

Training is everything. The peach was once a bitter


almond; cauliflower is nothing but cabbage with a college
e d u c a t i o n . - Mark Twain (Pudd'nhead Wilson)

Tr a i n i n g D e f i n e d

Before trying to understand system type training, we must first understand what
training is. We need to clarify the definition of training and then do the same for
human resource development.

Training is defined as learning that is provided in order to improve performance


on the present job (Nadler, 1984).

A person's performance is improved by showing her how to master a new or


established technology. The technology may be a piece of heavy machinery, a
computer, a procedure for creating a product, or a method of providing a service.

Notice that the last part of the definition states that training is provided for the
present job. This includes training new personnel to perform their job, introducing
a new technology, or bringing an employee up to standards.

Earlier it was stated that there are four inputs to a system: people, material,
technology, and time. Training is mainly concerned with the meeting of two of
these inputs -- people and technology. That is, having people learn to master a
given technology.

If you don't know where you are going, any road will take
y o u t h e r e . - Lewis Carroll in Alice's Adventure in Wonderland (1865).
Human Resource Development
Defined

Training is part of Human Resource Development (HRD). Do not confuse HRD


with the term "human resource department." A human resource department is
concerned with all aspects of the employees, such as pay, benefits, equal
opportunity, and of course training. HRD is concerned with training, development,
and education.

HRD has been defined as an organized learning experience, conducted in a


definite time period, to increase the possibility of improving job performance and
growth (Nadler, 1984).

Organized means that it is conducted in a systematic way. Although learning can


be incidental, training is concerned with the worker learning clear and concise
standards of performance or objectives. Having an objective is important. Without
an objective, you could end up someplace else...and not even know it. Objectives
are the tools for guiding managers, learners, and trainers. Managers need
objectives so that they know what kind of return they are receiving from their
training investment. Learners need them so that they know exactly what is
expected of them. And trainers need them to plan and conduct the learning
environment so that they may achieve the desired results.

The second part of the definition, conducted in a definite time period, means that
the amount of time the learner will be away from work must be determined and
specified at the onset of the training program.

The last part of the statement, to increase the possibility of improving job
performance and growth, is basically the definition of training. By possibility, it
means that although a organization can provide tools to help the learner
succeed, such as education and training specialists, counselors, coaches, and
state-of-the-art training materials, the ultimate responsibility for success belongs
to the learner.
Tr a i n i n g , D e v e l o p m e n t , a n d
Education

HRD programs are divided into three main categories: Training, Development,
and Education. Although some organizations lump all learning under "Training" or
"Training and Development," dividing it into three distinct categories makes the
desired goals and objects more meaningful and precise.

Training for the present,


Educating for the future,
Developing to lead.

As discussed earlier, training is the acquisition of technology which permits


employees to perform their present job to standards. It improves human
performance on the job the employee is presently doing or is being hired to do.
Also, it is given when new technology in introduced into the workplace.

Education is training people to do a different job. It is often given to people who


have been identified as being promotable, being considered for a new job either
lateral or upwards, or to increase their potential. Unlike training, which can be
fully evaluated immediately upon the learners returning to work, education can
only be completely evaluated when the learners move on to their future jobs or
tasks. We can test them on what they learned while in training, but we cannot be
fully satisfied with the evaluation until we see how well they perform their new
jobs.

Development is training people to acquire new horizons, technologies, or


viewpoints. It enables leaders to guide their organizations onto new expectations
by being proactive rather than reactive. It enables workers to create better
products, faster services, and more competitive organizations. It is learning for
growth of the individual, but not related to a specific present or future job. Unlike
training and education, which can be completely evaluated, development cannot
always be fully evaluated. This does not mean that we should abandon
development programs, as helping people to grow and develop is what keeps an
organization in the cutting edge of competitive environments. Development can
be considered the forefront of what many now call the Learning Organization.
Development involves changes in an organism that are systematic, organized,
and successiveÖand are thought to serve an adaptive function (Pascarella et. al,
1991). Training could be compared this metaphor - if I miss one meal in a day,
then I will not be able to work as effectively due to a lack of nutrition. While
development would be compared to this metaphor - if I do not eat, then I will
starve to death. The survival of the organization requires development
throughout the ranks in order to survive, while training makes the organization
more effective and efficient in its day-to-day operations.

Also, do not confuse development with change. Change refers to alterations that
occur over time in the learners' internal cogitative or affective characteristics
(Learner, 1986). This change may be quantitative or qualitative and it implies no
directionality, encompassing both regression and progression. Development is
always progressive.

Using a systems approach to design training, education, and development


programs ensure that an organization gets the most from its resources. Although
this guide mainly discusses the creation of training programs, development and
education programs can also be built by using a Systems Approach to Training
with little or no modifications.

The goal of instruction is to overcome a deficiency in a skill,


knowledge, or attitude. The designer must understand the
instructional goals so that the courseware's content, layout,
strategies, and activities may be built to maximize the learning
experience.

T h e Tr a i n i n g S y s t e m

When some people see or hear the word system, they think of mega-
methodologies that require several bookcases and intense training to use. A
System Approach to Training is not that difficult or complicated. The Instructional
System Development (ISD) Model was designed to solve training problems
(Pamphlet 350-30, 1975). Figure 2, shown below, is a flowchart of the ISD model.
It was first established by the Department of Defense, but can now be found in
almost any type of organization. It grew out of the "systems analysis" concepts
that became popular after World War II. It is probably the most extensively used
instructional design model in use today.

Click chart to enlarge

ISD is concerned with the identification of training requirements based on the


analysis of job performance requirements data obtained from experts in the job to
be performed. Training objectives are formulated as a result of the job analysis
process and tests are developed to be used to assess the learner's progress
toward meeting the training objectives. ISD or SAT also attempts to bring
structure to the instructional design process when determining the optimal
instructional strategies, instructional sequencing, and instructional delivery media
for the types of training objectives involved.

Although there are minor difference, most development systems follow an


approach similar to this:

o Analyze the system in order to completely understand it, and then describe the
goals you wish to achieve in order to correct any shortcomings or faults within the
system.
o Design a method or model to achieve your goals.
o Develop the model into a product (in training, this product is called courseware).
o Implement the courseware.
o Evaluate the courseware and audit-trail throughout the four phases and in the
field to ensure it is heading in the right direction and achieving the desired results.

The ISD model is a tool for solving many types of performance


problems. But, designers must step step back to see where they are
going, otherwise the tool will control them, instead of them
controlling the tool.

Evaluations must be performed throughout the entire ISD cycle.


Designers often blame the model because they think it is wrong or a
waste of time to start over.

The ISD Model

The flowchart model used in Figure 2 (shown above), shows the five phases with
their basic steps listed below them. Although the above model shows the
processes, it does not really show the dynamics of the ISD model. For that
purpose, Figure 3 is used.

Click chart to enlarge

This figure highlights the importance of evaluation and feedback throughout the
entire training program. It also stresses the importance of gathering and
distributing information in each of the five phases and shows the training process
is NOT a static (waterfall) model, but a iterative flow of activities (dynamic or
spiral).

The five phases are ongoing activities that continue throughout the life of a
training program. After building a training program, the other phases do not end
once the training program is implemented. The five phases are continually
repeated on a regular basis to see if further improvements can be made.

A brief description of the ISD process:

1. Analyze
o Analyze system (department, job, etc.) to gain a complete understanding of it.
o Compile a task inventory of all tasks associated with each job (if needed).
o Select tasks that need to be trained (needs analysis).
o Build performance measures for the tasks to be trained.
o Choose instructional setting for the tasks to be trained, e.g. classroom, on-the-job,
self study, etc.
o Estimate what is going to cost to train the tasks.
2. Design
o Develop the learning objectives for each task, to include both terminal and enabling
objectives.
o Identify and list the learning steps required to perform the task.
o Develop the performance tests to show mastery of the tasks to be trained, e.g.
written, hands on, etc.
o List the entry behaviors that the learner must demonstrate prior to training.
o Sequence and structure the learning objectives, e.g. easy tasks first.
3. Develop
o List activities that will help the students learn the task.
o Select the delivery method such as tapes, handouts, etc.
o Review existing material so that you do not reinvent the wheel.
o Develop the instructional courseware.
o Synthesize the courseware into a viable training program.
o Validate the instruction to ensure it accomplishes all goals and objectives.
4. Implement
o Create a management plan for conducting the training.
o Conduct the training.
5. Evaluate
o Review and evaluate each phase (analyze, design, develop, implement) to ensure it
is accomplishing what it is supposed to.
o Perform external evaluations, e.g. observe that the tasks that were trained can
actually be performed by the learner on the job.
o Revise training system to make it better.

Making The System Effective

One important point must be made. The ISD model is a system to aid in the
design and development of a training program. It is a valuable toolbox that
provides a proven method of building a viable training program. But, the people
in the organization must control the training system, the system should not
control the people. Immediate problems often arise that require rapid solutions.
Don't get hung up in the system model by refusing to bypass a step, switch
steps, modify a step, or include steps of your own. Managers and supervisors
often need quick and ingenious solutions, not another bureaucracy. In other
words, the training department's motto should be: "We provide training solutions!"
Not, "We follow the ISD model."

The steps in each phase should not be thought of as concrete in nature. That is,
one step does not have to be completed before the next one is started. For
example, some training designers will have to complete part of the work in the
design phase before they can complete the estimate step in the analysis phase.
In the development phase, the first three steps, list learner activity, select delivery
system, and review existing material, might be combined into one step by many
developers. Every training project will develop its own rhythm. The developers
must find the natural flow of the steps required to produce a successful training
program. Although the SAT process is a formal one, in that the five phases
should be performed as shown in the flowchart, it requires both art and science in
its implementation.

Also, in many instances, steps may be bypassed. For example, if a manager


comes to you with a training problem, the task identification steps will be skipped
since you know which task needs trained. If you have developed a similar course
before, then many steps, such as reviewing existing material and selecting the
instructional setting, will only be briefly visited as you have gone through similar
processes before and probably have a good ideal of where you are going.
The less you know about a subject or the more technical the material is, then the
closer you need to follow the model.

At work, the potter sits before a lump of clay on the wheel. Her mind is on
the clay, but she is also aware of sitting between her past experiences and
her future prospects. She knows exactly what has and has not worked for
her in the past. She has an intimate knowledge of her work, her
capabilities, and her markets. As a craftsman, she senses rather than
analyzes these things; her knowledge is 'tacit.' All these things are working
in her mind as her hands are working the clay. The product that emerges on
the wheelis likely to be in the tradition of her past work, but she may break
away and embark on a new direction. Even so, the past is no less present,
projecting itself into the future. - Henry Mintzberg, "Crafting Strategy",
H a r v a r d B u s i n e s s R e v i e w , July-August 1987, pp. 66-75.

To make a training program usable, the following activities must take place in its
development:

o An early focus on the clients must be maintained. This is done by direct contact
with the clients through interviews, observations, surveys, and participatory design
and development methods. You must ensure that the clients are made owners of
the training program throughout the entire SAT process. If they feel the program is
being shoved down their throats or their turf is being invaded, the program will fail.
o The five phases - analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation
should be under one management team to ensure that a symmetrical program is
constructed.
o The design must be an empirical one. This requires observation, measurement of
behavior, careful evaluation of feedback, and a strong motivation to make design
changes when needed.
o The process of implementation, testing, feedback, evaluation, and change must be
repeated throughout the training system's life to improve upon it. Do NOT fall into
the old adage, "If it ain't broke don't fix it." Make it better before your competitors
do!
o Records must be maintained. The audit trail should contain the data gathered in
the analysis, the reasons for developing a piece of courseware, and documents
that explain why certain decisions were made. This information could prove
invaluable in the future when changes are needed or when a similar program must
be built.

A lot of learning theory is part of the descriptive sciences, which describe


the way things function in the natural world; while ISD is part of the design
sciences, which offer ways to perform certain human-defined tasks.
Descriptive sciences can be considered the law, while design sciences are
roadmaps, and there is always more than one way to get from point A to
point B.

Critiques of the System Approach


To Tr a i n i n g

Some of the benefits of a system approach are characteristic of all systematic


approaches. The ISD model is a management tool that makes courseware
production more efficient. Effective training programs are more likely because the
ISD model increases the probability that the courseware will match the objectives
and not veer off in a different direction (Roblyer, 1981). The approach is scientific
as it is empirical and can be replicated. The courseware can be improved and
strengthened through data collection and analysis.

On the other hand, the ISD model has been criticized because it is frequently
presented in flowchart form, as shown in figure 2, leaving the impression that it is
mechanistic and linear in its approach. I have tried to point out that it is not a
mechanical, algorithmic, step-by-step procedure, but rather a exploratory
problem solving technique that uses evaluation and feedback to improve
performance (heuristic) by showing Figure 3 and describing the dynamics of it.

It is this heuristic design that has been criticized by others because it tells training
designers what to do, but not how to it. This argument is not valid because there
is a considerable body of educational, learning, and training literature that tells
how to implement the various steps in the ISD model. I have touched upon these
methods throughout this guide and have included several examples in the
appendixes. To include all the body of research is beyond the scope of this
training manual.
A frequent criticism is that it is too time-consuming to be practical in the real
world. Yet, not knowing the basic procedures for building a learning program
leads many novices down the wrong path which wastes more resources. Once
designers are comfortable then many of the steps can be skimmed over.

Some say that systematic models take a "top-down" behaviorist and subject-
matter-expert approach to learning instead of championing a constructivist
approach. But, training has traditionally been task driven by discovering how
experts performs their jobs and then mirroring this performance in the learning
environment. Also, nothing says a constructivist method cannot be used for
learning the task.

To get a better understanding of ISD, read I S D i s L i k e B u i l d i n g a D e l i


Sandwich.

Prototyping and the ISD model are both directly linked. But many
developers have the wrong picture of ISD. The traditional ISD
model, which advocates evaluation throughout its entire life cycle,
has often been thought of as a linear process (step-by-step, static,
or waterfall), when in reality, it is more iterative (dynamic or spiral)
due to the constant updating.

No single model is the silver bullet of instructional design, including


ADDIE. Each model has its advantages and disadvantages. But
many developers will come closer to that silver bullet by using the
key advantages of each system, depending upon the training project
they are working on.

Comparing ISD With Other


Models

It often helps to understand a model better by looking at other models:

Evolutionary Model
An evolutionary approach includes both deterministic and incremental systems,
in contrast to the systems approach, which is entirely deterministic. This means
that in an evolutionary approach, tentative or short term goals may be specified.
This approach is particularly appropriate for situations where there is limited past
experience from which to draw guidance. A major benefit is that it enables a
designer to test new ideas without making a long term commitment. A major
disadvantage is that it lacks a defined set of steps. Also, it is difficult to specify in
advance the amount of time and money that will be needed to complete
significant events and it is logically impossible to specify the outcome of an
evolutionary process.

In the 1960's, the PLATO system for Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) was
developed. A systems approach was implemented at the time. In 1972, the
National Science Foundation funded the University of Illinois to implement a new
version of the PLATO system and to develop courseware for schools and
colleges. An evolutionary approach was used to design the courseware. The
evolutionary approach was apparent in all facets of the new PLATO system and
its accompanying courseware. Although many outstanding lessons were made
using this approach, when time for production was limited due to constraining
resources, such as time or money, quality lessons could not be produced unless
the authors took a systematic approach (Steinberg et. al., 1977).

Courseware authors either failed to complete lessons on time or produced


lessons that made full use of graphics and other computer features, but were
instructionally ineffective. Although the SAT method may look large and
expensive, it has proven itself to be reliable and inexpensive in the long run.

Rapid Prototyping Design (RPD)

Rapid Prototyping Design (RPD) uses a more formative model that is based on
usability testing of prototypes. Results of usability tests on the prototypes is used
to modify and improve the product. This model shares many attributes in
common with the ISD model, and stresses the importance of iterative analysis
and evaluation. For a model see RPD

A comparison of the two models would look something like this:


Step RPD ISD
1 Assess Needs and Analyze Analysis
2 Set Objectives Design
3 Build skeletal (prototype) system Develop
4 User evaluation Evaluate
5 Concept refinement Develop
Implementation of refined
6 Evaluate
requirements
7 Concept refinement Development
Implementation of refined
8 Evaluate
requirements
etc., etc., in a continuous
9 etc., etc., in a continuous cycle
cycle
10 Install and Maintain System Implementation and Evaluate

So, when are you using RPD and when are you using ISD? If you know the
subject, how learners best learn that subject, or have build similar training
programs, then you will perform less prototyping, thus your development will fall
more into the what is pictured as the traditional (dynamic) ISD method. When the
subject is new, controversial, etc., then more prototypes are going to be built,
hence you are more into RPD. If you know exactly what you are doing and
exactly what needs to be built, then you are using the ISD (static or waterfall)
method (however, this rarely happens in the real training world).
The Analysis Phase

The main purpose of an assessment or analysis is to perform a systematic


exploration of the way things are and the way they should be. This
difference is called the Performance Gap.

The analysis phase is the building block of a training program. The basis for who
must be trained, what must be trained, when training will occur, and where the
training will take place are accomplished in this phase. The product of this phase
is the foundation for all subsequent development activities.

The analysis phase is often called a F r o n t - E n d A n a l y s i s . That is, although


you might perform analysis in the design and development phase, this "front end"
of the ISD process is where the main problem identification is performed.

Motorola calculates that for every $1 spent on training, there is a $30


productivity gain within three years - R o n a l d H e n k o f f , " C o m p a n i e s
That Train Best," Fortune (March 22,1993).

A study by the National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce


at the University of Pennsylvania found that a dollar invested by a company
in education was more than twice as effective in boosting the firm's
productivity as a dollar invested in new machinery - W a s h i n g t o n P o s t
(December 29, 1996).

Business Outcome

The Business Outcome or Business Linkage is used to spell out how a learning
initiative supports the organization's initiatives, strategies, or goals (Garnevale,
Gainer, & Villet, 1990).

Business linkage is a "high value add", which is basically defined as the


difference-making in business in that it adds high value. Yet linking learning
activities to other business units is one of the activities that we spend the least
amount of time on. We spend an enormous amount of time on designing and
implementing our learning programs that we often fail to determine how exactly it
impacts the organization. Thus we spend the least amount of time on the most
important activity seen by our customers. Since each customer is different, you
have to ask them what their expectations are and how they would measure
success (Trolley, 2006). If they do not see the Training department's learning
programs as benefiting them, then they are going to start picturing your
department as a consumer of the organization's resources rather than a valuable
asset.

Shown below is a chart that shows the average percent of time for creating a
learning program (USMC Multimedia Guideline for Percentage of Development).
As shown, most training activities spend little if none in showing their clients how
their efforts add value to their clients.

To ensure you capture the business outcome or linkage, begin with the end in
mind -- any learning or performance initiative should be a means to an end. Thus
learning initiatives should show how they will increase revenue or reduce costs.
For example, training salespeople in order to reduce the percentage that fail to
make sales will both increase revenue through more sales and reduce turnover
costs.

Mapping the pathway of a good training and development program would look
something like this (Wick, Pollock, Jefferson, Flanagan, 2006):
Successful training and development ---> More effective and efficient
actions or behaviors ---> Improved business terms.

Since the flow of causality of the above pathway is from left to right, training must
be planned in the opposite direction -- from right to left:

Experiences likely to produce them >--- Required changes in performance


>--- Desired business outcomes.

Thus developing a viable learning program should proceed in a manner similar to


this:

1. Analysis Phase: Determine the business outcome -- How does it link to the
business unit(s)?
2. Design Phase: Determine required changes in the learner's performance.
3. Development Phase: Create the experiences that will change the learner's
performance.

"Impact Mapping" is a tool developed by Robert Brinkerhoff to ensure linkage


between learning initiatives and business objectives. An Impact Map has three
core elements: capability, performance, and results.

If we learn how to do something, we have the capability to perform in a new


way. For value to occur, we have to change our behavior and use the new
capability in performance. Further, our performance must be aimed at
worthwhile results -- Brinkerhoff and Apking.

To reach a common understanding of the required outcomes between the


training team and line leaders, use a tool similar to this:

Define:

o What business needs will be met?


o What will the learners do differently and better?
o Who will be able to see and confirm these changes?
o How will you measure and document the results?
Learning initiatives should always be undertaken to improve the performance of
the business, thus they should always be defined in business terms. An ROI
(Return On Investment) is not always required or cost-effective; however there
should be a clear causal link.

For example, frequent feedback to subordinates is normally considered a means


for promoting better performance, which should equate to higher profits. Thus
"the students will learn feedback skills" is NOT a business outcome as it does not
relate to a verifiable outcome. A better business outcome would be "the learner's
subordinates receive more frequent and better feedback" as a result of the
learning initiative. The first outcome only told us what will be learned, while this
outcome gave us a result than can be measured and verified.

The Business Outcome or Business Linkage should be one of the first things to
determine during the analysis phase. However, to fully understand it you might
have to perform many of the other analysis steps listed below. In any case it must
be spelled out by the end of the analysis phase.

Needs Assessment

St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral, located in Seattle, Washington, has a circular,


40-foot labyrinth. Visitors walk the path for its centuries-old spiritual and healing
properties that are seeped in tradition and symbolism. The contemplative nature
of the labyrinth is said to bring inner peace by helping one to center on the
spiritual nature of things, rather than the clutter of the world.
Labyrinths have been used as meditative tools as far back as the 13th century.
But nowadays, walking labyrinths has evolved beyond the church as hospitals,
retreat centers, prisons, and schools are offering similar labyrinth walks to help
settle the mind. They help one to get absorbed in where they are going, while at
the same time, pointing out that you do not really know where you are.

Training Needs Assessments (TNA) share several similarities with the labyrinth.
For just as a labyrinth has a path to follow, a TNA has a "gap" that must be
"bridged" (followed). This "gap" is what is between what is currently in place and
what is needed, now and in the future. While some labyrinths have one path that
must strictly be followed, others have a multitude of ways to reach the end or
exit. TNAs are like this second group, for there is normally more that one way to
bridge the gap. While following the path of a labyrinth brings one inner-peace,
building the bridge across a performance gap allows designers to have inner-
peace by knowing that they can visualize an appropriate learning and
performance structure.

A Needs Assessment provides you with a complete understanding of the


shortcomings of the system. While a task analysis looks strictly at the tasks
performed on the job, a Needs Assessment looks not only at the tasks being
performed, but also at other parts of the system that might yield clues at what
might be done to improve it. Depending upon your goals, you might perform one,
both, or a hybrid of the two.

There are two main methods to discover learning needs. The first method takes
the proactive approach. This is when a training analyst goes into the system or
process and searches for problems or potential problems. The goal is to make
the system more efficient and to prevent future problems from occurring. When a
new employee is needed, the required Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes (KSA) of
the candidate are known, and the KSA the candidate must be trained on are also
known.

The second method is when a supervisor or manager comes to the training


department for help in fixing a problem. These problems are usually caused by
new hires, promotions, transfers, appraisals, rapid expansion, changes, or the
introduction of new technologies. Training departments must act rapidly when
problems arise that might require a training solution. The lifeblood of the
business could depend on it. First, investigate the problem. A training need exists
when an employee lacks the knowledge or skill to perform an assigned task
satisfactorily. It arises when there is a variation between what the employee is
expected to do on the job and what the actual job performance is.

To decide if training is the answer, one basic question needs to be asked, "Does
the employee know how to meet the required performance standards for an
accountable task?" If the answer is "No," then training is needed. If the answer is
"Yes" then a different action is needed. Some of these other actions might be
counseling, job redesign, process improvement, or organizational development.
Often, the employee does not perform to standards due to time factors, working
conditions, or a misunderstanding of the required standards. Management must
recognize and consider other factors which impact performance that may not be
corrected with training. Factors such as quality of procedures, human factors,
management style, and the work environment also affect performance. For some
more detailed help in solving performance problems see Big Dog's Performance
Coaching Page.

The performance problem chart shown below can be used to help solve training
problems (Laird, 1985, p63).
Click chart to enlarge

When developing training solutions, base your decisions on the appropriate


analysis techniques discussed in this chapter. The urgency of the problem might
lead you to want to curtail all the training development techniques discussed in
this handbook, however this should not be done as you could end up with a
bigger or more expensive problem than what you started out with. Follow the
model and adjust it as your gut instinct tells you to. Once you have a solution
implemented, evaluate it, fine-tune it as needed, and then place it in the training
system. As Seth Godwin wrote:

Here's what we used to do:


Create --> Edit --> Launch

Here's what happens now:


Create --> Launch --> Edit --> Launch --> repeat

When looking for training needs, or when problems arise, there are several
instruments that may be used to locate the actual symptoms:
o Literature research: Analyze budget documents, quality control documents, goal
statements, evaluation reports, scheduling and staffing reports, or other
documents for existing problems.
o Interviews: Talk to supervisors, managers, Subject Matter Experts (SME), and
employees.
o Observations: Watch the job or task being performed.
o Surveys: Send out written questioners.
o Group discussions: Lead a group discussion composed of employees and their
supervisors.

Some questions that might be asked to determine training needs are:

o What are your employees doing that they shouldn't be doing?


o What specific things would you like to see your people do, but don't?
o When you envision workers performing this job properly, what do you see them
doing?
o What prevents you from performing a prescribed task to standards?
o Are job aids available and if so, are they accurate? Are they being used?
o Are the standards reasonable? If not, why?
o If you could change one thing in the way you perform your work, what would it be?
o What subject would you like to see your workers trained on? What would you like
to be trained on?
o What new technology would benefit you the most in the performance of your
work?
o What new technology would you like to see invented to help you with your work?
Why?

Regardless of which method you choose and what questions you ask, the data
gathered must accurately reflect the specific tasks now being performed. The
information gathered will be used as the basis to select the tasks that need to be
trained.

The beginning of performance is knowing what constitutes great


performance. The key word is "great." If we ask for mediocre performance,
then that is what we will get. . . and you cannot pounce on the competition
with something mediocre and expect to win.
Analyze the System

Assessing business outcomes and needs


assessments are probably the two major analysis
that a designer performs. However there are a few
other tools that are often used. Below are a few of them that you should be
familiar with.

Note that this step be not have to be performed if the training activity is already in
close contact with the client. Many training departments work with their clients or
departments on a day-to-day basis, so they are already quite familiar with their
clients. While other training departments are organized quite different and only
come in contact with clients on an as-needed basis. Your familiarity with the
clients will determine the scope of the System Overview that will need to be
performed.

The purpose of this activity is to aid in the decision making process by defining all
the elements, issues, facts, and features taking place in the client's system or
process. The information gathered in this step provides a basic background for
training developers, consultants, contractors, etc. Training programs have failed
in the past and will continue to fail because the training activity did not
understand the needs or wants of its clients. This step allows the training activity
to understand the technical, non-technical, political, social, and cultural aspects
of the client's system.

This phase allows the client to understand the training activity and its purpose.
Clients often view outside activities as meddlers who interrupt their daily flow of
work. These clients are often on the defensive and hide their true feelings and
facts. During this initial phase you must bring the clients in on the training
development activities and make them a part of the solution. It is universally
advised that the clients of a proposed system be extensively involved in the
construction of any new project (Bowsher, 1998, pp.64-88; Trolley, 2006; Wick,
Pollock, Jefferson, Flanagan, 2006). Besides introducing the clients and the
training activity to each other, other benefits include that the clients will accept
and benefit from a system that they themselves helped to define. Also, nobody
knows the system's requirements better than the people who own it.
The SME (Subject Matter Experts) who are sent to help with a new project are
often the ones who have developed Band-Aids that keep the system running.
This is not a put down, but rather a compliment. For without them the entire
system would have collapsed into absolute chaos. These people often become
frustrated with the pace of the analysis process, not understanding why
development of the project cannot begin immediately. They often jump ahead to
design and development far too soon. Ensure you capture such suggestions in
the form of design notes attached to the analysis documents for later
consideration. This allows team members to feel their inputs are considered
important and will not be forgotten.

You should also understand the scope of the system or process. The scope of a
system is the system's boundaries. For example, you are analyzing a production
department. You notice that it takes many supplies to keep it operating, such as
raw material to make the product, cleaning supplies, maintenance supplies, etc.
Don't get led off into studying the inventory control department. They are
probably two entirely different systems or processes. Stay within one process at
a time until you thoroughly understand it. A process is a planned series of actions
that advances a material or procedure from one stage of completion to the next.
The beginning of a process starts with a trigger that causes a specific action to
be taken by a person, another process, or work group. The ending occurs when
the results get passed on to another person, process, or work group.

Knowing the basics of a system enables you to better understand the tasks that
lay ahead. Although you are interested in the system as a whole, so that you may
understand its purpose and goals, the main emphasis of this initial research
should be on the people within the system. You need to learn as much about the
proposed learners (target population) as possible. The target population data is
essential and most useful when making decisions about the proposed learning
program. You must understand the people issues! This is the biggest variable in
a training program...and one of the hardest parts of a training program to account
for. Statisticians can tell you every fact you want to know about the "average"
person...but I dare you to find a real live a v e r a g e person. Listed below are
some of the aspects you should be looking for:

o Anticipated number of learners


o Location of learners
o Education and experience of the learners
o Background of learners
o Experience in present or related jobs
o Job performance requirements versus present skill levels
o Language or cultural differences of learners
o Motivation of learners.
o Physical or mental characteristics of learners
o Specific interests or biases of learners.

Invite the client manager and supervisors to lunch or meet on a regular basis.
Guide them into them discussing their problems and frustrations. Managers do
have time for short encounters, and most of them actually like the opportunity to
discuss their issues. However, they do not have the time or resources to tackle a
training needs analysis project. That is the designer's job.

During the meeting, do not mention training or methods for solving performance
problems. Your job is to guide, listen, and interpret. Once the lunch or meeting is
over, reflect on what was said and use that information in your analysis. When it
is time to brief them on your initial analysis project, show how the training
department can help with some of their problems.

Depending upon the requirements of the project, Compile Task Inventory, Job
List, Job Description, and Task Inventory may not have to be performed. These
are normally only performed once in an organization and then updated on an as
needed basis. Performing them every time a client needs training would be a
waste of time and money. But, when you are tackling performance problems, the
pertinent parts should be reviewed so that you know what the job and task
requirements are, and then updated so that anyone who follow you will have
valid material to work with.

C o m p i l e Ta s k I n v e n t o r y

If you are doing a full scale analysis, then you might be asked to compile a Job
list, Job Descriptions, and Task Inventory for each job. These three assignments
are not normally performed every time you research a performance problem. But
they are essential to anyone involved in HRD, management, or performance as
they set the standards for how a job is to be performed.

If the job and task inventories have already been compiled, then you should
review and update them before moving on to the task analysis or needs analysis.

Job List

A job list is a compilation of all job titles associated with the system. Jobs are
collection of tasks and responsibilities. A job is generally associated with the
worker's title. Secretary, welder, and bookkeeper are jobs. A job consists of
responsibilities, duties, and tasks that are defined and can be accomplished,
measured, and rated. It is used as an employment tool for classifying work and
for selecting employees.

Job Description

A job description is then obtained by performing a job analysis. This is the


process of breaking down the complexity of a person's job into logical parts. It
identifies the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to perform the job
correctly. It is often concerned with the subjective elements of a job. . . that is,
expectations and attitudes.

When writing the Job Description, try to create a picture of the job that shows
what will be expected of anyone fulfilling the position. Also, prepare a job
description for each position. That is, you might have two sales positions, but
some tasks may be different or are included in one position but not the other.

Ta s k I n v e n t o r y

A Task Inventory is compiled for each job in a department or system. A task is a


function the jobholder performs, such as typing a letter, spot-welding a crack, or
posting accounts into a ledger. A task is a well defined unit of work. It stands by
itself. It is a logical and necessary action in the performance of a job or duty. It
has an identifiable start and end point and results in a measurable
accomplishment or product. It takes Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes (SKA) to
perform a task. Some jobs may only have a couple of tasks associated with
them, while others will have dozens of tasks.

The following are characteristics of tasks:

o A task has a definite beginning and end.


o Tasks are performed in relatively short periods of time. They are usually measured
in minutes or hours.
o Tasks are observable. By observing the performance of a jobholder, a definite
determination can be made that the task has been performed.
o Each task is independent of other actions. Tasks are not dependent on
components of a procedure. A task is performed by an individual for its own sake.
o A t a s k s t a t e m e n t is a statement of a highly specific action. It always has a
verb and an object. It may have qualifiers, such as "measure distances with a tape
measure". A task statement should not be confused with an o b j e c t i v e that has
conditions and standards.

"Adjust gears on a 10 speed bicycle" is a task statement. "Given a broken 10


speed bicycle and a tool kit, adjust gears. Bicycle must be operable." is an
objective. "Practice good safety habits" is NOT a task statement...it cannot be
measured. "Supervise personnel" is not a task statement. Use an action word to
indicate what the jobholder performs, such as "Plans daily work schedule".

The task inventory consists of all the tasks that a jobholder requires to perform
the job to standards. Each and every task performed by the job incumbent must
be listed on the task inventory. It provides vital information about the skills,
knowledge, and abilities required to perform a job. This information is valuable for
developing employee selection procedures and training programs. For hiring, it
informs the selection committee and applicant of what the job entails. For training
purposes, it tells the developer what the job requires. It is also valuable for
setting standards in performance appraisals and evaluating jobs to determine the
correct pay level. Again, this document may already have been created. You
should ensure that it truly represents the tasks being performed by the job holder,
and that all the tasks are listed.

When writing the task, start each task with a verb, indicate how it is performed,
and state the objective. For example: "Loads crates using a forklift." One way of
getting a comprehensive list is to have the employees prepare their own list,
starting with the most important tasks. Then, compare these lists with yours.
Finally, discuss any differences with the employees, and make changes where
appropriate. This helps to ensure that you have accounted for all tasks and that
they are accurate. It also gets them involved in the analysis activity.

Task or needs analysis should be performed whenever there are new


processes or equipment, when job performance is below standards, or
when requests for changes to current training or for new training are
received. An analysis helps ensure that training is the appropriate solution.

See tasks for more information

S e l e c t Ta s k s

At this point you should fairly well understand the system or process you are
researching. You should know the purpose of the system, the people within the
system, and the main goals they are trying to achieve. You should also know the
jobs and the associated tasks the system requires.

You and the clients are now ready to select the tasks to be trained. The
information gathered in the systems overview, i.e., surveys, interviews, etc., will
aid in your decision making process. Two processes are used in the identification
of areas to be trained - Task Analysis and Needs Analysis.

Ta s k A n a l y s i s

A Task Analysis sequences and describes observable, measurable behaviors


involved in the performance of a task or job. It involves the systematic process of
identifying specific tasks to be trained, and a detailed analysis of each of those
tasks in terms of frequency, difficulty and importance.

When deciding which tasks to train, two guiding factors must be used -- effective
and efficient. Seek the best program within acceptable costs while meeting the
learning intents. Often it helps to select tasks for training by dividing them into
three groups:
1. Those that are to be included in a formal learning program.
2. Those that are to be included in On-the-Job-Training (OJT).
3. Those for which no formal or OJT is needed (i.e., job performance aids or self
study packets).

When selecting tasks to be trained consider the following factors:

o Is the training mandated by the Occupational Safety and Health Act?


o Could a job performance aid or self study packet be used in place of formal
training?
o Can people be hired that have already been trained?
o Is training needed to ensure their behavior does not compromise the company's
legal position, i.e., Equal Employment Opportunity, labor relations laws, or state
laws?
o What will happen if we do not train this task?
o What will be the benefits if we do train this task?
o If we don't train it, how will the employee learn it?
o How will this training help to achieve our goals?

Below are questions to ask when performing a Task Analysis:

o How difficult or complex is the task?


o What behaviors are used in the performance of the job?
o How frequently is the task performed?
o How critical is the task to the performance of the job?
o To what degree is the task performed individually, or is part of a set of collective
tasks?
o If a subset of a set of collective tasks, what is the relationship between the various
tasks?
o What is the consequence if the task is performed incorrectly or is not performed at
all?
o To what extent can the task be trained on the job?
o What level of task proficiency is expected following training?
o How critical is the task?
o What information is needed to perform the task? What is the source of
information?
o What are the performance requirements?
o Does execution of the task require coordination between other personnel or with
other tasks?
o Are the demands (perceptual, cognitive, psychomotor or physical) imposed by the
task excessive?
o How often is the task performed during a specified time-frame (i.e., daily, weekly,
monthly, yearly)?
o How much time is needed to perform this task?
o What prerequisite skills, knowledge, and abilities are required to perform the task?
o What is the current criteria for acceptable performance? What is the desired
criteria?
o What behaviors distinguish good performers from poor performers?
o What behaviors are critical to the performance of the task?

Build Performance Measures

Construct performance measures for each task to be trained and the critical
steps for achieving the performance measures. If your organization has the
resources, then all tasks, including the ones that were not selected for training,
should also be included. This information provides documentation for the correct
performance of tasks.

Performance measures are the standards for how well a task must be performed.
There are four basic analysis techniques used to ensure that all performance
measures associated with a task are recorded (Wiggs, 1984):

o Observation Task Analysis: Observe the task under actual working conditions and
record each step for performing the task and the standards of performance.
o Simulated Task Analysis: Observe skilled individuals or groups performing the task
under simulated working conditions. The working conditions should match the job
environment as closely as possible. Record each step and standards of
performance with inputs from the skilled performers.
o Content Analysis: Analyze the operating or technical manual to determine the
steps and standards of performance.
o Interview Analysis: Consult with a SME to determine the required steps and
standards of performance. This is normally used to validate the data gathered by
other techniques. This method should not be used alone. Experts often leave out
vital steps as they have performed the task so often that some of the steps
become so internalized that they fail to acknowledge doing so!

The client management must approve the task performance measures. If


possible, the client supervisors and SME should write them with the training
organization's guidance. This does not relieve the trainers' accountability for this
function since they are the masters of this technology.

Choose Instructional Setting

This step selects the appropriate delivery system or media. What has to be
decided is how and where the training will take place. The instructional setting is
the major medium of a training program, for example, a Job Performance Aid
(JPA) for operating a piece of equipment, classroom training, or elearning.

The instructional setting has minor media within it. Minor media are the learning
strategies that instruct the learning points or steps. For example a JPA
instructional setting might have two - a decal for starting the equipment and a
manual for performing the various operations. The classroom setting could have
fishbowls for teaching observation, in-baskets for teaching time management,
and lectures for introducing new information. CBT could use video, self-tests, and
simulations. The learning strategies (minor media) will be discussed in detail in
the next chapter - Design.

If you have successfully trained similar tasks in the past, then you probably have
a pretty good idea of the required delivery system. If not, then there are several
options to consider when selecting the delivery system:

o Feedback: Simple, yet effective, and often overlooked with today's high
technology! Sometimes your job is not to train the workers who cannot perform the
task, but to train their supervisors or managers in effective coaching and
supervision methods.
o Lockstep: This is normally viewed as the traditional (classroom) type of training. It
is best used when you have lectures or team training. Its main disadvantage is
that no one learns at the same pace.
o Self-Paced: This allows the learners to proceed at their own pace but it requires
more development time and coordination.
o Job: This includes Job Performance Aids (JPA) such as decals and manuals and
On-the-Job training (OJT). JPA are normally the cheapest method to implement
while OJT can provide high quality, cost effective training. The disadvantages are
the interruptions that take place in the workplace with OJT, while JPA provide no
supervision or coaching.
o Blended: Best-Of-Class Model (hybrid or modular) are a combination of various
media that provides the learners with the best type of instruction - this should be
the goal of any training program.

One of the fallacies that many trainers fall into is to build every training program
the same way. At one company I worked with, their favorite training model was to
create a learning guide and then have the learners take turns reading the book in
a lockstep training session. While a friend of mine reported that her organization
would not consider doing a training program unless they could turn it into a full
scale multimedia computer training production. Trainers often fall into these
training traps, they have a number of success with a certain medium, so they do
not consider other options in the future.

Although most learning objectives and concepts can be taught using almost any
media, most have an ideal medium in a given learning situation. To help with the
major media selection process, it often helps to run it through a flowchart:

Click chart to enlarge


The above Training Media Selection Flowchart is a tool to aid you in selecting the
best medium for a training program. The flowchart should not be thought of as
the final word in media selection, but rather a guide that shows the various
options for communicating and transferring your learning objectives to others. It
does not attempt to take it through every avenue of approach, as that would lead
to a highly convoluted chart; but rather its goal is to lead you through the major
media directions and choices.

When selecting training media, you have to consider your learner needs,
resources, experience, and training goals. Also, do not take a complete training
program through the chart, but rather each module of your training program. The
goal of a good training effort is to build a viable and efficient program. That is, it
should provide the best learning environment at the lowest possible cost.
Selecting the best medium for each module and incorporating it into your course
allows you to build a Best-Of-Class program.

The guidelines for selecting the instructional setting are simple - you want the
learners to master the new or existing technology in a professional, effective, and
efficient manner.

There are a wide variety of instructional settings. For a comprehensive list,


view the Media Dictionary.

Heraclitus of Ephesus was one of the early Greek philosophers. He


emphasized that the world is constantly changing. He said, "No man ever
steps in the same river twice, for it is not the same river and he is not the
same man." The saying "There is nothing permanent except change" is
based upon his philosophy. Estimating training is no exception. . . it also
will change and vary depending upon who is building the training
programming and what type of training they are creating.
The Design Phase

This phase insures the systematic development of the training program. This
process is driven by the products of the analysis phase and ends in a model or
blueprint of the training program for future development.

This model or blueprint will contain five key outputs:

o Entry behaviors
o Learning objectives
o Learning steps (performance steps)
o Performance test
o Structure and sequence program outline

The entry behaviors describe what a learner must know before entering into the
training program. Just as a college requires certain standards to be met in order
to enroll, a training program should require a base level of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes (KSA).

The learning objectives tell what tasks the learners will be able to perform after
the training, while the learning steps tell how to perform the tasks, while the
performance test tells how well the tasks must be met.

Finally, the learning objectives are sequenced in an orderly fashion that provides
the best opportunity for learning, such as arranging the learning objective from
easy to hard or in the order they are performed on the job.
Mr. Spock from Star Trek had a great training
technique called "the Vulcan mind meld." Spock
placed his fingertips on another person's head,
which in turn, transferred knowledge, vivid images,
and memories from their brain to his, or vice
versa.

Unfortunately, we do not have that capability...yet.


So for the time being, we use a systematic method
of transferring knowledge, skills, and attitudes
(KSA). This method is known as ISD. Just as Spock
could extract only the information he wanted, the
goal in ISD is to make the transfer quickly, cheaply,
and tailored to the learner's needs.

Training, at its simplest, is the transfer of KSA. ISD


is nothing but Spock's Vulcan mind meld
equivalent.

There are no better terms available to describe the


difference between the approach of the natural and
the social sciences than to call the former
"objective" and the latter "subjective"...While for
the natural scientist the contrast between objective
facts and subjective opinions is a simple one, the
distinction cannot as readily be applied to the
object of the social sciences. The reason for this is
that the object, the "facts" of the social sciences
are also opinionsónot opinions of the student of the
social phenomena, of course, but opinions of those
whose actions produce the object of the social
scientist. T h e C o u n t e r - R e v o l u t i o n o f
S c i e n c e by Friedrich August Von Hayek.

Develop Objectives
In the analysis phase, you discovered what needs to be trained. In this phase,
writing clear learning objectives answers the question, "What will the learners be
able to do when they finish the training program?" Of all the activities within the
ISD process, this is normally one of the more critical
steps. For without well constructed learning objectives,
instructors don't know what is to be taught, learners
don't know what they are supposed to learn, and
managers don't know what they are investing their
training dollars in. Learning objectives form the basis for
what is to be learned, how well it is to be performed,
and under what conditions it is to be performed.

A learning objective is a statement of what the learners


will be expected to do once they have completed a
specified course of instruction. It prescribes the conditions, behavior (action), and
standard of task performance for the training setting. The objective is sometimes
referred to as performance or behavioral objectives. For example, knowledge is a
state of mind which cannot be directly measured. This requires an indirect
method of evaluation, that of observing behavior or performance.

Also, there is a difference between goals and objectives. Goals describe a


learning outcome in general, for example, "the learner will successfully complete
the supervisor course, before moving on to the leadership course." Notice that
this is so general that it provides no guidance about how to achieve it. On the
other hand, an objective is a specific statement of instructional intent which
attempts to change knowledge, skills or attitudes as a result of a learning
experience, for example, "the learner will use Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs when
deciding upon motivators."

Specific terminal learning objectives (Mager, 1975) must be developed for each
of the tasks selected in the learning program. A terminal learning objective is at
the highest level of learning (KSA) appropriate to the human performance
requirements a student will accomplish.

Each terminal learning objective is analyzed to determine if it needs one or more


enabling learning objectives, that is, if it needs to be broken down into smaller,
more manageable objectives. An enabling learning objective measures an
element of the terminal learning objective.

A learning objective has three main parts:

o Observable Action (task) - This describes the observable performance or


behavior. An action means a verb must be in the statement, for example "type a
letter" or "lift a load." Each objective covers one behavior, hence, only one verb
should be present. If the are many behaviors or the behaviors are complicated,
then the objective should be broken down into one or more enabling learning
objectives that supports the main terminal learning objective.
o At Least One Measurable Criterion (standard) - This states the level of
acceptable performance of the task in terms of quantity, quality, time limitations,
etc. This will answer any question such as "How many?" "How fast?" or "How
well?". For example "At least 5 will be produced", "Within 10 minutes", "Without
error". There can be more than one measurable criterion. Do not fall into the trap
of putting in a time constraint because you think there should be a time limit or you
cannot easily find another measurable criterion -- use a time limit only if required
under normal working standards.
o Conditions of performance (usually) (condition) - Describes the actual
conditions under which the task will occur or be observed. Also, it identifies the
tools, procedures, materials, aids, or facilities to be used in performing the task.
This is best expressed with a prepositional phase such as "without reference to a
manual" or "by checking a chart".

Listed below are four examples of learning objectives


Example 1: Write a customer reply letter with no spelling mistakes by using a
word processor.
Observable Action: Write a customer reply letter
Measurable Criteria: with no spelling mistakes
Conditions of Performance: using a word processor
NOTE: If more that one type of word processor or computer is used in the
organization, then it should be more specific. For example: G i v e n a
p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r , W o r d f o r W i n d o w s , a n d p r i n t e r,
create a printed customer reply letter with no spelling
m i s t a k e s . The conditions of performance are "Given a personal
computer, Word for Windows, and printer". Generally speaking, the larger
the organization or the more technical the task, the more specific the
conditions of performance must be spelled out.
Example 2: Copy a table from a spreadsheet into a word processor document
within 3 minutes without reference to the manual.
Observable Action: Copy a table from a spreadsheet into a word
processor document
Measurable Criteria: within 3 minutes
Conditions of Performance: without referencing the manual.
Note: The Conditions of performance may also include a variable as
shown in the next example.
Example 3: Smile at all customers, even when exhausted, unless the customer
is irate.
Observable action: Smile
Measurable Criteria: at all customers
Conditions: even when exhausted
Variable: unless the customer is irate
Note: Sometimes its helpful to start with the phase "After training, the
worker will be able to..."
Example 4: After training, the worker will be able to load a dumptruck within 3
loads with a scooploader, in the hours of darkness, unless the work area is
muddy.
Observable Action: load a dumptruck
Measurable Criteria: within 3 loads
Conditions: with a scooploader in the hours of darkness
Variable: unless the work area is muddy
The learning objective spells out the exact training requirement. Without them,
time and money could be wasted by training workers to type at 65 WPM when all
that is required is to be able to type at 35 WPM, or training employees to sell an
item to an easy going customer when what they really need to know is how to
sell an item to a skeptical customer, or training them to enter data into a
spreadsheet application when the actual job requires them to enter data into a
customized database package.

A clearly formulated objective has two dimensions, a behavioral aspect and a


content aspect. The behavioral aspect is the action the learner must perform,
while the content is the product or service that is produced by the learner's
actions. For example, " t h e s t u d e n t w i l l l e a r n f o r k l i f t o p e r a t i o n s b y
s t u d y i n g t h e o p e r a t o r ' s m a n u a l " refers not to an outcome of training
but to an activity of learning. If you observed the student reading, you could make
no judgment if he or she was actually learning (behavioral aspect) and there is no
service produced by the learner's action (content aspect).

A better example would be " G i v e n a f o r k l i f t , l o a d a p a l l e t o n t o a


t r a i l e r w i t h o u t a n y s a f e t y e r r o r s . " In this example, the behavioral
aspect is loading a trailer, while the content aspect is a pallet placed on the
trailer.

Notice that learning objectives look a lot like tasks. A task analysis itemizes each
discrete skill found in a job, but it provides only end goal statements. While
learning objectives spell out the prerequisite skills and makes them the course
objectives.

U si ng t he C o r r e ct Ve r b

The type of verb that is used in the task statement, determines the level or of
learning (or degree of difficulty) that must achieved. For example, being able to
criticize a process shows a much more complex behavior than simply being able
to identify a process. Bloom's Taxonomy (also know as "Learning Domains") can
assist you in choosing the correct verb for the task you want to train.
For more information and examples, see
Objectives. For a handy training tool, see a
Quick Guide to Learning Objectives.

For more information on learning steps, see


Tasks: Learning Steps.

Identify Learning Steps

Once the final outcome is known - the learning objective, then the steps needed
to perform the objective are identified and compiled. These are also constructed
from the Appendix C - Task Performance Measures - Training Form 1-6. The
learning steps are compiled into a list that specifies each activity that must be
performed in order to successfully complete the task.

For example, the learning steps for the objective "Given a cash register and at
least ten products, calculate the exact total for the purchase transaction," might
read like this:

1. Enter the sales price and the department key for each product.
2. Repeat step one until all products have been entered.
3. After all items have been entered, press the subtotal key.
4. Press the Tax key.
5. Press the Total key.

For sample learning steps, review


Objective.

ISD is a big proponent of backwards planning.

You perform an analysis to see what is


needed.
You develop the objectives and a performance
test to ensure the objectives are met.

Some ISD models even have the learning


steps developed after the tests.

It is then fleshed together in the development


phase.

D e v e l o p Te s t s

Construct tests to evaluate the learner's mastery of the learning objective. You
might wonder why the tests are developed so soon in the design phase, instead
of in the development phase after all of the training material has been built. In the
past, tests were often the last items developed in an instructional program. This
is fine, except that many of the tests were based on testing the instructional
material, nice to include information, items not directed related to the learning
objectives, etc. The major purpose of the test is to promote the development of
the learner. It ascertains whether the desired behavior changes have occurred
following the training activities. It performs this by evaluating the learner's ability
to accomplish the learning objective. It also is a great way to provide feedback
to both the learner and the instructor.

The learning objective should be a good simulation of the conditions, behaviors


and standards of the performance needed in the real world, hence the evaluation
at the end of the instruction should match the objective. The methodology and
contents of the learning program should directly support the learning objectives.
The instructional media should explain, demonstrate, and provide practice. Then,
when students learn, they can perform on the test, meet the objective, and
perform as they must in the real world. The diagram below, shows how it all flows
together:
To focus the training program on the required task performance measurements,
the ISD model is based on the following development order:

1. Analyze the task to determine the objective.


2. Develop the learning objective fully and determine if it has any enabling objectives.
If it does, then spell them out.
3. List the steps required to perform the objective to standards.
4. Build a test instrument to determine if the learner can perform the steps that are
required to reach the objective.
5. Construct courseware that will train the learners to perform the objective. You
know the learners can perform the objective if they can meet the evaluation
standards.

Using this development order, the focal point of the ISD model is the objective.
The objective specifies what behavior must be displayed to perform the task to
standards. Training is then developed to teach the steps that will best lead to the
desired behavior. This is what training is all about!

Te s t i n g Te r m s
Tests are often referred to as "evaluations" or "measurements". In order to avoid
confusion we will define the terms used in evaluating learners:

o Te s t o r Te s t I n s t r u m e n t : (Brown, 1971) A systematic procedure for


measuring a sample of an individual's behavior, such as multiple-choice,
performance test, etc.
o E v a l u a t i o n : (Wolansky, 1985) A systematic process for the collection and use
of information from many sources to be applied in interpreting the results and in
making value judgments and decisions. This collection of results or scores is
normally used in the final analysis of whether a learner passes or fails. In a short
course the evaluation could consist of one test, while in a larger course the
evaluation could consist of dozens of tests. The process of determining the value
and effectiveness of a learning program, module, and course
o M e a s u r e m e n t : (Wolansky, 1985) The process employed to obtain a quantified
representation of the degree to which a learner reflects a trait or behavior. This is
one of the many scores that an individual may achieve on a test. An evaluator is
most interested in the gap between a learner's score and the maximum score
possible. If the testing instrument is true, then this is the area that the learner did
not master

P l a n n i n g t h e Te s t

Before plunging directly into test item writing, a plan should be constructed.
Without an advance plan, some test items will be over represented while others
may stay untouched. Often, it is easier to build test items on some topics than on
others. These easier topics tend to get over-represented. It is also easier to build
test items that require the recall of simple facts, rather than items calling for
critical evaluation, integration of different facts, or application of principles to new
situations. A good test or evaluation plan has a descriptive scheme that states
what the learners may or may not do while taking the test. It includes behavioral
objectives, content topics, the distribution of test items, and what the learner's
test performance really means.

Ty p e s o f Te s t s

There are several varieties of tests. The most commonly used in training
programs are Criterion Referenced Written Tests, Performance Tests, and
Attitude Surveys. Although there are exceptions, normally one of the three types
of test are given to test one of the three learning domains (Krathwohl, et. al.,
1964) (see the first section in chapter IV, Development Phase, for more
information on the learning domains). Although most tasks requires the use of
more than one learning domain, there is generally one that stands out. The
dominant domain should be the focal point of one of the following evaluations:

o Criterion Referenced Test: Evaluates the cognitive domain which includes the
recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve
in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. The testing of these abilities
and skills are often measured with a written test or a performance test. Note: A
criterion referenced evaluation focuses on how well a learner is performing in
terms of a known standard or criterion. This differs from a norm referenced
evaluation which focuses on how well a learner performs in comparison with other
learners or peers.
o Performance Test: Evaluates the psychomotor domain which involves physical
movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Measured in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Can also be
used to evaluate the cognitive domain. A performance test is also a criterion
referenced test if it measures against a set standard or criterion. A performance
test that evaluates to see who can perform a task the quickest would be a norm
referenced performance test.
o Attitude Survey: Evaluates the affective domain which addresses the manner in
which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation,
enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. Attitudes are not observable; therefore a
representative behavior must be measured. For example, we cannot tell if a
worker is well motivated by looking at her or testing her. But we can observe some
representative behaviors, such as being on time, working well with others,
performing tasks in an excellent manner, etc.

Whenever possible, criterion referenced performance tests should be used.


Having a learner perform the task under realistic conditions is normally a better
indicator of a person's ability to perform the task under actual working conditions.

If a performance test is not possible, then a criterion referenced written test


should be used to measure the learners' achievements against the objectives.
The test items should determine the learner's acquisition of the KSAs required to
perform the task. Since a written measuring device samples only a portion of the
population of behaviors, the sample must be representative of the behaviors
associated with the task. Since it must be representative, it must also be
comprehensive.

W r i t t e n Te s t s

A written test may contain any of these types of questions:

1. Open-ended question: This is a question with an unlimited answer. The question is


followed by an ample blank space for the response.
2. Checklist: This question lists items and directs the learner to check those that
apply to the situation.
3. Two-Way question: This type of question has alternate responses, such as yes/no
or true/false.
4. Multiple-Choice question: this gives several choices, and the learner is asked to
select the most correct one.
5. Ranking Scales: This type of question requires the learner to rank a list of items.
6. Essay: Requires an answer in a sentence, paragraph, or short composition. The
chief criticism leveled at essay questions is of the wide variance in which
instructors grade these. A chief criticism of the other types of questions (multiple
choice, true/false, etc.) is that they emphasize isolated bits of information and thus
measure a learner's ability to recognize the right answer, but not the ability to
recall or reproduce the right answer. In spite of this criticism, learners who score
high on these types of questions also do well on essay examinations. Thus the
two kinds of tests appear to measure the same type of competencies.

Multiple Choice

The most commonly used question in training environments is the multiple-


choice question. Each question is called a test item. The parts of the test item are
labeled as:

1. This part of the test item is called the


"stem".
_____a. The incorrect choices are called
"distracters".
_____*. Correct response
_____c. Distracter
_____d. Distracter

When writing multiple-choice questions follow these points to build a well


constructed test instrument:

o The stem should present the problem clearly


o Only one correct answer should be included.
o Distracters should be plausible
o 'All the above' should be used sparingly. If used, an equal number of 'All the
above' should be correct and incorrect (distracters). Do not use 'None of the
above'.
o Each item should test one central idea or principle. This enables the learner to
fully concentrate on answering the question instead of dissecting the question. It
also allows the instructor to determine exactly which principles were not
comprehended by the learner
o The distracters and answer for a question should be listed in series. That is, high
to low, low to high, alphabetical, longest to shortest, like vs. unlike, function, etc
o Often, test items can be improved by modifying the stem. In the two examples
below, the stem has been modified to eliminate duplicate words in the distracters.
This makes the question easier to read.

Poor example:

1. The written objectives statement should

_____a. reflect the identified needs of the


learner and developer
_____b. reflect the identified needs of the
learner and organization
_____c. reflect the identified needs of the
developer and organization
_____d. reflect the identified needs of the
learner and instructor

Better example:
1. The written objectives statement should
reflect the identified needs of the
_____a. learner and developer
_____b. learner and organization
_____c. developer and organization
_____d. learner and instructor

The distracters should be believable and in sequence:


Poor example:

2. A student who earns a score of 60, 70,


75, 95, and 95 would have a mean score
of
_____a. 79
_____b. 930
_____c. 3
_____d. 105

In the above example, all the distracters were simply chosen at random. A better
example with believable distracters and numbers in sequence would be:

2. A student who earns a score of 60, 70,


75, 95, and 95 would have a mean score
of
_____a. 5 (total number of scores)
_____b. 75 (medium)
_____c. 79 (correct response)
_____d. 95 (mode) (also notice that the
choices are in numerical order)

If an item analysis (see chapter 6) is performed on the above example, we might


discover that none of the learners choose the first distracter, (a). In our search for
a better distracter the trainer informs us that some of the learners are entering
the class with the myth that the mean is found by using the incorrect formula
shown on the left below, instead of the correct formula shown to its right:

That is, they are adding a 1 to the total number of scores. We could change the
first distracter (a) as follows:

2. A student who earns a score of 60, 70,


75, 95, and 95 would have a mean score
of
_____a. 65 (answer if incorrect formula is
used)
_____b. 75 (medium)
_____c. 79 *correct
_____d. 95 (mode)

Although a new item analysis might show that the learners are not choosing the
new distracter, because the myth is adequately being dispelled by the trainer, it
could still be left in as a distracter to let the instructor know if the myth is properly
being dispelled. If a plausible distracter cannot be found, then go with a fewer
number of distracters. Although four choices are considered the standard for
multiple-choice questions as they only allow a 25% chance of the learner
guessing the correct answer, go with three if another believable distracter cannot
be constructed. A distracter should never be used just to provide four choices as
it wastes the learner's time reading through the possible choices.

Also, notice that the layout of the above example question makes an excellent
score sheet for the instructor as it gives all the required information for a full
review of the evaluation.

True and False

True and false questions provide an adequate method for testing learners when
two or more distracters cannot be constructed for a multiple-choice question or to
break up the monopoly of a long test. Multiple-choice questions are generally
preferable as a learner who does not know the answer has a 25 percent chance
of correctly guessing a question with four choices or approximately 33 percent for
a question with three choices. With a true-false question their odds get better
with a 50 percent chance of guessing the correct answer.

True and false questions are constructed as follows:

__ T __ F__ 1. There should always be


twice the number of true statements
verses false statements in a True/False
test.

__ T__ F __ 2. Double negative


statements should not be used in
True/False test statements.

Question 1 is false as there should be approximately an equal number of true


and false items. Question 2 is true for any type of question. Other pointers when
using True and False tests are:

1. Use definite and precise meanings in the statements.


2. Do not lift statements directly from books or notes.
3. Distribute the true and false statements randomly in the test instrument.

Open Ended Questions

Although open ended questions provide a superior method of testing than


multiple-choice or true-false questions as they allow little or no guessing, they
take longer to construct and are more difficult to grade. Open ended questions
are constructed as follows:

1. In what phase of the Instruction Skills


Development model are tests constructed?
____________________
(This is an example of a direct question)
2. Open ended test statements should not
begin with a
_________________________ .
(This is an example of an incomplete
statement.)

The blank should be placed near the end of the sentence:


Poor example:

3. ____________________ is the formula


for computing the mean.

Better example:

3. The formula for computing the mean is


_____________________.

Placing the blank at or near the end of a statement allows the learner to
concentrate on the intent of the statement. Also, the overuse of blanks tends to
create ambiguity. For example:
Poor example:

4. _________________ theory was


developed in opposition to the
_____________ theory of
_______________________ by
___________________ and
____________________.

Better example:

4. The Gestalt theory was developed in


opposition to the ____________________
theory of psychology by
______________________ and
_____________________________.

P e r f o r m a n c e Te s t s

A performance test allows the learner to demonstrate a skill that has been
learned in a training program. Performance tests are also criterion referenced in
that they require the learner to demonstrate the required behavior stated in the
objective. For example, the learning objective "Calculate the exact price on a
sales using a cash register" could be tested by having the learners ring up the
total with a given number of sales items by actual using a cash register. The
evaluator should have a check sheet to go by that lists all the performance steps
that the learner must perform to pass the test. If the standard is met, then the
learner passes. If any of the steps are missed or performed incorrectly, then the
learner should be given additional practice and coaching and then retested.

There are three critical factors in a well conceived performance test:

o The learner must know what behaviors (actions) are required in order to pass the
test. This is accomplished by providing adequate practice and coaching sessions
throughout the learning sessions. Prior to the performance evaluation, the steps
required for a successful completion of the test must be understood by the learner.
o The necessary equipment and scenario must be ready and in good working
condition prior to the test. This is accomplished by prior planning and a
commitment by the leaders of the organization to provide the necessary
resources.
o The evaluator must know what behaviors are to be looked for and how they are
rated. The evaluator must know each step of the task to look for and the
parameters for the successful completion of each step

Attitude Surveys

Attitude surveys measure the results of a training program, organization, or


selected individuals. The goal might be to change the entire organization
(Organizational Development) or measure a learner's attitude in a specific area.
Since attitudes are defined as latent constructs and are not observable in
themselves, the developer must identify some sort of behavior that would seem
to be representative of the display of the attitude in question. This behavior can
then be measured as an index of the attitude construct. Often, the survey must
be administered several times as employees' attitude will vary from day to day,
indeed, sometimes even hour to hour. Before and after measurements should be
taken to show the changes in attitude. Generally, a survey is conducted one or
more times to assess the attitude in a given area, then a program is undertaken
to change the employee's attitudes. After the program is completed, the survey is
again administered to test its effectiveness.

A survey example can be see at Job Survey.

One test is worth a thousand expert opinions. - Bill


Nye the Science Guy

Failing to understand the learners is one of


the biggest mistakes made in ISD. You must
know their background so that learning can
start at the correct point.

List Entry Behaviors

A sample of the learner target population should be tested to determine if their


entry behavior Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSAs) match the proposed level
of instruction. To determine the entry behavior, test a small sample of the
learners to establish if your assumption of their threshold knowledge and the
starting point of the training program are correct. That is, do the proposed
learners have the needed KSAs to master the terminal learning objective in the
training program or must they be taught additional enabling objectives.

For example, an instructional program might instruct several advanced uses of a


piece of diagnostic equipment. The instructional plan is initially based on the
assumption that the learners have mastered the basic diagnostic procedures for
the equipment from prior experience or training. These basic diagnostic
procedures should be tested on the proposed learners to validate the
instructional plan assumption. If they have not mastered one or more of the basic
diagnostic procedures, then these unmastered procedures will have to be
accounted for in the training plan.

Once you have tested their present KSAs, then the tasks to be taught should be
tested on a small sample of personnel who have mastered the tasks previously
to ensure the proposed test is correct. Finally, a sample of the proposed learners
are tested to see if they can pass any portions of the test without any instruction.

Good trainers, like good producers,


lay out their work in a logical
sequence so that the audience
(learners) can can easily follow it.
Sequence and Structure

The last step in the design phase is to determine program sequence and
structure to ensure the learning objectives are met. A proper sequence provides
the learners with a pattern of relationship so that each activity will have a definite
purpose. The more meaningful the content, the easier it is to learn and,
consequently, the more effective the instruction.

Proper sequencing also helps to avoid inconsistencies in the content of the


instruction. When material is carefully sequenced, duplication is far less likely.
Indeed, the presence of duplication often indicates that the program has not been
properly sequenced.

Ed Wood (directing, observed by the filmís


financial backer): "Cut! Print! That was
perfect!"

Backer: "Perfect? Mr. Wood, don't you


know anything about the art of film
production?"

Ed Wood: "Well, I like to think so!"

Backer: "That cardboard headstone fell


over Ö this graveyard is obviously phony!"

Ed Wood: "No one will ever notice!


Filmmaking is not about the little details.
It's all about the big picture!"

Backer: "The big picture? Then how come


a few minutes ago this scene was set in
the daytime but now it's suddenly night?"

Ed Wood: "What do you know? Haven't


you ever heard of suspension of disbelief?"

Unlike Ed Wood's movies, learning


often needs to be performed in
certain sequences so that the
learner does not become utterly
confused.

Some of the techniques and considerations used in sequencing are:

o Job Performance Order: The learning sequence is the same as the job
sequence
o From Simple to Complex: Objectives may be sequenced in terms of increasing
complexity
o Critical Sequence: Objects are ordered in terms of their relative importance
o Known to Unknown: Familiar topics are considered before unfamiliar ones
o Dependent Relationship: Mastery of one objective requires prior mastery of
another
o Supportive relationship: Transfer of learning takes place from one objective to
another, usually because common elements are included in each objective. These
should be placed as close together as possible so that the maximum transfer of
learning can take place
o Cause to Effect: Objectives are sequenced from cause to effect

If there are a lot of objectives, then they should be organized into clusters which
are conductive to learning. The sequencing performed earlier is the basis for
breaking the objectives down into clusters based on the class relationship
between them.

If the training program is long, then reinforcement also has to be accounted for.
One of the behavioral characteristics of learners indicates that not only the rate of
which people learn must be accounted for, but also the rate of decay that takes
place after an objective is mastered must also be accounted for. To account for
this decay factor, reinforcement loops must be built into the instructional process.
The decay factor also has to be considered once the learner graduates from the
program. If a task is taught in the instructional program and then is not used for
some time after the learners return to their duties, then some decay is likely to
take place. The remedy for this is to coordinate with the learner's supervisor to
ensure the learners perform their newly acquired skills as soon as possible upon
returning to the job.

In any instructional program, there is usually a wide variety of abilities among the
learners. Some will have extensive experience, while others are somewhat
limited. The educational background may extend from high school dropout to
college graduate. Many other variables will affect the progression and
productivity of the learners. Provisions must be made to compensate for these
differences. In a self-paced course, extra modules can help the learners that are
having difficulties. In a lock-step course, additional instruction, reading
assignments, or study halls may be required to keep the slower learners on pace
with the other learners.

The product of the sequencing step should be a learning map which shows the
proposed layout of the objectives. An example is shown below.

Click chart to enlarge


Development Phase

This phase elaborates and builds on the Learning Objectives that were produced
in the design phase. Development is simply diagramming or outlining the
necessary activities that will assist the learners in reaching the course goals. The
end result is the completed instructional courseware.

List Learner Activity

Development begins with specifying the learning activities that will best assist in
the learning process. The main instructional setting and media was chosen in the
analysis phase. In this phase, the learning strategies and supporting media that
will assist the learners in mastering the objectives will be chosen. To assist you,
use the Media and Strategy Dictionary to learn about the many forms of learner
activities.

To select the proper activities, it helps to know what learning is and what
activities enhance a particular form of learning.

Defining Learning
Learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change in behavioral
potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice (Kimble, 1961). The
following elaborates on this basic definition:

o Learning is indexed by a change in behavior, which must be translated into


observable behavior.
o After learning, learners are capable of performing something that they could not do
before the learning experience.
o This change is relatively permanent, it is neither transitory nor fixed.
o The change in behavior need not occur immediately following the learning
experience. Although there may be a potential to act differently, this potential may
not be translated into a new behavior immediately.
o The change in behavior results from experience or practice.
o The experience or practice must be reinforced.

Learning has also be defined as "the process by which people acquire new skills
or knowledge for the purpose of enhancing performance" (Rosenberg, 2001).

Learning a subject seems to involve three almost simultaneous processes:

1. There is acquisition of new information. Often the information runs counter to or is


a replacement for what the learner had previously known.
2. Learning may be called a "transformation" - the process of manipulating
knowledge to make it fit new tasks. Transformation comprises the ways we deal
with information in order to go beyond it.
3. Some type of evaluation takes place by the learner in order to check whether the
information and skills are adequate for the task

Learning has also been described as


"Social". The physicist Freeman Dyson
wrote that when writing, he closes the
door, but when doing science, he leaves
it open -- "up to a point you welcome
being interrupted because it is only by
interacting with other people that you get
anything interesting done. He wrote two
papers that were published in Physical
Review that brought together Richard
Feynman and Julian Schwinger's theories of quantum mechanics. After Dyson's
papers, Feynman and Schwinger's ideas became understandable and thus led to
the two being awarded the Noble prize in physics. There is no doubt in most
minds that the two would never have been awarded the prize if it was not for
Dyson being able to explain their ideas.

Thus, you have Freeman Dyson "social" learning from Richard Feynman and
Julian Schwinger. However, Feynman was such a genius that he learned from
when ever he came across information, such as books and lectures. Einstein is
another example -- people learned a lot from being around him, yet he learned
from what ever was available.

In addition, there is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges and
universities studied learning behaviors and broke learning into three main
domains or Taxonomies(Krathwohl, at. el., 1964). Knowing the type of
knowledge, skill, or attitude that is discussed in the taxonomy will assist you in
determining the instructional strategy. Also, the media selection flowchart is
helpful for choosing instructional strategies based upon needs.

Learning Styles

Just as every person is unique, so is every learner. But how much this
uniqueness matters has been a great debate among educators, trainers, and
psychologists. A learning style is a studentís consistent way of responding to and
using stimuli in the context of learning. Some say that each student learns best
using a learning strategy or method that best matches his or her need. While
others say that what matters the most is the learning process, not the style. The
research tends to favor the latter group. Achieving a solid learning environment
that meets the student's need, rather than their styles seems to be the most
important key for effective learning.

To learn about the various learning style


instruments,read
Learning Styles.

The Learning Process


While learning styles show that we are all different, the learning process shows
how and why we learn something. This, perhaps, is even more important than
addressing the various learning styles. Although people have a preferred style,
they can still learn under almost any style, but if the learning process is not in
place, it makes learning a new task or subject almost unachievable.

To learn more about the learning process read the


Learning Theories page.

Choose Delivery System

The instructional and support material that provides the most effective learning
stimulus are specified in this step. Care should be taken not to select materials
just because they are available. For example, there are probably several
thousand instructional tapes floating around that were developed, not because it
was the best media or method for the instruction to be presented, but because a
camera and VCR were readily available. The purpose in this step is not to show
your mastery of the latest whiz-bang technology, but rather to select learning
methods and the media that support them in order to best magnify the learning
process. When determining the media best suited to train the objective consider:

o The instructional setting: What type of setting is required? Is it up to date or


does it have to be modified? If the instructors and learners have to travel to the
sight, what materials must they bring?
o Media characteristics: What is the best media for this type of instruction? How
must the media be obtained? Must we produce it? If so, do we have the technical
expertise?
o Instructional material: Can it be developed within the proposed budget? What
are the constraining factors for producing this material? Will the technology likely
change before the proposed training material can be produced?
o Time: What are the critical time factors involved? When and how many learners
must be trained by a given time? Is there more than one group to be trained and
how closely will each group follow?
o Instructors: Are they qualified for this type of instruction? Must a Train The
Trainer class be given to bring the instructors up to par? How long will it take to
bring them up to par? How many instructors are available for this instruction?
Each type of instructional material has certain points to consider:

o Job Performance Aid: Do people just need simple reminders or a list of steps for
performing a task? How big should it be? What color? Where exactly must it be
placed? Must a briefing or instructions be given to use it correctly?
o Technical manual: Is the manual already available? If so, must additional
material be developed to enhance the manual for instructional purposes?
o Flowcharts and schematics: Should these be decals? Where must they be
placed so that people will use them?
o Self Teaching Package: Are books and manuals available? Are they geared to
the students' educational level? Are the workers motivated to learn on their own?
o Programmed text:At what level must it be? Is additional instruction needed?
o Multimedia computer programs: This type of instruction takes a great deal of
time and resources to develop. What must be done to complete it in time and
within budget? After it is developed, for how long of a time period will it be valid?
o Computer Aided Instruction: Do we have the authoring tools available? Do we
have training specialist who can develop the instruction with the authoring tools or
must they be instructed in the new media?
o Personalized Instruction: Are coaches readily available to aid the learners. What
goals need to be established and how will the learners obtain them?
o On-The-Job Training: Are the supervisors ready to take on the task of providing
training and coaching? Must they be instructed in On-The-Job learning packages?
Do they have the time? Are trainers needed for this type of training? If so, what will
be their role?
o Resident Instruction: in-house: Do we have instructors who can perform this
type of training? Contract Training: Will it be given at our location or a separate
location? What sort of time frame is involved?
o Lockstep or self pace: Self pace is generally consider better in most cases
because it allows each learner to proceed at her or his own pace, but it is more
difficult to manage than lockstep and usually requires more instructors because of
the wide range of variables that take place within the learning environment.

Also, see
Media.

Review Existing Material


It is important to review any existing materials to determine if they can be
adopted or redesigned into the program. This not only includes material
developed in-house, but also material developed by third parties. Whenever
possible, the duplication of materials must be avoided to save resources. Also,
you should review any existing material relative to the new program to see if it
needs to be discarded.

Develop Instruction

Only after all the preplanning has been accomplished,


is it time to start developing the instructional material.
Developing different forms of courseware requires a
certain amount of skill and art.

See Instructional Design

Synthesize

When developing the training material and media, ensure that it is synthesized
into an integrated program. It should flow as naturally as possible, with each
lesson block building the foundation for the next one. Provide variety that is
conductive to learning. Break practice periods up with instructional periods,
rather than having all the instruction in the beginning followed by nothing but
practice.

Time will have to be consider when synthesizing the complete learning program.
For example, if you have five, 3 hour blocks of instruction, how do you break
them down to run smoothly in two days? Which one gets chopped to two hours
one day and one hour the next day. Will it have an effect on learning? Must the
blocks run in order or can you switch them so the least difficult block gets broken
apart. Will it be better to break the most difficult one apart so the learners get a
respite from the toils of hard learning? Since most workdays are eight hours and
your program totals 15 hours, what should be done with the one additional hour
that will best benefit the organization?
In the U.S. Army Artillery there is a firing method known as the
bracketing process. Fire and adjust! Fire and adjust! This process is
continued until there is fire for effect, and then adjusted again until
the target is hit!

Developing effective courseware is the same. Train and adjust! Train


and adjust! Continue with the SAT process until the training is no
longer needed or until the training courseware is the best piece of
training material produced and then some!

Va l i d a t e I n s t r u c t i o n

The last step is to validate the material by using representative samples of the
target population and then revising the program as needed. The heart of the
systems approach to training is revising and validating the instructional material
until the learners meet the planned learning objectives. Also, it should not be
thought of as a single shot affair. Success or failure is not measured at a single
point.

The initial validation will depend upon the complexity of the training material and
your resources. Listed below is a procedure that provides an effective validation
of a large training program. Adjust it as needed to fit the size and complexity of
your program, but keep in mind that the closer your validation follows this one,
the less problems you will encounter during your training.

Select the participants that will be in the trials. The participants should be
randomly selected, but they must represent all strata of the target population,
bright, average, and slow learners. They should be clearly told what their roles
are in the validation process are. Let them know that they are helping to develop
and improve the lessons and that they should feel free to tell you what they think
about it. The participants should be pretested to ensure that the students learn
from the instructional material and not from past experience.

Conduct individual trials. This trial is performed on one learner at a time. The
instruction is presented to the learner. The separate pieces of instructions, tests,
practice periods, etc., should be timed to ensure they match the estimated times.
Do not tutor unless the learner cannot understand the directions. Whenever you
help or observe the learner having difficulty with the material, document it.

Revise instruction. Using the documents from the individual trials, revise the
material as needed. Closely go over any evaluations that were administered. A
large number of wrong answers for an item indicates a trouble area. Conversely,
a large number of correct answers for an item could indicate the learners already
knew the material, the test items were too easy, or the lessons over taught the
material.

Repeat individual trials until the lesson does what it is supposed to do. There is
no magical number for individual trials. From three to five times seems to be the
usual number. Also, if you are trialing a large course, you might only need to trial
specific troublesome areas of the course, rather than the whole course itself.

Conduct group trial. After you are satisfied with the results of the individual
tryouts, move on to the group tryouts. These can be of any size. It may consist of
several small groups, one large group, or a combination of both. The procedure
is the same as the individual tryouts except for one difference. At some point in
the trials you must determine if the program needs to be accepted or if it needs
major revision. Usually a minimum of two successful tryouts are conducted to
ensure the program teaches. Minor problems should not hold up implementing
the program. As was stated earlier in this section, revisions do not stop upon the
first implementation of the program, but are performed throughout the life of the
program.
Implementation Phase - Chapter V

In the Field

To some, this may sound like the easy part, but it is actually the hardest part of
the system. Good trainers can make a poorly developed program work well and a
well developed program work great...bad trainers can make neither work.

Management Plan

The course management plan is implemented by ensuring the courseware, class


setting, and staff are ready. The learners must be scheduled and notified. Any
prereading material must be sent to them ahead of time. The training staff may
require training (Train-The-Trainer) to perform their roles in the learning process.
They must be given time to prepare and rehearse their instruction.

Instructor Preparation

(Laird, 1985 [based on U.S. Civil Service estimate])

o Course is five days or less - 3 hours of preparation for each hour of training.
o Course is between five and ten days - 2.5 hours of preparation for each hour of
training
o Course is over 10 days - 2 hours of preparation for each hour of training

One of the items that comes out of this phase is the Training Management Plan
(TMP), sometimes called the Course Management Plan (CMP). No matter what it
is called, it should contain the following information:

1. A clear and complete description of the course.


2. A description of the target population.
3. Directions for administering the course.
4. Directions for administering and scoring tests.
5. Directions for guidance, assistance, and evaluation of the learners.
6. A list of all tasks to be instructed.
7. Course map or course sequence.
8. Program of Instruction - How the course is to be taught.
9. A copy of all the training material, i.e., training outlines, student guides, etc.
10. Instructor and staff training requirements (needed and accomplished).
11. Any other documents related to the administration of the course.

The TMP informs the trainers of all factors related to a particular training
program. If a new trainer studied the TMP, she should be able to implement the
instruction with little or no difficulties.

C o n d u c t Tr a i n i n g

The courseware is brought to life by skillful trainers. By skillful, we mean


involvement is the focus, rather than favorable impressions such as oratorical
skills. We are less concerned with platform skills and more concerned with skills
that facilitate learning. The days of long lectures are over! Learning is achieved
by focusing on the learners. If you want someone to put on a great show, then
hire a struggling actor. They are often cheaper than a good trainer. Good trainers
can bring a poorly designed course to life and make a well constructed course
great.

Trainer, Instructor, Coach, or Facilitator


What are all these titles we use to describe ourselves and others, whoose job is
to guide learners to reach a learning objective? It seems as if every organization
has its own title. For a starter, a brief definition of the major terms:
Trainer
Directs the growth of learners by making them qualified or proficient in a
skill or task.
Instructor
Gives knowledge or information to learners in a systematic manner.
Coach
Instructs, demonstrates, directs, guides, and prompts learners. Generally
concerned with methods rather than concepts.
Facilitator
Makes it easier for learners to learn. Guides a team towards the results for
which it exists to achieve and then the team maintains or improves its
competency for continuing to achieve results.

Now, does all the above sound like your job description? If not, it should. For this
is what a trainer is and does. To keep it simple, this guide will use the term
trainer.

T h e A r t a n d S c i e n c e o f Tr a i n i n g

Just as an actor has a repertoire of skills that he uses to perform on-stage, a


trainer has her repertoire of skills that she uses to train others. Some of these
skills may come naturally, while others must be practiced and learned. Although
most of these skill are based on scientific fact or theory, knowing when and how
to use them is more of an art. The rest of this chapter will focus on these skills
that a professional trainer needs.

T h e T h r e e L e a r n i n g Fa c t o r s

There are three factors that must happen for a successful learning experience to
take place:

1. Knowledge: The trainer must know the subject matter. She also provides the
leadership, models behavior, and adapts to learning preferences.
2. Environment: The trainer must have the tools to transfer the subject matter to the
learners, i.e. computers and software for computer classes, adequate classroom
space, courseware such as lesson plans and training aids, etc. The trainer must
fuse these training tools with the learning preferences of the learners.
3. Involvement Skills: The trainer must know the learners. Easy enough, you say, "I
have a student roster that lists their names, departments for which they work, and
I always ask them to give a short introduction about themselves at the beginning
of the class." But, do you really k n o w your learners? What are their real goals for
being in the classroom? What are their learning styles? What tools do they need to
help them succeed? What are some of the affective-tools that will help you to help
your learners succeed in the learning environment you have been charged with?
You must also coach the learners to become self-directed, intrinsically motivated,
goal oriented, and open to learning.

Involvement Skills

To achieve a climate that is conducive to learning, involvement skills are


employed. As you have tools such as projectors, lesson outlines, and training
aids to help you in your training duties, these involvement skills can be thought of
as your inner tools. Some of the involvement skills needed by trainers to coach
their learners to success are (Laird, 1985):

Flexibility

Adapting the training program to meet the learners' needs by analyzing and
responding to individual learner needs. For example, you have a outstanding
word processing class that includes creating multiple columns, but little about
inserting tables. If the Abacus Corporation inquired about the class, and informed
you that their workers needed instruction in inserting tables, could you change
your class to fit their needs? How about if it only involved one student? Not only
must you be prepared to change a course before it starts, but also on-the-fly. You
must consistently monitor and evaluate your learners' needs throughout the
course of instruction. Do not be afraid to change your instructional steps to meet
the needs of your learners.

Spontaneity

Although a good training program has structure, it should not be canned or


contrived. If it simply goes step by step with no change, then why not use a
cheaper media, such as a video tape?

Empathy
This was coined in the 20th century from the German word "einfuhling" (to feel
with), which comes from the Greek word "empatheia" (empathes = emotional &
pathus = feelings). This is the ability to perceive another person's view of the
world as though that view were your own.

The Sioux Indian Tribal Prayer


reads, "Great Spirit, help us
never to judge another until
we have walked for two weeks
in his moccasins."

Empathy differs from sympathy in that sympathy connotes spontaneous emotion


rather than a conscious, reasoned response. Sympathizing with others may be
less useful to another person if we are limited by the strong feelings of the
moment.

Compassion

Alleviate stress when it is not conducive to the training program. Some stress is
good...it helps to motivate us (see Arousal). Without some stress in life there is
no need to accomplish a task, reach for the stars, go where no person has gone
before... However, too much stress places an additional burden on most people.

Questioning

Use the Ask, Pause, Call (APC) method.

o Ask the question.


o Pause to allow learners to think. Normally about 7 to 15 seconds depending upon
the difficulty of the question. Look at the learners. Do most of them look perplexed
or do they look comfortable with the question? The questions you ask should help
you to gauge the effectiveness of your instruction. Also, note that the pause time
can be even longer (this quietness in the classroom can be quite disturbing to
many), which will normally force them to answer because of the quietness.
However, if you have to do this too often, you need to reexamine your training
methods.
o Call on someone to answer the question. Calling on someone after asking the
question allows all the learners to think. Even if a learner has no idea of the
answer, he is thinking of a way not to be called upon, such as looking busy by
taking notes or fidgeting with something. At least you have his brain cells firing
neurons and warming up!

Some hints for effective questioning are:

o Know what you want to find out.


o Generate interest in advance.
o Use open-ended questions to elicit dialog.
o Keep the questions short. Long questions are confusing.
o Ask questions with answers that will suggest a course of action.

Trainers tend to ask questions in the "knowledge" category 80% to 90% of the
time. These questions are not bad, but using them all the time is! Try to utilize
higher order level of questions that require much more "brain power" (thought)
and more extensive and elaborate answers.

The other categories as defined by Bloom's Taxonomy are:

o Comprehension: Involves the understanding and ability to interpret and


communicate the meaning of given variables.
o Application: Implies the use of knowledge to solve problems.
o Analysis: Requires a learner to examine material or relationships of information of
constituent parts and to arrive at some solution or response
o Synthesis: Requires the learner to combine elements and parts into a unified
entity.
o Evaluation: The most complex of all questions. It involves making judgments,
appraising, choosing, assessing, measuring, and critically inspecting some idea or
object and determining its relative value or worth.

Getting feedback

This is the ability of the receiver to change and alter the message so the intention
of the communicator or sender is understood. This should be done by
paraphrasing the words or restating the sender's feelings or ideas in your own
words, rather than just repeating their words. Your words should be saying, "This
is what I understand your feelings to be. Am I correct?" It not only includes verbal
responses, but also nonverbal ones. Nodding your head or squeezing their hand
to show agreement, dipping your eyebrows shows you don't quite understand the
meaning of their last phrase, or sucking air in deeply and blowing it hard shows
that you are also exasperated with the situation.

Carl Rogers listed five main categories of feedback. They are listed in the order
in which they occur most frequently in daily conversations (notice that we make
judgments more often than we try to understand):

1. E v a l u a t i v e : Makes a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness


of the other person's statement.
2. I n t e r p r e t i v e : Paraphrasing - attempt to explain what the other persons
statement mean.
3. S u p p o r t i v e : Attempt to assist or bolster the other communicator
4. P r o b i n g : Attempt to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or
clarify a point.
5. U n d e r s t a n d i n g : Attempt to discover completely what the other communicator
means by her statements.

Counseling

Counseling has a powerful, long-term impact on the learners and the


effectiveness of the organization. There are two type of counseling - directive and
nondirective. In directive counseling, the counselor identifies the problem and
tells the counselee what to do about it. Nondirective counseling means the
counselee identifies the problem and determines the solution with the help of the
counselor. The counselor has to determine which of the two, or some appropriate
combination, to give for each situation.

Positive Reinforcement (Skinner, 1974)

Throughout a program of instruction there needs to be continuous or intermittent


reinforcements. These reinforcements are what cause the operates (responses)
to be learned by the learner. Reinforcers can be either rewards (positive) or
punishment (negative). However, negative reinforcers have the greatest effect
when they are discontinued. Reinforcers do not always have to be verbal. For
example, head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to
learners and indicate that you are listening.
Whole Brain Learning Theory

Our brain is divided into two hemispheres - the left brain and the right brain. The
left side of a brain is the Dr. Spock of Star Trek (the logical side), while our right
side is our Henry David Thoreau (the creative side).

Our left hemisphere characteristics include: judgmental, linear, logical,


systematic, and verbal. It provides:

o Time orientation
o Language skills
o Mathematics
o Sequential processing
o Analysis
o Detail

Our right hemisphere characteristics include: creative, intuitive, holistic, playful,


and visual. It provides these functions:

o Emotion
o Visuo-Spatial orientation
o Art and pattern awareness
o Intuition
o Kinesthetic
o Synthesis of information
o Interpersonal

Learning should be orchestrated so that the left and right sides of the brain
cooperate. You must combine the technical step-by-step side of the learning
objective with interpersonal and experimental activities so that both sides of the
brain become involved in mastering the subject matter. Using both sides of the
brain to learn a new skill aids us in learning it faster and retaining it longer. Note
that the left and right brain theory is quite similar to the Three Representational
Modes (linguistic, nonlinguistic, and affective).

The Learning Cycle


In a good learning organization, learning generally goes through a process
(based upon Hershey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model) similar to
this:

1. The learner starts the training as a beginner. She is very enthusiastic to learn a
new skill. She may be somewhat apprehensive because she is about to enter a
c h a n g e p r o c e s s . She needs clear instructions because the task is new, and
just a little bit of support to calm the stress of change.
2. The level of guidance from the trainer becomes somewhat less so that the learner
may experiment with the learning style that works best for her. She has now
reached failure a few times in the process. Although the trainer still provides a lot
of technical support, emotional support must increase to help keep her confidence
high. This normally becomes one of the toughest time for the trainer as he has to
provide technical support and emotional support. Technical support is needed so
that the failures do not become learned. Emotional support is required so that the
learner does not give up. The emotional feedback needs to be specific, such as:
"You did an excellent job with the..., now you need to..."; not: "You are doing just
fine. Keep trying."
3. At this point, the learner has become capable in performing her new skill. The
amount of guidance drops to just a few pointers so that the learner can experiment
with her new skill. But she is still not sure of herself! The amount of emotional
support stays high to help build up her confidence.
4. The learner now returns to her job. Her supervisor provides little direction and less
support so that she can begin to take ownership of her new tasks and
responsibilities. She is allowed to perform. She is also encouraged to take on new
responsibilities and new assignments...the learning cycle now repeats itself.

Setting Up The Learning Environment

A short question and answer guide for choosing a classroom:


How much space (square footage) should we allocate for the classroom?
15 to 17 square feet per participant.
Is there a configuration that works better than others? For example, is a
wide, short classroom preferable to one that's square?
It should be as nearly square as possible. This will bring people together
both psychologically and physically. The room should be at least 10 feet
high. This allows a projection screen to be placed high enough so the
learners in the rear can see over, not around the people in front of them.
The distance from the screen to the last seat of rows should not exceed
6W (six screen widths). The distance to the front row of seats should be
2W (twice the width of the screen). The proper viewing width is 3W (1 1/2
width from centerline).
How much table space should we allocate per student.
After the PCs are placed (if any) there should be at least 30 linear inches
(with a depth of 18 to 24 inches) per learner. This allows them to spread
their papers during activities.
What type of seating arrangement should we use?
This depends on the learning environment that you are trying to obtain.
For some various arrangements, see Seating Arrangements.

Other

Psychological Factors in the Learning Environment


Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Human needs are an important part of human nature. Values, beliefs,


and customs differ from country to country and group to group, but all
people have similar needs. As a leader you must understand these
needs because they are powerful motivators.

Abraham Maslow felt that human needs were arranged in a hierarchical


order (Maslow, 1954). He based his theory on healthy, creative people
who used all their talents, potential, and capabilities. At the time, this
methodology differed from most other psychology research studies in
that they were based on observing disturbed people.

There are two major groups of human needs: basic needs and meta
needs.

Basic needs are physiological, such as food, water, and sleep; and
psychological, such as affection, security, and self-esteem. These basic
needs are also called deficiency needs because if they are not met by
an individual, then that person will strive to make up the deficiency.

The higher needs are called meta needs or being needs (growth
needs). These include justice, goodness, beauty, order, unity, etc.
Basic needs normally take priority over growth needs. For example, a
person who lacks food or water will not normally attend to justice or
beauty needs.

These needs are listed below in hierarchical order. The basic needs on
the bottom of the list (1 to 4) must normally be met before the meta
or being needs above them can be met. The four meta needs (5 to 8)
can be pursued in any order, depending upon a person's wants or
circumstances, as long as the basic needs have all been met.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

o 8. S e l f - t r a n s c e n d e n c e - a transegoic (see Note below) level that


emphasizes visionary intuition, altruism, and unity consciousness.
o 7. S e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n - know exactly who you are, where you are
going, and what you want to accomplish. A state of well-being.
o 6. A e s t h e t i c - at peace, more curious about inner workings of all.
o 5. C o g n i t i v e - learning for learning alone, contribute knowledge.
o 4. E s t e e m - feeling of moving up in world, recognition, few doubts
about self.
o 3. B e l o n g i n g n e s s a n d l o v e - belong to a group, close friends to
confide with.
o 2. S a f e t y - feel free from immediate danger.
o 1. P h y s i o l o g i c a l - food, water, shelter, sex.

Maslow posited that people want and are forever striving to meet
various goals. Because the lower level needs are more immediate and
urgent, then they come into play as the source and direction of a
person's goal if they are not satisfied,.

A need higher in the hierarchy will become a motive of behavior as


long as the needs below it have been satisfied. Unsatisfied lower needs
will dominate unsatisfied higher needs and must be satisfied before the
person can climb up the hierarchy.

Knowing where a person is located on this scale aids in determining an


effective motivator. For example, motivating a middle-class person
(who is in range 4 of the hierarchy) with a certificate will have a far
greater impact than using the same motivator to effect a minimum
wage person from the ghetto who is desperately struggling to meet
the first couple of needs.

It should be noted that almost no one stays in one particular hierarchy


for an extended period. We constantly strive to move up, while at the
same time various forces outside our control try to push us down.
Those on top get pushed down for short time periods, i.e., death of a
loved-one or an idea that does not work, while those on the bottom
get pushed up, i.e., come across a small prize. Our goal as leaders
therefor is to help people obtain the skills and knowledge that will push
them up the hierarchy on a more permanent basis. People who have
their basic needs met become much better workers as they are able to
concentrate on fulfilling the visions put forth to them, rather than
consistently struggling to make ends meet.

Characteristics of self-actualizing people:

o Have better perceptions of reality and are comfortable with it.


o Accept themselves and their own natures.
o Lack of artificiality.
o They focus on problems outside themselves and are concerned with
basic issues and eternal questions.
o They like privacy and tend to be detached.
o Rely on their own development and continued growth.
o Appreciate the basic pleasures of life (e.g., do not take blessings for
granted).
o Have a deep feeling of kinship with others.
o Are deeply democratic and are not really aware of differences.
o Have strong ethical and moral standards.
o Are original, inventive, less constricted and fresher than others

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Leadership


To put Maslow's theory into perspective with leadership, a short (less
than 3 minutes) audio MP3 file is included: Maslow and leadership.

Tr a n s e g o i c

Tr a n s e g o i c means a higher, psychic, or spiritual state of


development. The t r a n s is related to transcendence, while the e g o is
based on Freud's work. We go from preEGOic levels to EGOic levels to
transEGOic. The EGO in all three terms are used in the Jungian sense
of consciousness as opposed to the unconscious. Ego equates with the
personality.

In Maslow's model, the ultimate goal of life is self-actualization, which


is almost never fully attained but rather is something to always strive
towards. Peak experiences are temporary self-actualizations.

Maslow later theorized that this level does not stop, it goes on to self-
transcendence, which carries us to the spiritual level, e.g.. Gandhi,
Mother Theresa, Dalai Lamao, or even poets, such as Robert Frost.
Maslow's self-transcendence level recognizes the human need for
ethics, creativity, compassion and spirituality. Without this spiritual or
transegoic sense, we are simply animals or machines.

In addition, just as there are peak experiences for temporary self-


actualizations; there are also peak experiences for self-transcendence.
These are our spiritual creative moments.

While the research of Maslow's theory has undergone limited empirical


scrutiny, it still remains quite popular due to its simplicity and being
the start of the movement that moved us away from a totally
behaviorist/reductionistic/mechanistic approach to a more humanistic
one. In addition, a lot of concerns is directed at his methodology: Pick
a small number of people that he declares self-actualizing; read and
talk about them; and come to the conclusion about self-actualization.
However, he did completely understood this, and thought of his work
as simply a method of pointing the way, rather than being the final
say. In addition, he hoped that others would
take up the cause and complete what he had
begun.

Herzberg's Hygiene
and Motivational
Fa c t o r s

Herzberg developed a list of factors (Herzberg,


1966) that are based on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, except his
version is more closely related to the working environment:

HERZBERG'S HYGIENE & MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS


Hygiene or Dissatisfies:

o Working conditions
o Policies and administrative practices
o Salary and Benefits
o Supervision
o Status
o Job security
o Co-workers
o Personal life

Motivators or Satisfiers:

o Recognition
o Achievement
o Advancement
o Growth
o Responsibility
o Job challenge
Hygiene factors must be present in the job before motivators can be
used to stimulate that person. That is, you cannot use motivators until
all the hygiene factors are met. Herzberg's needs are specifically job
related and reflect some of the distinct things that people want from
their work as opposed to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs which reflect all
the needs in a persons life.

Building on this model, Herzberg coined the term "j o b e n r i c h m e n t "


to describe the process of redesigning work in order to build in
motivators.

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor developed a philosophical view of humankind with


his Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor, 1957) , which are two opposing
perceptions about how people view human behavior at work and
organizational life. McGregor felt that companies followed either one or
the other approach:

Theory X

o People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever
possible.
o People must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with
punishment in order to get them to achieve the organizational
objectives.
o People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little
or no ambition.
o People seek security above all else.

Note that with Theory X assumptions, management's role is to coerce


and control employees.

Theory Y

o Work is as natural as play and rest.


o People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to the
objectives (they are NOT lazy).
o Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with
their achievement.
o People learn to accept and seek responsibility.
o Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are widely distributed among the
population. People are capable of using these abilities to solve an
organizational problem.
o People have potential.

Note that with Theory Y assumptions, management's role is to develop


the potential in employees and help them to release that potential
towards common goals.

Theory X is the view that traditional management has taken towards


the workforce. Many organizations are now taking the enlightened
view of theory Y. A b o s s can be viewed as taking the theory X
approach, while a l e a d e r takes the theory Y approach.

Notice that Maslow, Herzberg, and McGreagor's theories all tie


together:

o Herzberg's theory is a micro version of Maslow's theory (concentrated in


the work place).
o McGreagor's Theory X is based on workers caught in the lower levels (1
to 3) of Maslow's theory, while his Theory Y is for workers who have
gone above level 3.
o McGreagor's Theory X is based on workers caught in Herberg's Hygiene
Dissatisfiers, while Theory Y is based on workers who are in the
Motivators or Satisfiers section.

Existence/Relatedness/Growth
(ERG)
Clayton Alderfer's Existence/Relatedness/Growth (ERG) Theory of
Needs (Alderfer, 1969) postulates that there are three groups of
needs:

o Existence - This group of needs is concerned with providing the basic


requirements for material existence, such as physiological and safety
needs. This need is satisfied by money earned in a job so that one may
buy food, shelter, clothing, etc.
o Relationships - This group of needs center upon the desire to establish
and maintain interpersonal relationships. Since a people normally spend
approximately half of their waking hours on the job, this need is
normally satisfied to some degree by their coworkers.
o Growth - These needs are met by personal development. A person's
job, career, or profession provides significant satisfaction of growth
needs.

Alderfer's ERG theory states that more than one need may be
influential at the same time. If the gratification of a higher-level need
is frustrated, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need will increase. He
identifies this phenomenon as the "frustration & shy aggression
dimension." Its relevance on the job is that even when the upper-level
needs are frustrated, the job still provides for the basic physiological
needs upon which one would then be focused. If, at that point,
something happens to threaten the job, the person's basic needs are
significantly threatened. If there are not factors present to relieve the
pressure, the person may become desperate and panicky.

Notice that Alderfer's ERG theory is built upon Maslow's, however it


does differ. First he collapsing it from five needs to three. And unlike
Maslow, he did not see these needs as being a hierarchy in which one
climbs up, but rather being more of a continuum.

While there has not been a whole lot of research on Alderfer's theory,
most contemporary theories do tend to support it.
Expectancy Theory

Vroom's Expectancy Theory states that an individual will act in a


certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a
given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual. This motivational model (Vroom, 1964) has been modified
by several people, to include Porter and Lawler (Porter et. al., 1968).
Vroom's Expectancy Theory is written as a formula:

Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality = Motivation

o Valence (Reward) = the amount of desire for a goal (What is the


reward?)
o Expectancy (Performance) = the strength of belief that work
related effort will result in the completion of the task (How hard
will I have to work to reach the goal?)
o Instrumentality (Belief) = the belief that the reward will be
received once the task is completed (Will they notice the effort I
put forth?)

The product of valence, expectancy, and instrumentality is


motivation. It can be thought of as the strength of the drive towards
a goal. For example, if an employee wants to move up through the
ranks, then promotion has a high valence for that employee. If the
employee believes that high performance will result in good reviews,
then the employee has a high expectancy. However, if the employee
believes the company will not promote from within, then the employee
has low instrumentality, and the employee will not be motivated to
perform better.
Learning Styles

O r, H o w W e G o Fr o m t h e
U n k n o w n To t h e K n o w n

A learning style is a studentís consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the
context of learning. There are various instruments used to determine a student's
learning style. The first style to be discussed is VAK (Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic),
which is derived from the accelerated learning world, and seems to be about the most
popular model nowadays. Its main strength is that it is quite simple, which appeals to
a lot of people. Its main weakness, is that the research does not really support it.

Kolb's learning inventory describes a learning process and a style, which makes it
quite interesting. It can be thought of as a simpler version of the MBTI which is
based upon determining the personality type. Kolb's version uses two dimensions,
while the MBTI uses two similar dimensions, plus two additional ones.

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences seems to provide the most promising


outlook for diversifying learning.

WARNING: These various learning styles or intelligences are points along a scale
that help us to discover the different forms of mental representation; they are not
good characterizations of what people are (or are not) like. We should not divide the
population into a set category (e.g. visual person, extrovert). What these various
instruments are doing is allocating the person along some point on a continuum
(similar to measuring height or weight). In other words, do not pigeon-hole people as
we are all capable of learning under any style or intelligence no matter what our
preference is.
VA K L e a r n i n g S t y l e s

The VAK learning Style uses the three main sensory receivers -
Vision, Auditory, and Kinesthetic (movement) to determine the
dominate learning style.

Learners use all three to receive information. However, one or more


of these receiving styles is normally dominant. This dominant style
defines the best way for a person to learn new information by
filtering what is to be learned. This style may not always to be the
same for some tasks. The learner may prefer one style of learning
for one task, and a combination of others for another task.

Classically, our learning style is forced upon us through life like


this: In grades kindergarten to third, new information is presented
to us kinesthetically; grades 4 to 8 are visually presented; while
grades 9 to college and on into the business learning environment,
information is presented to us auditory by lectures.

As trainers, we need to present information using all three styles.


This allows all learners, no matter what their preferred style is, the
opportunity to become involved. It also allows a learner to be
presented with the other two methods of reinforcement. Just
because we prefer one style, does not mean that the other two do us
no good. On the contrary, they help us to learn even faster by
reinforcing the material. Some hints for recognizing and
implementing the three styles are:

Auditory learners often talk to themselves. They also may move


their lips and read out loud. They may have difficulty with reading
and writing tasks. They often do better talking to a colleague or a
tape recorder and hearing what was said. To integrate this style into
the learning environment:

Begin new material with a brief explanation of what is coming.


Conclude with a summary of what has been covered. This is the
old adage of "tell them what they are going to lean, teach them,
and tell them what they have learned."
Use the Socratic method of lecturing by questioning learners to
draw as much information from them as possible and then fill in
the gaps with your own expertise.
Include auditory activities, such as brainstorming, buzz groups,
or Jeopardy.
Leave plenty of time to debrief activities. This allows them to
make connections of what they leaned and how it applies to their
situation.
Have the learners verbalize the questions.
Develop an internal dialogue between yourself and the learners.
Visual learners have two subchannels - linguistic and spatial.
Learners who are visual-linguistic like to learn through written
language, such as reading and writing tasks. They remember what
has been written down, even if they do not read it more than once.
They like to write down directions and pay better attention to
lectures if they watch them. Learners who are visual-spatial usually
have difficulty with written language and do better with charts,
demonstrations, videos, and other visual materials. They easily
visualize faces and places by using their imagination and seldom
get lost in new surroundings. To integrate this style into the learning
environment:
Use graphs, charts, illustrations, or other visual aids.
Include outlines, agendas, handouts, etc. for reading and taking
notes.
Include plenty of content in handouts to reread after the learning
session.
Leave white space in handouts for note taking.
Invite questions to help them stay alert in auditory environments.
Post flip charts to show what will come and what has been
presented.
Emphasize key points to cue when to takes notes.
Eliminate potential distractions.
Supplement textual information with illustrations whenever
possible.
Have them draw pictures in the margins.
Show diagrams and then explain them.
Have the learners envision the topic or have them act out the
subject matter.
Kinesthetic learners do best while touching and moving. It also has
two subchannels - kinesthetic (movement) and tactile (touch) They
tend to lose concentration if there is little or no external stimulation
or movement. When listening to lectures they may want to take
notes. When reading, they like to scan the material first, and then
focus in on the details (get the big picture first). They typically use
color highlighters and take notes by drawing pictures, diagrams, or
doodling. To integrate this style into the learning environment:

Use activities that get the learners up and moving.


Play music, when appropriate, during activities.
Use colored markers to emphasize key points on flipcharts or
white boards.
Give frequent stretch breaks (brain breaks).
Provide toys such as Koosh balls and Play-Dough to give them
something to do with their hands.
To highlight a point, provide gum, candy, scents, etc. which
provides a cross link of scent (aroma) to the topic at hand (scent
can be a powerful cue).
Provide highlighters, colored pens and/or pencils.
Guide learners through a visualization of complex tasks.
Have them transfer information from the text to another medium
such as a keyboard or a tablet.
To assist in you in choosing your VAK
preference, use the VAK Survey.
Carl Jung and Myers Briggs
Ty p e I n d i c a t o r ( M B T I )

During the early 1900s, Carl Jung established a field identifying distinct
personality patterns. Many theorists have since broken these patterns into
categories attempting to make them easier to understand. Carl Jung was a
contemporary of Sigmund Freud and a leading exponent of Gestalt
personality theory. Jung developed a ground-breaking personality theory
that introduced two attitudes - extraversion and introversion (1933a).
Later he described human behavior as a combination of four psychic
functions - thinking/feeling and intuition/sensation (1933b). Thinking and
feeling are said to be rational functions because they both require acts of
judgments. Sensation and intuition involve immediate experiences. The
MBTI, Kolb's Learning Style Inventory, Managerial Grid, and a number
of other instruments all use a form of extraversion/introversion. His four
other functions are also closely tied with these instruments.

The most widely used personality survey instrument is the Myers Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI), followed closely by the DiSC assessment (Carlson
Learning). The MBTI can be an aid in understanding the individual
differences. This is why it is more complicated than the other models
discussed here, since they are strictly learning models why the MBTI is a
personality model. However, our personality does play an important part
in determining our learning style. And it does tie in within the other
models so we will discuss its part in the the learning process.

Scores obtained from the MBTI indicate a person's preference on each of


four dichotomous dimensions:

Extroversion (E) versus Introversion (I) [similar to two dimensional


behavioral models and Kolb's Learning Style Inventory]
Sensing (S) versus iNtuition (N)
Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F) [similar to two dimensional behavioral
models and Kolb's Learning Style Inventory]
Judging (J) versus Perceptive (P)
1. Extroversion (E) versus
Introversion (I)

This indicates whether a learner prefers to direct attention towards the


external world of people and things or toward the internal world of
concepts and ideas. This preference tells us from where people get their
energy.

Introverts find energy in the inner world of ideas, concepts, and


abstractions. They can be sociable but need tranquility to regain their
energy. They want to understand the world; they concentrate and the tend
to be reflective thinkers. They think more than talk. Introverted learners
want to develop frameworks that integrate or connect the information that
they learn, this becomes knowledge is the interconnection of the material
and to see a global view.

Extroverts find energy in things and people. They prefer interaction with
others, and tend to be action-oriented. They also tend to think on their feet.
They talk more than listen. Extroverted learners learn by teaching others.
They do not normally understand the subject until they try to explain it to
themselves or others (working in groups). Problem Based Learning and
Collaborative Learning are good teaching techniques for this group.

2. Sensing (S) versus iNtuition (N)

This indicates whether a learner prefers to perceive the world by directly


observing the surrounding reality or through impressions and imagining
possibilities.

Sensing people choose to rely on their five senses. They are detail-
oriented, they want facts, and they trust them. Sensing learners prefer
organized, linear, and structured lectures (systematic instruction or step-
by-step learning).

Intuitive people seek out patterns and relationships among the facts they
have gathered. They trust hunches ("sixth" sense) and their intuition and
look for the "big picture." They also value imagination and innovation.
Intuitive learners prefer various forms of discovery learning and must have
the big picture (metaphors and analogies), or an integrating framework in
order to understand a subject. They like concept maps or and often
compare and contrast tables.

3. Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F)

This indicates how the learner makes decisions, either through logic or by
using fairness and human values.

Thinkers decide things impersonally based on analysis, logic, and


principle. They value fairness - focusing on the situation's logic, and
placing great weight on objective criteria in making a decision. They
naturally see flaws and tend to be critical. Thinking learners prefer clear
goal and objectives. They want to see precise, action-oriented cognitive,
affective and psychomotor objective. They also want to know what they
have to do to learn the material.

Feelers value harmony by focusing on human values. They focus on


human values and needs as they make decisions or arrive at judgments.
They tend to be good at persuasion and facilitating differences among
group members. They value empathy and harmony. Feeling learners enjoy
the small group exercises, especially harmonious groups.

4. Judging (J) versus Perceptive


(P)

This indicates how the learner views the world, either as a structured and
planned environment or as a spontaneous environment.

Judging people are decisive, self-starters and self-regimented. They also


focus on completing the task, knowing the essentials, and they take action
quickly. They plan their work and work their plan. Deadlines are sacred as
they see time as a finite resource. Judging learners need tools that help
them to plan their work and work their plan. They want guides that give
quick tips. They can be encouraged by offering self-improvement.

Perceptive learners are curious, adaptable, and spontaneous. They start


many tasks, want to know everything about each task, and often find it
difficult to complete a task. Deadlines are meant to be stretched while
more information is gathered as they see time as a renewable resource.
They like to leave their options open. Perceptive learners often postpone
doing an assignment until the last minute. They are not lazy, they are
merely seeking information up to the very last minute. Breaking down a
complex project into a series of sub-assignments and providing deadlines
will keep perceptive learners on target. Also they are often process
oriented (emphasis is on how the task is completed) and will easily adapt
as long as they know the how.

MBTI Model

The MBTI model would have two dimensions - height and width, similar
to Kolb's and other models, but it would also a third dimension - depth.
Extroversion/Introversion would be on the horizontal axis, while
Feeling/Thinking would be on the vertical axis. This is represented by the
model below.

MBTI Model

The depth (third dimension) of Extroversion/Introversion (EI) would be


Judging/Perceptive (JP). This might be thought of as how much time (JP)
we are willing to stick to a task (EI) rather it be actively engaging in it or
reflecting on it.

The depth (third dimension) of Feeling/Thinking (FT) would be


Sensing/iNtuition (SN). This might be thought of as using our various
senses, to include our "sixth sense" (SN) when thinking or feeling (FT)
about a subject.
"although Multiple Intelligences
they are not
necessarily
Howard Gardner theorized that there are multiple intelligences,
dependent on
and that we all use one or two for the most effective learning. Our
each other,
culture teach, test, reinforce and reward primarily two kinds of
these
intelligence: verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical. His theory
intelligences
proposes that there are at least eight other kinds of intelligence
seldom
that are equally important. They are "languages" that most people
operate in
speak, and that cut through cultural, educational, and ability
isolation.
differences.
Every normal
individual
The mind is not comprised of a single representation or a single
possesses
language of representations. Rather, we harbor numerous internal
varying
representations in our minds. Some scholars speak of "modules of
degrees of
mind," some of a "society of mind," in this case it is "multiple
each of these
intelligences." They include
intelligences,
but the ways
in which
intelligences
combine and
blend are as
varied as the
faces and the
personalities
of
individuals." -
Howard
Gardner
Verbal Linguistic intelligence (sensitive to the meaning and
order of words as in a poet). Use activities that involve hearing,
listening, impromptu or formal speaking, tongue twisters,
humor, oral or silent reading, documentation, creative writing,
spelling, journal, poetry.
Logical-mathematical intelligence (able to handle chains of
reasoning and recognize patterns and orders as in a scientist).
Use activities that involve abstract symbols/formulas, outlining,
graphic organizers, numeric sequences, calculation, deciphering
codes, problem solving.
Musical intelligence (sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and
tone as in a composer). Use activities that involve audio tape,
music recitals, singing on key, whistling, humming,
environmental sounds, percussion vibrations, rhythmic patterns,
music composition, tonal patterns.
Spatial intelligence (perceive the world accurately and try to
re-create or transform aspects of that world as in a sculptor or
airplane pilot). Use activities that involve art, pictures,
sculpture, drawings, doodling, mind mapping, patterns/designs,
color schemes, active imagination, imagery, block building.
Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence (able to use the body skillfully
and handle objects adroitly, as in an athlete or dancer). Use
activities that involve role playing, physical gestures, drama,
inventing, ball passing, sports games, physical exercise, body
language, dancing.
Interpersonal intelligence (understand people and relationship
as in a salesman or teacher). learners think by bouncing ideas
off of each other (socializers who are people smart). Use
activities that involve group projects, division of labor, sensing
others' motives, receiving/giving feedback, collaboration skills.
Intrapersonal intelligence (possess access to one's emotional
life as a means to understand oneself and others exhibited by
individuals with accurate views of themselves). Use activities
that involve emotional processing, silent reflection methods,
thinking strategies, concentration skills, higher order reasoning,
"centering" practices, meta-cognitive techniques.
Naturalist (connected to the intricacies and subtleties in nature
such as Charles Darwin and Meriwether Lewis of Lewis and
Clark fame). Use activities that involve bringing the outdoors
into the class, relating to the natural world, charting, mapping
changes, observing wildlife, keeping journals or logs.
According to multiple intelligences theory, not only do all
individuals possess numerous mental representations and
intellectual languages, but individuals also differ from one another
in the forms of these representations, their relative strengths, and
the ways in which (and ease with which) these representations can
be changed.

P u t t i n g t h e S t y l e s To g e t h e r

First, it should be noted that no single measurement of style ensures that a learner's needs will be
met. It is perhaps more important to build an adaptable learning environment that presents the
material in a variety of methods than try to determine each learners personal style. Likewise,
recognizing your own style will help to ensure you do not unintentionally force one learning
style upon the learners. The more styles you address, the easier the instruction will be received
by the learners. This is because you will be striving to reach their needs, not yours. Also, material
presented in a variety of methods keeps the learners interested and reinforces itself.

Learning styles come from three schools of thought: Perceptual Modality, Information
Processing, and Personality Patterns (Conner & Hodgins, 2000).

Perceptual Modality are biologically-based reactions to the physical environment. It refers to


the primary way our bodies take in information, such as auditory, visual, smell, kinesthetic, and
tactile. Learning style:
VAK - Notice that this style does not really worry about the why of learning styles.
Information Processing distinguishes between the way we think, solve problems, and remember
information. This may be thought of as the way our brain processes information. Learning style:
The first part of Kolb's Learning Style Inventory in which he describes the process of
learning.
Personality Models are the way we interact with our surroundings. Each of us has a preferred,
consistent, distinct way of perceiving, organizing, and retaining information. This is due to the
way we were brought up (environment or nurture) and the genes (DNA or nature) within us. This
may be thought of as the ego within us, or what makes us what we are. Learning styles:

The second part of Kolb's Learning Style Inventory in which he describes individual learning
styles.
MBTI.
Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences.
All of these models can be thought of as a Mandala - a Sanskrit word for "magical circle." It is
one of the oldest religious symbols and is found throughout the world. Although it is normally
circular in appearance, it can take on a variety of forms.
Jung found the mandala symbol occurring spontaneously in the dreams and images of his
patients. He thought of it as a symbol of wholeness that can aid us in integrating our personality.
While several of the styles presented here are represented by various forms of crosses and circles,
all the styles and models have one thing in common, they are an attempt to minimalize the
complexity of an extremely multifaceted subject. It is only by slicing through behaviors one step
at a time, such as how we learn through these simple models, will we ever have a chance of
understanding our whole learning styles.

This is why these models do not fully explain how we learn and at the same time are both right
and wrong. Learning is an extremely complex process. These models tend to simplify the process
(which is a starting point in understanding a complex process). Also, each one tends to tackle
something different in the learning environment by taking a small slice out of it. It is only by
looking at these various slices and others will we ever begin to understand the whole learning
process.
Transfer of Learning

The first place to practice transfer of


In a backhoe course where I once
learning is within the classroom. This
taught, we had about twenty makes it much easier to transfer new skills
machines consisting of three and knowledge to the job. Transfer of
different models. One model was an learning is the influence of prior learning on
old Massy-Ferguson. Its controls performance in a new situation. If we did
consisted of about eight levers that
only moved back and forth. The
not transfer some of our skills and
newest model was a John Deere. It knowledge from prior learning, then each
had two joystick-type controls (they new learning situation would start from
moved similar to a computer scratch.
joystick) and two foot-pedals. The
other model was a Case that was a
cross between the other two.
Some trainers only think of transfer of
learning (or transfer of training) in terms of
"the classroom to the job environment."
However, these trainers fail to realize the
importance of "task variation" within the
classroom. That is, practicing on a variety of
tasks will enhance and quicken the learning
process as compared to practicing on the
same category or class. Also, the learners
become accustomed to using their newly
acquired knowledge and skills in novel
situations, thus encouraging transfer of
learning to the job.

The learners took turns operating Transfer of learning is a phenomenon of


the various models. Although a
learning more quickly and developing a
casual observer unfamiliar with
transfer of learning might assume deeper understanding of the task if we bring
we were confusing the issue with some knowledge or skills from previous
three highly different models, the learning. Therefore, to produce positive
different models were not only transfer of learning, we need to practice
conclusive to the learning
under a variety of conditions.
environment in that they provided
transfer of learning (hence quicker
and deeper learning), but they also Note that there is a brief slowdown in the
provided the learners with the learning curve (confusion occurs) when the
confidence and skills for transferring variation is first introduced. However, the
their newly acquired skills to the job.
variation soon begins to strengthen our
previously acquired skills and knowledge.
This is perhaps why some trainers are
reluctant to use task variation - they see the
initial confusion and assume they are
slowing and confusing the learning process.
Hence, classrooms become sterile of
transfer of learning. And since the learners
have no practice in transferring their newly
acquired skills and knowledge in the
classroom, they have trouble transferring
their learning when they return to the job as
most work environments are neutral
towards the transfer of new skills (that is,
they do very little to encourage the transfer
of learning). Do NOT fall into this trap.
Variation is GOOD! Provide as many
variations and conditions in the learning
environment as possible. There are two
main principles that work with transfer of
learning:

The variation should not be too easy.


The shift or transfer should be
progressive but rapid.
For example, introductory computer classes
often follow a course similar to this:

- One day of introduction


- One day of word processing
- One day of spreadsheet
- One day of database training
Why not combine the 4 days into integrated
classes that goes similar to this:

Starting the three applications


Typing text into the three applications
Copying and pasting in the same
application and then to a different
application
Saving, etc.
The above are closely related tasks that
would enhance the power of transfer of
learning.

We benefit (or suffer) from our prior


experiences. People improve in their ability
to learn new skills more proficiently
because of prior practice on a series of
related tasks. This helps us to acquire new
views on a topic by looking at the task from
a different approach, which strengthens our
understanding of the topic. For example,
practicing to drive a variety of cars provides
experience with different stimulus situations
and makes new learning easier. Another
example is that greater learning occurs not
by rereading the same text, but by reading
another text on the same subject matter.

Transfer of learning begins with the learning


of a task in a unique situation and ends
when we quit learning (experimenting) with
that task. The power of varied context,
examples, different practice scenarios, etc.
cannot be overemphasized. No matter if
you are learning simple discriminations or
complex concepts, stimulus variations are
helpful. Encouraging transfer of learning in
the classroom provides the skills and
knowledge for its successful implementation
outside of the class.
Theory of Formal Discipline
Transfer of
Training - "That It was once thought that taking courses such as Latin
almost magical link would lead a person to think more logically. This
between classroom assumption is called the "Theory of Formal
performance and
something which is Discipline." Thorndike (1924) studied the it concluded
supposed to happen in that
the real world" - J. M. the expectation of any large difference in general
Swinney. Transfer of improvement of the mind from one study to another
training is effectively was false.
and continuing
applying the skills,
knowledge, and/or The main reason why it looks as if good thinkers
attitudes that were have been helped by taking certain school studies is
learned in a learning that the there is an inherent tendency of the good
environment to the job thinkers to take such courses. When the good
environment.
thinkers studied Greek and Latin, these studies
Transfer of Learning - seemed to make good thinking.
applying the skills,
knowledge, and/or Thorndike continued his study of transfer, and
attitudes that were eventually formulated the "Theory of Identical
learned in one situation Elements" - previous learning facilitates new learning
to another learning
situation. This only to the extent that the new learning task contains
increases the speed of elements identical to those in the previous task.
learning.
N e a r Tr a n s f e r

Near transfer of skills and knowledge are applied the


same way every time the skills and knowledge are
used. Near transfer training usually involves tasks
that are procedural in nature, that is, tasks which are
always applied in the same order. Although this type
of training is easier to train and the transfer of
learning is usually a success, the learner is unlikely to
be able to adapt their skills and knowledge to
changes.

F a r Tr a n s f e r

Far transfer tasks involve skills and knowledge being


applied in situations that change. Far transfer tasks
require instruction where learners are trained to
adapt guidelines to changing situations or
environments. Although this type of training is more
difficult to instruct (transfer of learning is less likely), it
does allow the learner to adapt to new situations.

Presentation Skills

Introduction

Presentations and reports are ways of


communicating ideas and information to a group.
But unlike a report, a presentation carries the
speaker's personality better and allows
immediate interaction between all the
participants. A good presentation has:

oContent - It contains information that people


need. But unlike reports, which are read at the
reader's own pace, presentations must account for
how much information the audience can absorb in
one sitting.
o Structure - It has a logical beginning, middle, and end. It must be
sequenced and paced so that the audience can understand it. Where as
reports have appendices and footnotes to guide the reader, the speaker
must be careful not to loose the audience when wandering from the
main point of the presentation.
o Packaging - It must be well prepared. A report can be reread and
portions skipped over, but with a presentation, the audience is at the
mercy of a presenter.
o Human Element - A good presentation will be remembered much
more than a good report because it has a person attached to it. But you
still need to analyze if the audience's needs would not be better met if a
report was sent instead.

T h e Vo i c e
The voice is probably the most valuable tool of the presenter. It carries
most of the content that the audience takes away. One of the oddities
of speech is that we can easily tell others what is wrong with their
voice, e.g. too fast, too high, too soft, etc., but we have trouble
listening to and changing our own voices.

There are four main terms used for defining vocal qualities:

o Volume: How loud the sound is. The goal is to be heard without
shouting. Good speakers lower their voice to draw the audience in, and
raise it to make a point.
o Tone: The characteristics of a sound. An airplane has a different sound
than leaves being rustled by the wind. A voice that carries fear can
frighten the audience, while a voice that carries laughter can get the
audience to smile.
o Pitch: How high or low a note is. Pee Wee Herman has a high voice,
Barbara Walters has a moderate voice, while James Earl Jones has a
low voice.
o Pace: This is how long a sound lasts. Talking too fast causes the words
and syllables to be short, while talking slowly lengthens them. Varying
the pace helps to maintain the audience's interest.
o Color: Both projection and tone variance can be practiced by taking the
line "This new policy is going to be exciting" and saying it first with
surprise, then with irony, then with grief, and finally with anger. The key
is to o v e r - a c t . Remember Shakespeare's words "A l l t h e w o r l d ' s a
s t a g e " -- presentations are the opening night on Broadway!

There are two good methods for improving your voice:

1. Listen to it! Practice listening to your voice while at home, driving,


walking, etc. Then when you are at work or with company, monitor
your voice to see if you are using it how you want to.

2. To really listen to your voice, cup your right hand around your right
ear and gently pull the ear forward. Next, cup your left hand around
your mouth and direct the sound straight into your ear. This helps you
to really hear your voice as others hear it...and it might be completely
different from the voice you thought it was! Now practice moderating
your voice.

The Body

Your body communicates different impressions to the audience. People


not only listen to you, they also watch you. Slouching tells them you
are indifferent or you do not care...even though you might care a great
deal! On the other hand, displaying good posture tells your audience
that you know what you are doing and you care deeply about it. Also,
a good posture helps you to speak more clearly and effective.

Throughout you presentation, display:

o Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of communication. It


signals interest in others and increases the speaker's credibility.
Speakers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and
convey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.
o Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits
happiness, friendliness, warmth, and liking. So, if you smile frequently
you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm, and approachable.
Smiling is often contagious and others will react favorably. They will be
more comfortable around you and will want to listen to you more.
o Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking, you
may be perceived as boring and stiff. A lively
speaking style captures attention, makes the material
more interesting, and facilitates understanding.
o Posture and body orientation: You communicate
numerous messages by the way you talk and move. Standing erect and
leaning forward communicates that you are approachable, receptive,
and friendly. Interpersonal closeness results when you and your
audience face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at
the floor or ceiling should be avoided as it communicates disinterest.
o Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for
interaction with others. You should look for signals of discomfort caused
by invading other's space. Some of these are: rocking, leg swinging,
tapping, and gaze aversion. Typically, in large rooms, space invasion is
not a problem. In most instances there is too much distance. To
counteract this, move around the room to increase interaction with your
audience. Increasing the proximity enables you to make better eye
contact and increases the opportunities for others to speak.
o Voice. One of the major criticisms of speakers is that they speak in a
monotone voice. Listeners perceive this type of speaker as boring and
dull. People report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly
when listening to those who have not learned to modulate their voices.

Active Listening

Good speakers not only inform their audience, they also listen to them.
By listening, you know if they are understanding the information and if
the information is important to them. Active listening is NOT the
same as hearing! Hearing is the first part and consists of the
perception of sound.

Listening, the second part, involves an attachment of meaning to the


aural symbols that are perceived. Passive listening occurs when the
receiver has little motivation to listen carefully. Active listening with a
purpose is used to gain information, to determine how another person
feels, and to understand others. Some good traits of effective listeners
are:

o Spend more time listening than talking (but of course, as a presenter,


you will be doing most of the talking).
o Do not finish the sentence of others.
o Do not answer questions with questions.
o Aware of biases. We all have them. We need to control them.
o Never daydream or become preoccupied with their own thoughts when
others talk.
o Let the other speaker talk. Do not dominate the conversation.
o Plan responses after others have finished speaking...NOT while they are
speaking. Their full concentration is on what others are saying, not on
what they are going to respond with.
o Provide feedback but do not interrupt incessantly.
o Analyze by looking at all the relevant factors and asking open-ended
questions. Walk the person through analysis (summarize).
o Keep the conversation on what the speaker says...NOT on what interest
them.

Listening can be one of our most powerful communication tools! Be


sure to use it!

Part of the listening process is getting feedback by changing and


altering the message so the intention of the original communicator is
understood by the second communicator. This is done by paraphrasing
the words of the sender and restating the sender's feelings or ideas in
your own words, rather than repeating their words. Your words should
be saying, "This is what I understand your feelings to be, am I
correct?" It not only includes verbal responses, but also nonverbal
ones. Nodding your head or squeezing their hand to show agreement,
dipping your eyebrows to show you don't quite understand the
meaning of their last phrase, or sucking air in deeply and blowing out
hard shows that you are also exasperated with the situation.
Carl Roger listed five main categories of feedback. They are
listed in the order in which they occur most frequently in
daily conversations (notice that we make judgments more
often than we try to understand):

1. Evaluative: Makes a judgment about the worth, goodness,


or appropriateness of the other person's statement.
2. Interpretive: Paraphrasing - attempt to explain what the
other persons statement mean.
3. Supportive: Attempt to assist or bolster the other communicator
4. Probing: Attempt to gain additional information, continue the
discussion, or clarify a point.
5. Understanding: Attempt to discover completely what the other
communicator means by her statements.

Nerves

The main enemy of a presenter is tension, which ruins the voice,


posture, and spontaneity. The voice becomes higher as the throat
tenses. Shoulders tighten up and limits flexibility while the legs start to
shake and causes unsteadiness. The presentation becomes "canned"
as the speaker locks in on the notes and starts to read directly from
them.

First, do not fight nerves, welcome them! Then you can get on
with the presentation instead of focusing in on being nervous. Actors
recognize the value of nerves...they add to the value of the
performance. This is because adrenaline starts to kick in. It's a left
over from our ancestors' "fight or flight" syndrome. If you welcome
nerves, then the presentation becomes a challenge and you become
better. If you let your nerves take over, then you go into the flight
mode by withdrawing from the audience. Again, welcome your nerves,
recognize them, let them help you gain that needed edge! Do not go
into the flight mode! When you feel tension or anxiety, remember that
everyone gets them, but the winners use them to their advantage,
while the losers get overwhelmed by them.

Tension can be reduced by performing some relaxation exercises.


Listed below are a couple to get you started:

o Before the presentation: Lie on the floor. Your back should be flat on the
floor. Pull your feet towards you so that your knees are up in the air.
Relax. Close your eyes. Fell your back spreading out and supporting
your weight. Feel your neck lengthening. Work your way through your
body, relaxing one section at a time - your toes, feet, legs, torso, etc.
When finished, stand up slowly and try to maintain the relaxed feeling
in a standing position.
o If you cannot lie down: Stand with you feet about 6 inches apart, arms
hanging by your sides, and fingers unclenched. Gently shake each part
of your body, starting with your hands, then arms, shoulders, torso, and
legs. Concentrate on shaking out the tension. Then slowly rotate your
shoulders forwards and the backwards. Move on to your head. Rotate it
slowly clockwise, and then counter-clockwise.
o Mental Visualization: Before the presentation, visualize the room,
audience, and you giving the presentation. Mentally go over what you
are going to do from the moment you start to the end of the
presentation.
o During the presentation: Take a moment to yourself by getting a drink
of water, take a deep breath, concentrate on relaxing the most tense
part of your body, and then return to the presentation saying to your
self, "I can do it!"
o You do NOT need to get rid of anxiety and tension! Channel the energy
into concentration and expressiveness.
o Know that anxiety and tension is not as noticeable to the audience as it
is to you.
o Know that even the best presenters make mistakes. The key is to
continue on after the mistake. If you pick up and continue, so will the
audience. Winners continue! Losers stop!
o Never drink alcohol to reduce tension! It affects not
only your coordination but also your awareness of
coordination. You might not realize it, but your
audience will!

Questions

Keep cool if a questioner disagrees with you. You are a


professional! No matter how hard you try, not everyone in the
world will agree with you!

Although some people get a perverse pleasure from putting others on


the spot, and some try to look good in front of the boss, most people
ask questions from a genuine interest. Questions do not mean you did
not explain the topic good enough, but that their interest is deeper
than the average audience.

Always allow time at the end of the presentation for questions. After
inviting questions, do not rush ahead if no one asks a question. Pause
for about 6 seconds to allow the audience to gather their thoughts.
When a question is asked, repeat the question to ensure that everyone
heard it (and that you heard it correctly). When answering, direct your
remarks to the entire audience. That way, you keep everyone focused,
not just the questioner. To reinforce your presentation, try to relate the
question back to the main points.

Make sure you listen to the question being asked. If you do not
understand it, ask them to clarify. Pause to think about the question as
the answer you give may be correct, but ignore the main issue. If you
do not know the answer, be honest, do not waffle. Tell them you will
get back to them...and make sure you do!

Answers that last 10 to 40 seconds work best. If they are too short,
they seem abrupt; while longer answers appear too elaborate. Also, be
sure to keep on track. Do not let off-the-wall questions
sidetrack you into areas that are not relevant to the
presentation.

If someone takes issue with something you said, try to find a way to
agree with part of their argument. For example, "Yes, I understand
your position..." or "I'm glad you raised that point, but..." The idea is
to praise their point and agree with them. Audiences sometimes tend
to think of "us verses you." You do not want to risk alienating them.

Preparing the Presentation

After a concert, a fan rushed up to famed violinist Fritz Kreisler


and gushed, "I'd give up my whole life to play as beautifully as
you do." Kreisler replied, "I did."

To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail.

Great presentations require some preplanning. First, read Meetings for


an outline of preparing and conducting a meeting, such as acquiring a
room, informing participants, etc. A presentation follows the same
basic guidelines as preparing for a meeting.

The second step is to prepare the presentation. A good presentation


starts out with introductions and an icebreaker such as a story,
interesting statement or fact, joke, quotation, or an activity to get the
group warmed up. The introduction also needs an objective, that is,
the purpose or goal of the presentation. This not only tells you what
you will talk about, but it also informs the audience of the purpose of
the presentation.

Next, comes the body of the presentation. Do NOT write it out word for
word. All you want is an outline. By jotting down the main points on a
set of index cards, you not only have your outline, but also a memory
jogger for the actual presentation. To prepare the presentation, ask
yourself the following:

o What is the purpose of the presentation?


o Who will be attending?
o What does the audience already know about the subject?
o What is the audience's attitude towards me (e.g. hostile, friendly)?

A 45 minutes talk should have no more than about seven main points.
This may not seem like very many, but if you are to leave the audience
with a clear picture of what you have said, you cannot expect them to
remember much more than that. There are several options for
structuring the presentation:

o Timeline: Arranged in sequential order.


o Climax: The main points are delivered in order of increasing
importance.
o Problem/Solution: A problem is presented, a solution is suggested,
and benefits are then given.
o Classification: The important items are the major points.
o Simple to complex: Ideas are listed from the simplest to the most
complex. Can also be done in reverse order.

You want to include some visual information that will help the audience
understand your presentation. Develop charts, graphs, slides,
handouts, etc.

After the body, comes the closing. This is where you ask for questions,
provide a wrap-up (summary), and thank the participants for
attending.

Notice that you told them what they are about to hear (the objective),
told them (the body), and told them what they heard (the wrap up).

And finally, the important part - practice, practice, practice. The main
purpose of creating an outline is to develop a coherent plan of what
you want to talk about. You should know your presentation so well,
that during the actual presentation, you should only have to briefly
glance at your notes to ensure you are staying on track. This will also
help you with your nerves by giving you the confidence that you can
do it. Your practice session should include a "live" session by practicing
in front of coworkers, family, or friends. They can be valuable at
providing feedback and it gives you a chance to practice controlling
your nerves. Another great feedback technique is to make a video or
audio tape of your presentation and review it critically with a
colleague.

Habits

We all have a few habits, and some are more annoying than others.
For example, if we say "uh," "you know," or put our hands in our
pockets and jingle our keys too often during a presentation, it distracts
from the message we are trying to get across.

The best way to break one of these distracting habits is with


immediate feedback. This can be done with a small group of
coworkers, family, or friends. Take turns giving small off-the-cuff talks
about your favorite hobby, work project, first work assignment, etc.
The talk should last about five minutes. During a speaker's first talk,
the audience should listen and watch for annoying habits.

After the presentation, the audience should agree on the worst two or
three habits that take the most away from the presentation. After
agreement, each audience member should write these habits on a 8
1/2" x 11" sheet of paper (such as the word "Uh"). Use a magic
marker and write in BIG letters.

The next time the person gives her or his talk, each audience member
should wave the corresponding sign in the air whenever they hear or
see the annoying habit. For most people, this method will break a
habit by practicing at least once a day for one to two weeks.
T i p s a n d Te c h n i q u e s F o r G r e a t
Presentations

Eleanor Roosevelt was a shy young girl who was terrified at the
thought of speaking in public. But with each passing year, she
grew in confidence and self-esteem. She once said, "No one can
make you feel inferior, unless you agree with it."

o If you have handouts, do not read straight from them. The audience
does not know if they should read along with you or listen to you read.
o Do not put both hands in your pockets for long periods of time. This
tends to make you look unprofessional. It is OK to put one hand in a
pocket but ensure there is no loose change or keys to jingle around.
This will distract the listeners.
o Do not wave a pointer around in the air like a wild knight branding a
sword to slay a dragon. Use the pointer for what it is intended and then
put it down, otherwise the audience will become fixated upon your
"sword", instead upon you.
o Do not lean on the podium for long periods. The audience will begin to
wonder when you are going to fall over.
o Speak to the audience...NOT to the visual aids, such as flip charts or
overheads. Also, do not stand between the visual aid and the audience.
o Speak clearly and loudly enough for all to hear. Do not speak in a
monotone voice. Use inflection to emphasize your main points.
o The disadvantages of presentations is that people cannot see the
punctuation and this can lead to misunderstandings. An effective way of
overcoming this problem is to pause at the time when there would
normally be punctuation marks.
o Use colored backgrounds on overhead transparencies and slides (such
as yellow) as the bright white light can be harsh on the eyes. This will
quickly cause your audience to tire. If all of your transparencies or
slides have clear backgrounds, then tape one blank yellow one on the
overhead face. For slides, use a rubber band to hold a piece of colored
cellophane over the projector lens.
o Learn the name of each participant as quickly as possible. Based upon
the atmosphere you want to create, call them by their first names or by
using Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.
o Tell them what name and title you prefer to be called.
o Listen intently to comments and opinions. By using a l a t e r a l t h i n k i n g
t e c h n i q u e (adding to ideas rather than dismissing them), the
audience will feel that their ideas, comments, and opinions are
worthwhile.
o Circulate around the room as you speak. This movement creates a
physical closeness to the audience.
o List and discuss your objectives at the beginning of the presentation.
Let the audience know how your presentation fits in with their goals.
Discuss some of the fears and apprehensions that both you and the
audience might have. Tell them what they should expect of you and
how you will contribute to their goals.
o Vary your techniques (lecture, discussion, debate, films, slides, reading,
etc.)
o Get to the presentation before your audience arrives; be the last one to
leave.
o Be prepared to use an alternate approach if the one you've chosen
seems to bog down. You should be confident enough with your own
material so that the audience's interests and concerns, not the
presentation outline, determines the format. Use your background,
experience, and knowledge to interrelate your subject matter.
o When writing on flip charts use no more than 7 lines of text per page
and no more than 7 word per line (the 7 7 rule). Also, use bright and
bold colors, and pictures as well as text.
o Consider the time of day and how long you have got for your talk. Time
of day can affect the audience. After lunch is known as the graveyard
section in training circles as audiences will feel more like a nap than
listening to a talk.
o Most people find that if they practice in their head, the actual talk will
take about 25 per cent longer. Using a flip chart or other visual aids also
adds to the time. Remember - it is better to finish slightly early
than to overrun.
What Can I Do To Increase the Effectiveness of the Learning
Experience?

Affective Behaviors

Getting someone to change their affective behavior is one of the hardest tasks to
accomplish. That is because the training often threatens the learners' self-image.
So, it becomes important to affirm the learner's core values, such as moral,
social, religious, family, political, etc. Learners who attend training in which their
beliefs or values are supported are much more likely to "let down their guard"
and accept the learning points.

If you confront the learners with learning points that suggests they may have
acted in a foolish or in a dangerous manner, they become resistant to change.
No one wants to be told that they did something stupid. Thus, it is important to
remind them of their "goodness" in order to make the various learning points
easier to digest. The learning will not be so threatening because thinking about
an important value will have affirmed each learner’s image of himself or herself
as a smart and capable person. This also points out the invalid concept of a
learner as an empty vessel. You have to "draw" them into the learning, not simply
"pour" the learning into them.

Why is safety so hard to train?


(NOTE: The following example uses safety, but this method works with a wide variety of affective
behaviors.
Unlike a lot of other tasks, it is often easier to do something the unsafe way,
rather than the safe way. For example, if I run out of charcoal lighter, it is much
easier and quicker to use the can of gasoline in the garage than drive two miles
to the nearest store; it is much quicker to cross in the middle of the street than
walk to the corner-crosswalk; it is faster and easier to jump on a piece of
equipment and start operating than to perform some checks beforehand.

Getting someone to act safely requires that they not only gain the required
knowledge and skills, but that they also change their attitude (affective domain).
Otherwise, they will know how to act, but will not do so as their self-systems kick
in and convince them to do it the fast and easy way.

We all perform calculated risks (which in reality are unsafe acts to various
degrees), e.g., I might never use gasoline to start a barbecue (unless I was
starving and had no means to get fluid), but I might cross the street outside of the
crosswalk if it was not busy.

This is why organizations have safety class after safety class - they never getting
around to changing the attitudes of the learners. They hope that drilling the same
old knowledge and skills into the learners with various methods will eventually
pay off and produce safe learners. However safety requires that we know the
rules (knowledge), know how to act (skills), and have a proper attitude for it
(affective).

One Solution

A learning program might go something like this (I am keeping this simple so that
you can add, remove, or adjust the steps for other behaviors):

Have each learner explain three or four safety rules or principles that they
value dearly and why. Also, have them record their selections on a flip chart.
This helps to internalize the belief that they are "good" persons, which makes
them more receptive to change. This is best done in small groups (mix the
groups up throughout the various activities).

Sort of like "cheerleading."


Gather the groups back together and have them discuss their values or
principles. Tape these values to the walls so that they may be used for further
reminders.
Discuss the concept of the difficulty of getting people to act safely (e.g. it is
often quicker and easier not to act in a safe manner).
Again, using small groups, have them discuss calculated risks (unsafe acts)
that they have performed, e.g., not coming to a complete stop at a stop sign.
Have them record the reasons on a flipchart.
Next, have them confront the inappropriate behaviors by asking why we take
these risks when they might clash with our core values and principles. (Note:
You can have them discuss a number of other things depending on your
desired outcome - e.g. discuss if the reasons they listed for taking the "risks"
are the same reasons other employees might use. If not, what might some of
their reasons be?)
Gather them back together and using their input, extract the central themes of
their discussions.
Have them brainstorm some activities or solutions that they can use in their
workplace to make it a safer place (this allows them to become part of the
solution). For ideals on brainstorming activities, see Brainstorming

Changing Affective Behaviors Is


Not Easy

Note that changing affective behaviors is generally not a one shot activity. But,
going to the core of the matter is better than repeating the same old skills and
knowledge that they already understand. Building a wide variety of these
"cheerleading" activities will give you the three required building blocks of
learning difficult behaviors:

Gaining new skills,


learning new knowledge,
and changing Affective behaviors.

KNOWLEDGE SHARING

Do you know people (acquaintances, friends or even relatives) who fail to inform
you when something joyous occurs, such as a wedding or the birth of a child or a
sudden financial gain, but who do not fail to call you when misfortune strikes,
expecting you to wallow in their grief and offer support? This is a bit what
happens between Managers and the people they manager (department heads,
supervisors, rank-and-file employees).

During these holidays, it would serve managers well to dedicate 2-4 hours for
some deep thought about what they share with employees and how they are
perceived by employees ("employees" here also stands for their Department
Heads or Supervisors).

What type of communication do you use?


What is the spirit of your communication
What do you communicate?
Do you only tell them what they have to do?
Do you communicate business pressure and Customer Complaints?
Do you communicate business and market achievements?
Did you ever share goals and objectives in two-way communications?
Do you give them an opportunity to question decisions?
Do you give answers which truly satisfy?
Do you transmit a broader range of knowledge and know-how to help them
become team players and members of your "organizational family"?

When owners and managers do not share information with their employees, they
let imaginations run wild, lead to frustration, lack of motivation and involvement,
and even pave the way to employee theft and fraud.

Information leads to understanding and understanding leads to a sharing of


goals. Forget fears of losing supervisors and employees through education,
training and information. You GAIN employees' long-standing loyalty when you
treat them as trustful adults. Even the lowest ranking employees, such as
dishwashers or floor sweepers, have a thirst for knowledge and for being
involved in the company's success.

Employee turnover occurs because many managers fail to discover and show
their appreciation of the value of employees. The biggest acknowledgment of
their value is when you treat them as intelligent adults, share information with
them and listen to their input.

On my very first day at Jerusalem Hilton as Training Manager we organized a


"communications meeting" (training session) in the Stewards Department
(kitchen cleaners and dishwashers). Their Department Head was concerned
about the big cost of broken chinaware and glassware, damaged and lost
silverware, and the cost of additional labor hours due to improper use of
detergents. He totally embraced the concept of sharing information with his
employees and scheduled a general meeting for the same night (11:30pm) so we
could also cover the night shift.

He prepared data on a flip chart, showing them the department's yearly budget,
with itemized figures for payroll, purchases and replacement purchases for items,
comparing with actual expenses incurred due to negligence. It was presented as
a lesson. They asked questions, which he answered. It was the first time ever
that they learned what a burden their department was on the entire hotel
operation. He offered them an incentive right there and then "If we succeed in
cutting down these losses by 50% in six months, each employee will receive a
bonus of $X"; and "If we succeed in totally eliminating loss and breakage, we will
be in a position to increase the salaries of employees in this department by $Y or
would not have to lay off employees". They got excited.

He offered some more general figures. It was the first time they realized that the
operation's gross income got drained along the way leading to a low net income.
They saw how all details added up to expenses. They began understanding the
reasons for dismissals and layoffs. Their mindset was being changed. They now
wanted to learn more. They wanted to hear how they could improve
performance. Actually, from a totally robotic group they were turning into an
involved team in one meeting around midnight and none of them seemed
anxious to go home.

He used the opportunity to go over some correct work procedures with them,
explaining why certain detergents had to be used in certain ways and in certain
quantities, why floors should be kept clean and safe from hazards. How electric
equipment should be maintained.

At the end of the meeting they asked: "When is our next lesson?"

We both saw at this meeting how involved you could get even the almost illiterate
people when you treat them as equals. We also heard intelligent questions and
suggestions. They made suggestions which could definitely improve
departmental performance.

Following this meeting, breakage, theft, and accidents decreased sharply. We


also gained a motivated team who started asking if they could train in other
departments such as the Service Department (Waiters) or the Culinary
Department (Chefs). The possibility for career improvement enhanced motivation
still further.

WE WON THE GOODWILL AND EXCELLENT PERFORMANCE OF


EMPLOYEES THROUGH THE SHARING OF KNOWLEDGE AND KNOW-HOW.

No company "secrets" were revealed - nothing that would benefit competitors,


nothing that would lead employees to seek employment elsewhere. There were
no negatives. Only positives.

The above style and results repeated themselves in different departments. Each
department required its custom-tailored "communications meeting". Since I
began with past examples, I will give one more: When I selected a Supervisor or
Department Head to attend a paid course or seminar, that person was expected
to share the information and knowledge gained with others in the organization:
upper management ( verbally or through a written report), peers, and employees
of his (or her) department. The knowledge spread throughout the organization.
We did not pay good money for a person to be able to draw only personal benefit
- it was a strategic plan. The person who attended the course or seminar was
expected to improve his (or her) management style accordingly (if the lesson was
found valuable).

Department Heads and employees began viewing the Hotel as their "University"
and wouldn't leave it for any offer by competitors. They would also never dream
of "cheating the employer" or arousing discontent among others. Their focus was
elsewhere: it was towards the acquisition of added knowledge and know-how.
They wanted to prove to themselves and to their employer that they could make
the company succeed and that they themselves could reach new heights.

Since everyone got so motivated and didn't leave we had to create some
opportunities. We created quite a large number of "in-house" Management
Trainee positions to allow for a slight turnover in positions. Investing in the
salaries of promising Management Trainees was far less costly than having
uncontrollable costs in turnover, theft, breakage, accidents, lawsuits, loss of
customers and business.

At a Quality trade show, I met with the person in charge of the ISO 9000 program
(Internal ISO Auditor) of IBM in Canada. He told me that they shared ALL
company information with employees: they put immobile computer terminals with
no "outgoing mail" or manipulation possibility in certain areas. Any employee
could access any company information he wanted by calling it up on the monitor.
Some companies can do likewise while others cannot. Some companies do not
want to give exact financial data but they can definitely give averages, explaining
what these averages represent. Despite the help of technology, personal face-to-
face meetings, exchange of information and feedback are vital for the effective
management of people.

The internet has enabled many people who have computers to access sources of
knowledge. Again, I remind you to urge your people to share with others in your
organization what they discover and learn. Many do so during work hours and
seem to forget that the employer has a reason for allowing them to spend paid
time researching the net.

Remind them to respect copyright. In a nutshell, copyright of "content" (such as


articles) means: Unless otherwise stated, the information obtained is for single
use only, i.e. you can read, enjoy and learn but not reproduce, re-sell, reprint or
use for your own income (you cannot give seminars and courses with material
written by others unless you sign an agreement with them and compensate them
accordingly). If the author says "you may reprint this as is to distribute within your
organization" then you must reprint it and distribute it "as is" and not delete any
portion of it, keeping the name and address of the author or organization intact.
The comparison which comes to mind is: a recipe created by an Executive Chef.
He may allow you to use it at home but not to sell it or sell a course based on it.
Another note regarding the internet: Some people in organizations still do not
know minimal ethics in internet communications. They still contact professionals
with unidentifiable e-mail addresses (e.g.@hotmail) or with false identities. Make
them understand that this puts your company in bad light. Such people just
cause us waste of time to try and find out who they really are. In business
communications one should be upfront (after checking whether the owner of the
web site assures confidentiality and privacy).

The Mayor of Bogota


Antanas Mockus governs the city of Bogota, Colombia with unconventional
policies of social reform. While dean of the National University, he dropped his
trousers to a group of unruly students -- his behavior was deemed unworthy, and
he was forced to resign. But the dean's derriere was captured on video and it
made television news, and overnight, Mockus became a national celebrity.

Three months later, in October 1994, six million citizens of Bogota decided that
his unusual approach to crowd control deserved a wider forum -- they elected the
philosopher-mathematician to govern one of the most violent cities in Latin
America. The new mayor of Bogota had no political experience. He didn't even
bother to campaign.

While Mockus has made many an improvement with the city, perhaps his most
interesting is within the streets of Bogota. Cars used to zoom
through red lights whenever they felt like it and used the sidewalks
for parking. This forced the pedestrians to walk in the streets and dodge traffic,
injuries and deaths were quite frequent. His solution -- he hired a lot of "Marcel
Marceau" mimes to walk the streets and sidewalks and model an effective way
for pedestrians to stand up for their rights. The white-faced and white-gloved
mimes would approach a vehicle breaking a law and point at the car, and mimic
the correct procedures for the hapless driver. Once the driver performs correctly,
the mime expresses exaggerated thanks. Also, the mime always ensures there is
an audience and encourages the crowd to applaud loudly. This has helped the
drivers to correct mistakes without feeling embarrassed and without invoking a
machismo test of wills. Drivers and pedestrians have learned how to
communicate in a civil way.

Pedestrians are also targets for "mime behavioral therapy." Pickpockets,


jaywalkers, and other lawbreakers are liable to be followed down the street by
the mime artists, who imitate their every move. The idea is that they will be
embarrassed into changing their ways, much to the hilarity of the large crowds
that gather to watch the antics.

Mockus has also introduced soccer-style red cards to motorists in a city where
traffic lights are considered largely decorative and road rage is an all too
common. He hopes they will replace fists and other weapons as a form of
reprimanding fellow drivers.

The streets of Bogata are much safer than before

Self-confidence
Psychological superiority alone could explain why Australia has won every rugby
league World Cup since 1975. Researchers suspect that psychological
differences could be solely responsible for Australia's success. They found that
the players who had learned to play rugby in Australia had the highest levels of
self-confidence. And this alone could explain Australia's continuing domination of
the sport. It seems as if the Australian team is convinced they are going to win
whenever they step onto the field.

Coaching Through Results and


Processes

Good coaching uses the correct dose of both results (expectation to win) and
processes (obtaining skills and knowledge through training in order to win). This
relates to organizational training and coaching -- trainers expect the learners to
obtain the objectives (results) at the end of the training session (process).

We can equate "results" to "arousal" in many training situations, that is --


achieving success through results and then expounding upon it. The type of
session determines the amount of arousal -- too much makes it difficult to
concentrate while too little provides no incentive to learn (win).

I f L e a r n e r s E x p e c t t o Fa i l , T h e y
Fa i l

Note that in winning, there is a positive feedback loop at work, with winning
leading to higher confidence. Self-confidence, in turn, can be boosted through
role playing situations, where players are asked to imagine certain successful
situations (winning, not losing).

In training, we can use the same technique, or something similar, such as the
learners obtaining a number of small victories (enabling learning objectives), this
in turn leads them to being able to perform the more difficult task (terminal
learning objective).
Situational Leadership

We should not de-emphasizing results, but instead, as the Australia rugby team
shows, the results needs to be accentuated on the correct scale and time frame
within the process. This is probably one of the harder parts of training -- knowing
when to emphasize results over the process.

Situational leadership can be applied to training as it shows the two continuums


of directing [the process] and supporting (achieving results or arousal) used in a
supervision context:

1. Directing - Provide a lot of direction (learner does not know how to


perform) and a small amount of arousal (you do not want to overload
learner).
2. Coaching - Decrease direction (so that learner can learn through trial &
error) and increase arousal (needs emotional support due to some failure).
3. Supporting - Decrease direction even more (so that learner can become
self-supporting) and decrease arousal.
4. Delegating - Provide direction and arousal on an as-needed basis.

However, it does over-simplify the supervision/training process somewhat. Most


two dimensional models do this, they simplify the subject in order to provide a
solid framework to work from.

Notes

Process and results are equally important, it is just a matter of knowing the
correct amount to inject into various training, coaching, or facilitation sessions.

Learner and Self Ratings


Cashin (1995) shows that learner’s ratings can correlate well with external
measures of their learning and with the instructor’s self-ratings. Student ratings
are statistically reliable (they have internal stability and are consistent over time),
are more statistically reliable than are "colleague ratings" and are not easily or
automatically manipulated by grades. Also see L'Hommedieu, Menges, and
Brinko, (1990); d’Apollonia & Abrami, (1997); Ory, Braskamp, & Pieper, (1980);
and Centra, (1993).

Imagine, your learners are better able to rate you than your fellow instructor
(Dancer, & Dancer, 1992)…
Donnelly and Woolliscroft (1989) reviewed student ratings, using 12 descriptive
items over a period of a year and concluded that the learners’ evaluations were
reliable and that their judgements were sophisticated and well thought-out.

Also, intellectually challenging classes average higher ratings than do easier


courses with light work loads (Cohen, 1981). This closely relates to Snow’s
(1988) research in which a learner's future potential depends upon his or her
current cognitive state and that we can increase the learner’s potential by
increasing the standards (aptitude x treatment interaction). Even the learners
know when they are being challenged and they appreciate it!

W hat Sho uld We Ask?

Part of the problem is that we do not always know what to ask. These types of
questions produce the most reliable results (Abrami, 1989 & Cashin, 1992):

Overall rating of the instructor.


Giving an overall rating of the course.
Estimating how much a learner has learned in the course.
Rating the effectiveness of the instructor in stimulating a learner’s interest in
the subject.
Rating the effectiveness of this course in challenging the learner intellectually.
(This is important if we are supposed to stimulate continued learner interest
and provide positive influence on the ways learners think and act.)

Do not ask questions on teaching methods -- one might get high marks on "how
much the learners have learned" (which tend to be valid) and low marks on "the
course was carefully planned and well organized" (which tend not to be valid).
Even if these "Method or Process" questions were valid, they do not tell us
anything that the "Result" questions cannot.

In the questions above, note that the word "rating" and not "evaluation" is used.
Rating implies a source of data, while evaluation implies that we have an answer.
That is, the learners provide us information and then we combine it with other
sources of information to arrive at a total evaluation. Learners are not always on
target, thus their ratings can provide valuable information, but they cannot always
tell evaluators everything needed in order to make a valid assessment of the
training.

Perhaps the most unreliable question is, "How much did you enjoy the class?"
Learners generally enjoy courses that are the most intellectually challenging and
meaningful. Yet, they will also report that they may enjoy a class that contributes
little to their learning. Nevertheless, when the same learners are asked to assess
their learning, provide a rating of the instructor and/or course, or to assess its
intellectual contributions, the students, as a whole, are able to distinguish "fluff"
from "substance" (Kaplan, 1974; Naftulin, 1973).

Learner Bias

Prior learner interest in a subject does influence the outcome of student ratings of
effectiveness (Marsh & Dunkin, 1992). For example, a trainer taking a train-the-
trainer class will probably give a higher rating, than if she was taking a class in
which she had no real interest.

Also, learners do not give higher ratings to classes in which they receive the
highest grade (Howard & Maxwell, 1980). Again, the highest marks often go to
the most challenging courses. However, a learner’s ratings tend to be slightly
higher if a learner "expects" to receive higher grades -- the research suggests
that the differences is due to the learner being highly "motivated" and he or she is
"learning more" and can thus expect to get higher grades (Howard G. & Maxwell,
1982).

I m m e d i a t e Fe e d b a c k

To collect immediate feedback, end the session five minutes early and ask: 1)
What major conclusion did you draw from today's session? 2) What major
questions remain in your mind? (The Searle Center for Teaching Excellence
Northwestern University).

These two questions 1) assist learners to ask themselves extremely valuable


questions (what have I learned; what do I need to learn now) and 2) provide the
trainers with feedback, such as discovering that learners are drawing conclusions
quite different from the ones intended. If so, you can begin the next session with
responses to the patterns that emerge, or make adjustments in the way you train.

Also, learners who have no previous experience have the most inconsistent
feedback. This is partially because they have nothing to base their initial
feedback on. By using the two questions above in multiple training sessions, you
help them in "scaffolding" their feedback so that they may improve upon it (same
principle as in scaffolding instruction).

Self-Assessment

Traditional testing methods do not fit well with such goals as lifelong learning,
reflective thinking, being critical, the capacity to evaluate oneself, and problem-
solving (Dochy & Moerkerke, 1997). For these, self-assessment plays an
important role. Self-assessment refers to the involvement of learners in making
judgements about their own learning, particularly about their achievements and
the outcomes of their learning (Boud & Falchikov, 1989). It increases the role of
learners as active participants in their own learning (Boud, 1995), and is mostly
used for formative assessment in order to foster reflection on one's own learning
processes and results.

"Overall, it can be concluded that research reports positive findings concerning


the use of self-assessment in educational practice. Students who engage in self-
assessment tend to score most highly on tests. Self-assessment, used in most
cases to promote the learning of skills and abilities, leads to more reflection on
one's own work, a higher standard of outcomes, responsibility for one's own
learning and increasing understanding of problem-solving. The accuracy of the
self-assessment improves over time. This accuracy is enhanced when teachers
give feedback on students' self-assessment" (Dochy, Segers, & Sluijsmans,
1999).

Boud (1992, 1995) developed a self-assessment schedule in order to provide a


comprehensive and analytical record of learning in situations in which students
had substantial responsibility for what they did. The main guidance was a
handout that suggested the headings a student might use -- goals, criteria,
evidence, judgements, and further action.

Weaker learners often overrate themselves. Adams & King (1995) identified a 3
step framework to help develop self-assessment skill: 1) Learners work on
understanding the assessment process, such as: discussing good and bad
characteristics of sample work, discussing what was required in an assessment,
and critically reviewing the literature. 2) Learners work to identify important
criteria for assessment. 3) Learners work towards playing an active part in
identifying and agreeing on assessment criteria and being able to assess peers
and themselves competently.

Another assessment framework looks at the various dimensions (Garfield, 1994):

1. WHAT to assess, which may be broken down into: concepts, skills,


applications, attitudes, and beliefs.
2. PURPOSE of assessment: why the information is being gathered and how
the information will be used (e.g., to inform students about strengths and
weaknesses of learning, or to inform the teacher about how to modify
instruction).
3. WHO will do the assessment: the student, peers (such as members of the
student's work group), or the teacher. They need to be given opportunities
to step back from their work and think about what they did and what they
learned.
4. METHOD to be used (e.g., quiz, report, group project, individual project,
writing, or portfolio).
5. ACTION that is taken and the nature of the action.
6. FEEDBACK given to students. This is a crucial component of the
assessment process that provides the link between assessment and
improved student learning.

Tr a i n e r B i a s

"Negative attitudes toward student ratings are especially resistant to change, and
it seems that faculty and administrators support their belief in student-rating
myths with personal and anecdotal evidence, which [for them] outweighs
empirically based research evidence" (Cohen - reported in Cashin, 1992).

"The research on student SETEs [Student Evaluations of Teacher Effectiveness]


has provided strong support for their reliability, and there has been little dispute
about it" (Hobson & Talbot, 2001).

The learner’s rating will serve their purpose if 1) you learn something new from
them, 2) you value the information, 3) you understand how to make
improvements, 4) you are motivated to make the improvements (Centra, 1993).

Changing Behaviors
Experts have long suggested that school and community programs can bring
down the smoking rates, so they set up a textbook example. The Hutchison
Smoking Prevention Project ran from September 1984 through August 1999 in
several Washington state school districts. The researchers used the most up-to-
date methods to try to persuade kids, starting at age 9, not to smoke. They
helped them practice saying no to cigarettes, bombarded them with information
about how dangerous and addictive smoking is and even had high-school
students reenact tobacco lawsuit trials.

Still, about a quarter of the teens who completed the program smoked by the
time they were 18 -- the same percentage as anywhere else in the country (24.7
percent of girls and 26.7 percent of boys said they smoked daily in 12th grade).

The project's lead investigator, Arthur V. Peterson Jr., Ph.D., said "The teachers
did their darndest, and the educational materials were top-notch. The inability of
the program to affect change in smoking behavior comes down, in our judgment,
to one thing: the failure of the social-influences strategy of the last 25 years. It
simply didn't work."
Part of the reason for the failure may be that the learners (the school children)
had no say in the design of the program. Changing affective behaviors is more
complicated than bringing about changes in skills or knowledge. But by using
two techniques 1) cheerleading their good behaviors, and 2) involving them in
the design of the program; you will have a solid foundation to bring about the
desired changes.

Big Dog's Performance Coaching Page


If you don't do it first, your competitors will...

Introduction

Achieving excellence through performance is accomplished in two major ways. The


first way is taking a proactive stance by unearthing or preventing counter-productive
methods. For example, you might implement diversity and sexual harassment training
programs before they become a problem within the organization.

The second way is to correct performance problems that arise within the organization.
This is accomplished by first, identifying the root cause and secondly, implementing
a plan of action to correct the problem. Although people are our are most important
asset, sometimes it seems as if they are our biggest headache.

There are four major causes of performance problems:

Knowledge or Skills - The employee does not know how to perform the process
correctly - lack of skills, knowledge, or abilities.
Process - The problem is not employee related, but is caused by working
conditions, bad processes, etc, etc.
Resources - Lack of resources or technology.
Motivation or Culture - The employee knows how to perform, but does so
incorrectly.
The Performance Analysis Quadrant (PAQ) is a tool to help in the identification. By
asking two questions, "Does the employee have adequate job knowledge?" and "does
the employee have the proper attitude (desire) to perform the job?" and assigning a
numerical rating between 1 and 10 for each answer, will place the employee in 1 of 4
the performance quadrants:

10 ----------------------------------
High | | |
| A | B |
| | |
| Motivation | Resource/ |
| | Environment |
Does the Employee | | |
have adequate job ----------------------------------
knowledge? | | |
| C | D |
| | |
| Selection | Training |
| | |
1 | | |
Low ----------------------------------
1 10
Low High

Does the employee have the proper


attitude (desire) to perform the job?

1. Quadrant A (Motivation): If the employee has sufficient job knowledge but


has an improper attitude, this may be classed as motivational problem. The
consequences (rewards) of the person's behavior will have to be adjusted. This
is not always badÖthe employee just might not realize the consequence of his
or her actions.
2. Quadrant B (Resource/Process/Environment): If the employee has both job
knowledge and a favorable attitude, but performance is unsatisfactory, then
the problem may be out of control of the employee. i.e. lack of resources or
time, task needs process improvement, the work station is not ergonomically
designed, etc.
3. Quadrant C (Selection): If the employee lacks both job knowledge and a
favorable attitude, that person may be improperly placed in the position. This
may imply a problem with employee selection or promotion, and suggest that
a transfer or discharge be considered.
4. Quadrant D (Training): If the employee desires to perform, but lacks the
requisite job knowledge or skills, then additional training may be the answer.

Also note that the fix does not have to be the same as the cause. For example, you can
often fix a process problem with training or maybe fix a motivation problem with
attitude or (affective domain) training .

Lacks the Skills,


Show, Tell,
Do, and Knowledge, or Abilities
Check
to Perform

This problem generally arises when then is a new hire, new or


revised process, change in standards, new equipment, new policies,
promotion or transfer, or a new product. In this case, there is only
one solution...training. The training may be formal classes, on-the-
job, self-study, coaching, etc. To determine if training is needed, we
only need to ask one question, "Does the employee know how to
perform the task?" If the answer is yes, then training is not needed.
If the answer is no, then training is required. This is where good
coaching skills come in.

Coaching Skills

Many people tend to use the terms coaching, mentoring, and


training interchangeably. However, there are differences. Mentoring
is often thought of as the transfer of wisdom from a wise and
trusted teacher. He or she helps to guide a personís career, normally
in the upper reaches of the organization. However, this perception
is starting to change as organizations are now implementing
mentoring at all levels of a company structure.

NOTE: Mentor comes from the age of Homer, in whose Odyssey, Mentor is the
trusted friend of Odysseus left in charge of the household during Odysseus's
absence. Athena, disguised as Mentor, guides Odysseus's son Telemachus in his
search for his father. FÈnelon in his romance TÈlÈmaque (1699) emphasized
Mentor as a character, and so it was that in French (1749) and English (1750)
mentor, going back through Latin to a Greek name, became a common noun
meaning "wise counselor." Mentor is an appropriate name for such a person
because it probably meant "adviser" in Greek.
Training is
about teaching a particular skill or knowledge.

Coaching, on the other hand, is about increasing an individual's


knowledge and thought processes with a particular task or process.
It creates a supportive environment that develops critical thinking
skills, ideas, and behaviors about a subject. Although it is closely
tied to training, it is more personal and intimate in nature.

Also, the main difference between a coach and a trainer, is that


coaching is done in real time. That is, it is performed on the job.
The coach uses real tasks and problems to help the learner increase
his or her performance. While in training, examples are used within
the classroom (the task or problems may be based upon real ones
however).

Mentoring is more career developing in nature, while training and


coaching are more task or process orientated. Also, mentoring relies
on the mentor's specific knowledge and wisdom, while coaching
and training relies on facilitation and developmental skills.
Although there are these differences, you could say that the three
are synergistic and complementary, rather than mutually exclusive
as most people would agree that a good coach trains and mentors, a
good trainer coaches and mentors, and a good mentor trains and
coaches.

A performance coach is also a:


Leader - who sets the example and becomes a role model.
Facilitator - is able to instruct a wide verity of material.
Team Builder - pulls people into a unified team.
Peace Keeper - acts as a mediator.
Pot Stirrer - brings controversy out in the open.
Devil's Advocate - raises issues for better understanding.
Cheerleader - praises people for doing great.
Counselor - provides intimate feedback.

In order to coach, it help to use a few facilitating techniques:


Draws people out:
"What do others think?" or "What do you think?"
"I've heard from (name) so far...are there any other thoughts?"
"And what else?"
Silence (20-30 seconds) - gives the learners a chance to think.
Also, groups tend to abhor silence, if you wait long enough
someone will usually speak up.
"(Name), you look like you have something to say..."
Interprets comments:
Words verses tune or tone (many questions are not really
questions but a need for self-assurance).
Intent verses wording (learners often have a hard time wording
new subject matters).
Sees beyond the learners paradigms and filters.
Clarifies thoughts or comments
Use models and experiences to bring life to the subject.
Looks for multiple points to expound on the subject.
Looking for similarities and differences.
Senses group energy
Sparks up the group with various energizers.
Takes breaks as needed.
Has a sense of timing.
Handling objections
Try not to personalize (the learners will become defensive).
Reflect on the objection for a moment to ensure you
understand the objection.
Encourage conversation.
Remember to breath and relax.
How we treat each other:
Accepting each other into the group.
Individual responsibility.
Being right verses being successful.
Influence verses dominance (pull rank).
Confidentiality and trust.
Supporting each other.
Active listening.
Conflict resolution.
To go into further detail, see Coaching Skills and Activity.

Process or Environmental
Problems (Not Related to
Employees)

Many performance problems are due to bad process, that is, the
process does not support the desired behavior. It has often been said
that people account for 20% of all problems while bad processes
account for the rest. See the Continuous Process Improvement Page
for tracking down inefficient processes.
Resources

Just because the problem is caused by a lack of resources or


technology, does not mean expenditures are needed. Remember, the
fix does not have to be the same as the cause. In this case you might
be able to get with your team to brainstorm new processes or
procedures that will eliminate the need for new resources.

Motivation

Often the employee knows how to perform the desired behavior


correctly, the process is good, and all resources are available, but
for one reason or another, chooses not to do so. It now becomes a
motivational issue. Motivation is the combination of a person's
desire and energy directed at achieving a goal. It is the cause of
action. Motivation can be intrinsic - satisfaction, feelings of
achievement; or extrinsic - rewards, punishment, or goal
obtainment. Not all people are motivated by the same thing, and
over time their motivation changes.

Although many jobs have problems that are inherent to the position,
it is the problems that are inherent to the person that cause us to
loose focus from our main task of getting results. These
motivational problems could arrive from family pressures,
personality conflicts, a lack of understanding how the behavior
affects other people or process, etc.

When something breaks the psychological contract between the


employee and the organization, the leader must find out what the
exact problem is by looking beyond the symptoms, find a solution,
focus on the problem, and implement a plan of action. One of the
worst situations that a leader can get into is to get all the facts
wrong.

Start by collecting and documenting what the employee is not


doing or should be doing - tasks, special projects, reports, etc. Try
to observe the employee performing the task. Also, do not make it a
witch hunt, observe and record what the employee is not doing to
standards. Check past performance appraisals, previous managers,
or other leaders the employee might have worked with. Try to find
out if it a pattern or something new.

Once you know the problem, then work with the employee to solve
it. Most employees want to do a good job. It is in your best interest
to work with the employee as long as the business needs are met
and it is within the bonds of the organization to do so.

Causes of problems

Expectations or requirements have not been adequately


communicated.

This motivational issue is not the fault of the employee. By


providing feedback and ensuring the feedback is consistent, you
provide the means for employees to motivate themselves to the
desired behavior. For example, inconsistent feedback would be for
management to say it wants good safety practices, then frowns on
workers who slow down by complying with regulations. Or
expressing that careful workmanship is needed, but reinforces only
volume of production.

Feedback must be provided on a continuous basis. If you only


provide it during an employee's performance rating period, then
you are NOT doing your job.
Also, ensure that there is not a difference in priorities. Employees
with several tasks and projects on their plates must be clearly
communicated as to what comes first when pressed for time. With
the ever increasing notion to do more with less, we must understand
that not everything can get done at once. Employees often choose
the task that they enjoy the most, rather than the task they dislike
the most. And all too often that disliked task is what needs to get
performed first.

Lack of motivation.

A lack of motivation could be caused by a number of problems, to


include personal, family, financial, etc. Help employees to
recognize and understand the negative consequences of their
behavior. For counseling techniques see Leadership and Motivation
and Confrontation Counseling. For some training exercises see
Performance Counseling Activity.

Shift in focus

Today, its a lucky employee (or unlucky if that employee thrives on


change) that does not have her job restructured. Changing forces in
the market forces changes in organizations. When this happens,
ensure that every employee knows:

How has the job changed and what are the new responsibilities?
Why the job was restructured. Is it part of a longer overhaul?
How will their performance be evaluated and by whom?
Do they need to learn new skills?
Can the old responsibilities be delegated?
How will their career benefit from this transition?
What new skills or training do they need to perform
successfully?
Will this make them more marketable in the future?
By keeping them informed, you help to eliminate some of the fear
and keep them focused on what must be performed.
P er form a nc e Fee dba ck
Ve r s e s C r i t i c i s m

In general, there are two different forms of information about


performance - feedback and criticism. Feedback was originally
an engineering term that refers to information (outcome) that is
fed back into a process to indicate whether that process is
operating within designated parameters. For example, the sensor
in a car's radiator provides feedback about the engine
temperature. If the temperature rises above a set point, then a
secondary electrical fan kicks in.

When dealing with human performance, feedback refers to


observable behaviors and effects that are objective and specific.
This feedback needs to be emotionally neutral information that
describes a perceived outcome in relation to an intended target.
For example, "During the last two meetings, you announced the
tasks and how to perform them, rather than asking for input. That
does not give people the opportunity to take ownership of their
work." People who receive feedback in this manner can use the
data to compare the end results with their intentions. Their egos
should be aroused, but not bruised.

Compare this to criticism that is emotional and subjective. For


example, "You dominate the meetings and people do not like it!"
The recipient has much more difficulty identifying a changeable
behavior other than to try to be less dominant. Also, the angry
tone of the criticism triggers the ego's defensive layer and causes
it to be confrontational or to take flight (fight or flee), thus
strengthening the resistance to change...which is exactly the
opposite of what you needs to be done. Delivering effective
performance feedback takes time, effort, and skill; thus criticism
tends to be a popular choice for providing feedback. Since we
receive far more criticism than feedback, our egos have become
accustomed to fighting it off. We have all seen people receive
vital information, yet shrug it off through argument or denial, and
then continue on the same blundering course.

Receiving Feedback

Being able to give good feedback should not be the only goal; we
also need to be aware of the need to receive and act upon
feedback, even if it is delivered in a critical manner. That is, we
need to develop skills that help us extract useful information,
even if it is delivered in a critical tone.

Allowing attitudes of the criticizer to determine your response to


information only weakens your chances for opportunity. Those
who are able to glean information from any source are far more
effective. Just because someone does not have the skills to give
proper feedback, does not mean you cannot use your skills to
extract useful information for growth. When receiving
information, rather it be feedback or criticism, think "How can I
glean critical information from the message." Concentrate on the
underlying useful information, rather that the emotional tones.
Also note note what made you think it was criticism, rather than
feedback. This will help you to provide others with feedback,
rather than the same emotional criticism.

Using Feedback

Giving feedback, instead of criticism, can best be accomplished


by following two main avenues:

Observing behavior - Concentrate on the behavior. Why is it


wrong for the organization, team, individuals, etc.; not why
you personally dislike it. Your judgment needs to come from a
professional opinion, not a personal one. Report exactly what
is wrong with the performance and how it is detrimental to
good performance.
Concentrate on pointing out the exact cause of poor
performance. If you cannot determine an exact cause, then it
is probably a personal judgment which needs to be ignored.
State how the performance affects the performance of
others. Again, if it does not affect others, then it is probably
a personal judgment.
Do unto others, as you want them to do unto you - Before
giving the feedback, frame the feedback within your mind.
It might help to ask yourself, "how do I like to be informed
when I'm doing something wrong?"
What tones and gestures would best transfer your message?
Remember, you want the recipient to seriously consider your
message, not shrug it off or storm away.
Final Thoughts

Ralph Doherty wrote an interesting article about "Commitment vs.


Compliance" in Beyond Computing (July/August 1998 p. 44):

In compliance environments, employees are told what to do.


Although you may turn them loose to perform their jobs, the goals
and objectives come from upper-management.

In commitment environments, employees are involved in


determining the strategies, directions, and tasks needed to achieve
the organization's objective's. This is accomplished by:

Involve all essential people in developing action plans in areas


that are critical to success.
Identify critical success factors and formulate the plans necessary
to achieve those objectives. Everyone in the department, from the
front-line workers to managers are used in this process.
Drive the methodology deeper into the organization by
cultivating an environment in which almost everything is linked
to employee involvement. The heart of this strategy is by sharing
information and involving people at all levels of the organization.
Also, hold regular team meetings in which everyone is
encouraged to speak what is on their mind.
Give workers direct access to top management. This keeps top-
management in tune with the wants and needs of front-line
employees.

By bringing them into the process, they understand the problems and have a say in the
commitment. This engages their hearts, minds, and hands...the greatest motivators of all!
A Few Good Learning Theories

The Three Representational


Modes (TRiM)

All information that is perceived via the senses passes through three
processors that encode it as l i n g u i s t i c , n o n l i n g u i s t i c , or a f f e c t i v e
representations. This is how we learn.

NOTE: This work only goes into the major part of TRiM. For a more
detailed work, see Marzano (1998) (note that he does not use this
acronym).

For example, if you go to a football game for the first time you encode
information linguistically such as rules; retain mental images
nonlinguistically, such as mental images of the players positioning
themselves and then getting set (pose); and finally, you have various
sensations that are encoded affectively, such as the excitement during
a touchdown. Each representation can be thought of as a record that is
encoded and then filed away.

THE LINGUISTIC MODE

In the educational and training world, knowledge is most commonly


presented linguistically (the study of language), so perhaps this mode
receives the most attention from a learning standpoint (Chomsky,
1988). The linguistic mode includes verbal communication, reading,
watching (e.g. learn the rule of chess through observation), etc.

Discussions and theories around the linguistic mode can get quite
complex so I am keeping this fairly simple. Basically, the linguistic
processor encodes our experiences as abstract propositions.

Propositions are thought to perform a number of other functions in


addition to being the primary bearers of truth and falsity and the
things expressed by collections of declarative sentences in virtue of
which all members of the collection "say the same thing". Propositions
represent the things we doubt and know. They are the bearers of
modal properties, such as being necessary and possible. Some of them
are the things that ought to be true.

These propositions are organized into two networks:

1. The declarative network contains information about specific events


and the information generalized from them. These are the "what" of
human knowledge.

2. The procedural network contains information about how to perform


specific mental or physical processes. Often thought of as IF and THEN
statements.

These two networks are the main channels for interacting with each
other (communication). Communication is the main functions of
language. Language symbols are used to represent things in the world.
Indeed, we can even represent things that do not even exist.
Communication does not imply a language, for example using hand
signals. But a language does imply communication, that is, when we
use language, we normally use it to communicate.

A few linguistic definitions


The forming of language is done by "s y n t a x " - putting
sounds together to form words, and the words, in turn,
form sentences. For example, English words require at
least one vowel sound. However, in Czechoslovakia there
are words that are all consonants with no vowels. These
sounds we put together are m o r p h e m e s - the smallest
units of language that have meaning. A word is
morpheme, as is a prefix or suffix, also the "s" we add
onto the end of a word is a morpheme.

S e m a n t i c s is the study of meaning. With s e m a n t i c


knowledge we can often understand what people mean
when they say things that are s y n t a c t i c a l l y unusual or
even incorrect.

In t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l g r a m m a r , the meaning of a
sentence is its d e e p s t r u c t u r e , and that meaning is
transformed into the s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e , which is the
actual sentence itself. The deep structure of language is
the meaning, and the surface structure is the means by
which that meaning is expressed. The rules that translate
the meaning into the deep structure are the phrase rules,
and the rules that translate the deep structure into the
surface structure are the transformational rules.

THE NONLINGUISTIC MODE

This includes mental pictures, smell, kinesthetic, tactile, auditory, and


taste. At first, we might believe that they are entirely different
structures, however these representations are quite similar to each
other in that these nonlinguistic sensations function in a similar fashion
in permanent memory (Richardson, 1983). That is, although we sense
things differently, such as smell and touch, they are stored in mental
representations that are quite similar. They also lose a lot of their
robustness once the experience is over and transferred to memory. For
example, picturing the smell of a rose from memory is not as vivid as
actually smelling a real rose.

Although we can realistically study linguistics, taste, hearing, etc.;


mental images are another matter. . . how do you study a picture in
someone's mind? Hence, there are several models for the nonlinguistic
mode in the psychology world. However, there are a few things we
know for certain:

o Mental images can be generated from two sources - the eyes (e.g., the
after image of a light bulb) and from permanent memory (picturing a
tiger that has squares instead of dots).
o Mental images are an essential aspect of nonlinguistic thought and play
an important part in creativity.
o Due to the fragmented and constructed nature of mental images, they
are not always accurate pictures of whole thought as compared to
prepositionally-based linguistic information. However, they can have a
powerful effect on our thoughts due to their intensive and vivid nature,
e.g. the power of storytelling, the images we create in our mind when
reading a powerful novel, metaphors, imagination, creativity, etc.

THE AFFECTIVE MODE

This is our feeling, emotions, and mood (Stuss & Benson, 1983):

o Feeling is one's internal physiological state at any given point in time.


o Emotion is the coming together of feelings and thoughts
(prepositionally-based linguistic data) that are associated with the
feeling.
o Mood is the long-term emotion or the most representative emotion over
a period of time.

The affective mode can be thought of as a continuum of feelings,


emotions, and ultimately moods. The end points of the continuum are
pleasure and pain and we normally strive to stay on the pleasure end
of it.

The limbic system (pituitary gland, amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus,


etc.) is the physiological system that ties the affective mode together.
Since the limbic affects virtually every part of our brain, it also has a
very powerful affect on learning.

Plutchik theorized that each basic emotion occupies a


location on a circle. Blends of two basic emotions are
called dyads. Blends involving adjacent emotions in the
circle are first-order dyads, blends involving emotions
that are separated by one other emotion are second-
order dyads, and so on. For example, love is a first-order
dyad resulting from the blending of adjacent basic
emotions joy and acceptance, while guilt is a second-
order dyad involving joy and fear, which are separated by
acceptance. The further away two basic emotions are,
the less likely they are to mix. And if two distant
emotions mix, conflict is likely. Fear and surprise are
adjacent and readily blend to give rise to alarm, but joy
and fear are separated by acceptance and their fusion is
imperfect and the conflict that results is the source of the
emotion guilt.

TRiM Learning Theories

So what learning activities do we use if we follow the TRiM model?

LINGUISTIC MODE

The linguistic mode provides the way to the most accurate method of
learning, hence the reason for its impact upon the education and
training world. There are a number of ways for increasing linguistic
retention.

N o t e Ta k i n g

Note taking has a positive impact on this mode since it involves the
learners in the subject matter that is transpiring in class, it cause us to
reflect on the subject and then record our thoughts, it helps us in
interpreting the subject matter, and it provides an additional linguistic
reinforcer. You can help them with the note taking by providing rough
outlines and fill-in-the-blanks. But do not just rely on one method. For
example, fill-in-the-blanks can also be concept or semantic maps
(mapping) - you provide the lines and circles, while the learners fill
them in.

Also, note that while mapping might seem "graphic", we can learn
linguistically from visual representations (e.g. learning rules and
various strategies by watching a game, the procedures for picking up a
load with a forklift). Use visual outlines to fit the subject, for example,
give them an outline of a pyramid when discussing Maslow's hierarchy
of needs.

Vary the methods to fit the subject - e.g. give them a rough draft,
then a fill-in-the-blank, then a mapping outline.

Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, p.98) reported that the greater the
learner's involvement or engagement (which includes note-taking) is in
the learning process, the greater the knowledge acquisition. Marzano
(1998) reported the following effects:

o Note taking techniques have an overall effect size of .99, indicating a


percentile gain of 34 points. These techniques require students to
generate personal linguistic representations of the information being
presented.
o Graphic representations produced a percentile gain in achievement of
39 points. One of the most effective of these techniques was semantic
mapping (Toms-Bronosky, 1980) with an effect size of 1.48 (n=1),
indicating a percentile gain of 43 points. With this technique, the
learner represents the key ideas in a lesson as nodes (circles) with
spokes depicting key details emanating from the node.

Cueing

Use "cueing" to provide the "abstract propositions", which is then


expounded on to turn it into a complete, long-term memory network.
Cues can be thought of as a brief preview or skill that is to be
presented. It can be as simple as saying, "I wonder what will happen if
I push this button," to using slides to cue. Most of us have heard of the
6-6 (or 7-7) rule of slides -- no more than six lines and each line
should have no more than six words. If you have ever sat through a
presentation where the presenter read the slides, you know how
ineffective and annoying that method is. This is partially because our
reading speed does not match our listening speed; hence, they
confuse instead of reinforcing each other. The better method is to use
the slides as cues. The slide should give a brief outline to "cue" the
students on what they are about to learn.

Also, do NOT cover each line and then show it when you are about to
speak about it -- this defeats the whole purpose of cueing by taking
away the skeleton outline that the learners need in order to build
upon.
Teachers will recognize this concept as a miniature scaffold
(building upon a framework)
Note that when we learn, we build upon what we previously
know

Marzano (1998, p.89) reported an effect size of 1.13, which indicates


that achievement can be raised by 37 percentile points when cueing is
used.

Models

Models (as in people, drawings, and three-dimensional) will also help


to reinforce both the declarative and procedural network by giving
them a visual source.
The combined use of drawings, flowcharts, mappings, instructions, etc.
can be combined to produce knowledge maps, rather than linear
readings.

Marzano (1998, p.91) reported an effect size of 1.48 (which indicates


that achievement can be raised by 43 percentile points) when graphic
representations are used.

Active Learning

Use activities (manipulatives) to engage the learners. While we can


learn the basics of such activities as football, chess, or leading, we do
not really understand it until we actually do it.

Placing the learners in small groups allows them to not only receive
and express linguistic information, but to also manipulate it in various
forms to gain a full understanding of it.

Cooperative learning is very effective due to give and take of various


linguistic forms. It involves cooperation, in that learners work in small
groups on an assigned project or problem under the guidance of the
trainer who monitors the groups. On the other side is "collaborative
learning" that is a more radical departure in that it involves learners
working together in small groups to develop their own answer through
interaction and reaching consensus, not necessarily a known answer.

In addition, the use of good questioning techniques, fishbowls, case


studies, etc., gives the same benefits as groups.

Pascarella & Terenzini (1991, page 98) reported that the greater the
learner's involvement or engagement is in the learning process, the
greater the knowledge acquisition.

Marzano (1998, p.91) reported an effect size of 0.89 (which indicates


that achievement can be raised by 31 percentile points) when
manipulatives (engaging the learners) are used.
Marzano (1998, p.93) reported an effect size of 1.14 (which indicates
that achievement can be raised by 37 percentile points) when
experimental learning is used and an effect size of .54 (a percentile
gain of 21 points) by using problem solving processes.

See Active Learning for more information and


references

NONLINGUISTIC MODE

While various linguistic methods are used in many classrooms, the


nonlinguistic and affective modes are often omitted as trainers do not
realize their importance. Remember, we have three processors, when
you deny or do not reinforce anyone of them, you actually lengthen
the learning process instead of shortening it.

Mental Images

Use the power of mental images to increase nonlinguistic retention.


Provide metaphors, reflection time and activities, short videos of
powerful images, storytelling, etc. To truly understand a subject
matter we need to be creative with it on order to adapt it to our
workplace. It is through the power of mental images that we are able
to change our mental representations of how things work to how we
can make them work for us.
Have the learners practice the task in their minds
(visualization)

Marzano (1998, p.102) reported an effect size of 1.13 (which indicates


that achievement can be raised by 37 percentile points) by using
techniques that enhance visual memory.

The Other Senses

Also, do not forget the other senses. VAK would tell us to let the
learners play with a koosh ball, however, I believe this has more to do
with personal satisfaction than with actual learning. What really needs
to happen is to allow them to touch, move, listen and/or smell the
subject mater if at all possible. . . sort of what Zen is built upon --
become one with the subject matter.

AFFECTIVE MODE

Use the power of feelings and emotions to reinforce the affective


mode.
See Affective Behaviors.

Also note that this is similar to the Affective behavior in


Bloom's Taxonomy.

Feedback and Praise

Provide them with explicit feedback on how well the goals or objectives
were met. You want to keep the feedback positive as the goal is to
reinforce their drive to perform better, not to beat them down in utter
defeat.

Also, it is important not only to provide feedback that improves


performance, but also give praise or positive reinforcement that is
focused and accurate.

Marzano (1998, p.95) reported an effect size of 0.74 (which indicates


that achievement can be raised by 27 percentile points) when praise is
used. While providing feedback (p.108) on the type of strategy to use
and how well the learner uses it had a effect size of 0.61 (percentile
gain of 37 points).

Learning Objectives

Most of us know that providing the learning objectives increases the


chance for learning to occur, but if you then allow the learners to adapt
the objectives to meet their personal goals, you further increase the
chance as they now start to own the objectives.

Marzano (1998, p.94) reported an effect size of 0.97 (which indicates


that achievement can be raised by 34 percentile points) when goal
specification is used. When students have some control over the
learning outcomes, there is an effect size of 1.21 (39 percentile
points).
Note that providing a learning objective is similar to cues or scaffolding
in that it provides a framework for the learners to build their skills and
knowledge upon.

Arousal

Use "arousal" (emotions) to increase learning. A certain amount of


arousal can be a motivator toward change (with change being
learning). But too much or too little will have a negative affect. You
want a mid-level point of arousal to provide the motivation to change
(learn). Too little arousal has an inert affect on the learner, while too
much has a hyperactive affect. Each type of learning has its own
optimal level of arousal. The more intellectually or cognitive a task is,
then the more lower the level of arousal should be so that you do not
"overload" the learners. On the opposite end of the scale are tasks
that require less mental activities or tasks requiring endurance and
persistence. They require higher levels of arousal to fully engage the
learners in the learning process. Some learning should be fun, some
should be dry, some learning requires an emotional charged
classroom, and some require an emotionless state.

S e l f, M e t a c o g n i t i o n , C o g n i t i o n ,
Knowledge (SMCK)

While TRiM (Three Representational Modalities) describes the


components that show how we take in information, SMCK (Marzano,
1998) describes the domains of knowledge. One of the first and best
known knowledge domains is Blooms Taxonomy. However, since then
we have learned quite a bit more about how we learn.

NOTE: Again, this work only goes in to the major part of TRiM. For a
more detailed work and set of references on TRiM and SMCK, see
Marzano (1998) (note that he does not use the two acronyms).
How TRiM fits in with SMCK
Click for larger picture

We receive information linguistically, nonlinguistically, and affectively


through our senses. This information or "presenting task" then
passes through four human thought processing systems:

o Self-System - What value do we place upon the presenting task (we will
do it or not)?
o Metacognitive System - Designs strategies for accomplishing the
presenting task. How do we go about solving a complicated task?
o Cognitive System - Process the presenting task so that we may learn it.
o Knowledge Domain - The cognitive domain draws upon our knowledge
domain for information that helps us to solve the presenting task.

Self-System

The first domain the presenting task passes through is our self-
system. If we consider the presenting task or information of high
value, then we will put some effort into learning it. Otherwise, we will
steer our efforts to other interests (Harter, 1980 & Markus & Ruvulo,
1990). This self-system is an interconnected network of beliefs that
helps one makes sense of the world and decides what goals to pursue.
If the presenting goal or task is judged as important and doable, then
the learner is motivated to engage in the presenting goal or task.
However, if the task is presented as low-relevance or a low probability
of success, then a negative effect is generated and motivation for task
engagement is low.

For example, a student in a leadership class might be thinking about


the upcoming weekend. The instructor might say something similar to,
"it is important to pay attention to this part of the lesson, as the rest
of the material is closely based upon it." The learner can either pay
attention to the instructor, or continue with her thought about the
upcoming weekend. In either case the learner makes a choice through
her self-system which then determines how her metacognitive system,
cognitive system knowledge domain will be utilized.

Our self system guides us in what we need to learn

"Most of us, beginning in childhood, have an intrinsic


ability to judge our own progress. This is a natural aspect
of our ability to learn. But schools and workplaces
subjugate that natural assessment to the judgment and
ranking of teachers, supervisors, and other "experts,"
whose appraisals can determine our tracking, promotion,
opportunity, wealth, status, and ultimately even self-
esteem. Business assessment systems such as
Management by Objectives (MBO) tend to institutionalize
a destructive process where bosses propagate the same
measures and assessments of which they are also
victims. Thus, assessment is not emotionally neutral
territory. Inherent fear and resentment diminishes the
quality of any assessment effort -- particularly those
involved with assessing organizational learning." - Roth
and Kleiner (1995):

Metacognitive System

Next, the presenting task goes through the metacognitive system. This
system helps us to plan, set time lines, allocate resources (Schank &
Abelson, 1977). It also designs strategies for accomplishing goals once
they have been set. Its main categories are:

o Goal Specification - Note that it does not decide to "engage" in a goal,


that is the function of the self-system, its job is to help to determine
when the goal has been completed.
o Process Specification - Identifies and activates the skills, tactics, and
process used to accomplish a goal.
o Process Monitoring - Monitors the effectiveness of skills, tactics, and
process used to accomplish a goal.
o Disposition Monitoring - Monitors how one approaches a task.

The megacognitive system is continually interacting with the cognitive


system throughout the task.

Metacognition is another important aspect of learning (see Brown,


1978; Flavell and Wellman, 1977). The importance of prior knowledge
in determining performance, crucial to adults as well as children,
includes knowledge about learning, knowledge of their own learning
strengths and weaknesses, and the demands of the learning task at
hand. Metacognition also includes self-regulation -- the ability to
orchestrate one's learning: to plan, monitor success, and correct errors
when appropriate -- all necessary for effective intentional learning
(Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1989).

Metacognition also refers to the ability to reflect on one's performance.


Whereas self-regulation may appear quite early, reflection appears to
be late developing. If children lack insight to their own learning
abilities, they can hardly be expected to plan or self-regulate
efficiently. But metacognition does not emerge full-blown in late
childhood in some "now you have it, now you don't" manner. The
evidence suggests that, like other forms of learning, metacognition
develops gradually and is as dependent on knowledge as experience.
It is difficult to engage in self-regulation and reflection in areas that
one does not understand. However, on topics that children know,
primitive forms of self-regulation and reflection appear early (Brown
and DeLoache, 1978).

Cognitive System

The presenting task next passes through the cognitive system, which
processes the information that is essential to learning the task
(Anderson, 1995). This process includes the effective execution of
steps for solving problems. It creates novel ideals for the construction
of new concepts. It also:

o Stores and retrieves knowledge into permanent memory.


o Processes knowledge by manipulating so that it can be used for specific
tasks.
o Inputs and outputs information by communicating with others.
o Uses knowledge to accomplish specific tasks.

It accomplishes these processes by drawing upon the knowledge


domain.

Knowledge Domain
The knowledge domain consists of i n f o r m a t i o n , m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s ,
and p s y c h o m o t o r processes.

Information

Information can be thought of as the library within us that organizes


how we store information. All information can be broken down as
elements, as shown in the chart below.

Elements In The Information Domain Hierarchy


(going from the lowest to the highest)

Vocabulary Terms - The meaning of a word at a very


general level.

Facts - Information about specific persons, places,


events, etc. These are very specific, such as the United
States has fifty states.

Time Sequences - First one thing happened, then


another thing happened. These are important events
between two periods in time. For example, Columbus
discovered America in 1492 and America declared itself a
free nation in 1776.

Cause/Effect Sequences (If/Then) - One event


effects another. It can be simple, such as a blown-out tire
caused the accident or complex as there were a number
of events that led to the Civil War.

Episodes - Events that have a setting, participates,


duration, and effects (e.g. Word War II).

Generalizations - Statements in which examples can be


provided (e.g. love is one of the most powerful human
emotions).

Principles - Generalizations that deal with relationships


(e.g the increase in lung cancer is directly proportional to
the increase in smokers) .

Concepts - A general category which a number of


principles, generalizations, time sequences, cause/effect
sequences, episodes, and vocabulary terms fall (e.g.
learning, democracy).

Notice that in the information domain, each element builds upon the
other. For example, you must understand the vocabulary terms before
you can understand a fact. At the top of the domain are C o n c e p t s ,
which are the most difficult elements for a learner to extrapolate.

Mental Processes

The Mental Process domain are methods for accomplishing a task,


such as the steps for picking up a load with a forklift or the steps for
solving an algebra problem.

Mental Process Hierarchy


(going from the lowest to the highest)

Single Rule - Does not have a list of steps. It consists of


one IF/THEN statement. e.g., if it is the beginning of a
new sentence, then capitalize the first letter.

Algorithms - Has very specific steps which leads to


specific outcomes. e.g., performing a math calculation

Tactics - Normally, these do not consists of a set of


steps that must be performed in specific order. e.g.,
reading a histogram (it has rules for reading, but it does
not have to be done in order).

Macro Process - A process that has a diversity of


possible outcomes and involves the execution of many
interrelated subprocesses. e.g., writing a term paper,
using laboratory equipment.

Psychomotor Process

The psychomotor domain are our physical skills and abilities.

See the section on Psychomotor in Bloom's Taxonomy

Other Supporting Theories

Feedback

B.F. Skinner (1968) theorized that learners need to make active


responses, and to do so regularly. These responses need immediate
feedback and differential follow-ups; depending upon whether or not
they are correct. Without immediate feedback, especially when the
response is wrong, invites the student to learn a wrong response.
These wrong responses then have to be unlearned. Critical training
time is wasted by having the students unlearn wrong responses
instead of learning new behaviors. When designing the learning
activities, consider how to apply immediate feedback. Small student to
instructor ratios, programmed learning, and well designed learning
environments are just a few of the ways to accomplish this.

Practice
Guthrie's (1952) study breaks skills into acts. Acts are defined as
complicated behavior patterns usually involving some goal
accomplishment. Acts are made up of many individual movements.
Movements are specific responses to specific stimuli. Acts are
composed of muscular contractions that are the response to specific
stimulus and are not dependent upon practice. But the learning of an
act does depend on practice. Learning an act requires practice so that
the proper movement is associated with its own cues.

Once acquired, associations are permanent (Good & Brophy (1977) ),


but they may not appear in every performance due to weak
associations. These weak associations cannot be retrieved because of
strong interference from other associations. Short practice periods
develop weak associations which learners are not able to magnify into
stronger ones.

Adams(1977) theorized that if we practice long enough we develop a


mental image. For example, professional players are often known to
utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis
ball or throw a football, because they can instantaneously tell by the
feel of the act what the result will produce. Not having balanced
practice periods prevents learners from becoming fully comfortable
with the feel and use of the skill they are attempting to acquire.
Learners must have enough time to develop a complete mental image
of the sequence of correct responses. Often we see learners who could
perform in the classroom and then not be able to perform when they
return to work. When designing the learning activities be sure to
include realistic practical exercise and enough time for these exercises!

Distributed Practice

Hull (1943) discovered that when practice periods are spaced apart
(distributed practice), performance is superior to what it is when
practice periods are close together (massed practice). Also, during
practice periods, the learners' performance will gradually improve until
some asymptotic (maximal) level is reached. If the learners are
allowed to rest, and then resume practice, their performance will tend
to exceed their previous asymptotic level (reminiscence effect).
Learners that are provided rest or some other form of diversion
between practice periods will reach higher levels of performance than
learners who practice straight through without rest or diversion.

Cognition

Wertheimer (1945) contrasts rote memorization with problem solving


based on the Gestalt principles. In the former, the learner has learned
facts without understanding them. Such learning is rigid and can be
applied without truly understanding them. Learning in accordance with
the Gestalt principles, however, is based on understanding the
underlying principles of the problem. This type of learning comes from
within the individual and is not imposed on by someone else. It is
easily generalizable and is remembered for a long time. When one
performs upon memorized facts without understanding them, one
often makes stupid mistakes.

Werthemimer told this story to illustrate the point: A school inspector


was impressed by the children that he had observed, but wanted to
ask one more question before departing. "How many hairs does a
horse have?" he asked. Much to the amazement of both the inspector
and the teacher, a nine year old boy answered "3,571,962." "How do
you know that your answer is correct?" asked the inspector. "If you do
not believe me," answered the boy, "count them yourself." The
inspector broke into laughter and vowed to tell the story to his
colleagues when he returned to Vienna. When the inspector returned
the following year for his annual visit, the teacher asked him how his
colleagues responded to the story. Disappointedly he replied, "I
wanted very much to tell the story but I couldn't. For the life of me, I
couldn't remember how many hairs the boy had said the horse had."
Reaching an understanding, according to Wertheimer, involves many
aspects of the learners, such as emotions, attitudes, perceptions, and
intellect. In gaining insight into the solution of a problem, a learner
need not be logical. Rather, the learner should cognitively arrange and
rearrange the components of the problem until a solution based on
understanding is reached. Exactly how this is done will vary from
learner to learner. In one experiment a piece of paper with the
following 15 digits was handed to a group of subjects with the
instruction that they study it for 15 seconds: The paper contained
these digits: 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81. After the subjects studied the
digits, they were asked to reproduce the sequence of numbers. Most
subjects were able to reproduce only a few of the numbers. After a
week most of them remembered none of the digits. Another group of
subjects were asked to look for a pattern among the digits. After
studying them, some of the subjects were able to determine that the
numbers are the squares of the digits from 1 to 9. These subjects were
able to reproduce the series perfectly not only during the experiment,
but weeks and months afterward.

T r a n s f e r o f L e a r n i n g o r Tr a i n i n g

See Transfer of Learning

Learning Environment

Other pointers to consider for an effective learning environment:

o The Gestalt point of view emphasizes that the whole is more than the
sum of the parts. For example, the whole (producing a document) is
more than the individual acts:
1. Turn on the computer
2. Start the word processor
3. Type information into the word processor
4. Check the spelling
5. Look up customers' names and addresses
6. Insert columns into the document
7. Print a letter
8. Print envelopes

The above eight steps are meaningless unless the learner can
put all of them together to produce a whole document ready for
mailing. Help the learner to see that facts and ideas are part of a larger
concept. Learners who are able to recite facts without seeing their
interrelationship is meaningless.

o Induce ambiguity by introducing problems and then help clarify the


ambiguity by suggesting strategies for solving the problems. This is
based on Spence's (1966) work which has emphasized anxiety (arousal)
as a drive to learn. Encouraging some anxiety in learners that is
subsequently reduced by success aids the learning environment. Too
little anxiety results in little or no learning because there is no drive to
be reduced (the "Why Bother?" syndrome). Too much anxiety is
disruptive. Therefore, learners who are mildly anxious are in the best
position to learn and are therefore easiest to reach.
o Learning proceeds most rapidly if the information is presented in small
steps (chunks), the learners are given rapid feedback, and the learners
are able to proceed at their own pace.
o Significant learning is acquired through doing. The best instructional
material allows the learner to participate in the learning process.
Learning is best acquired by doing and practicing the desired task. This
does not mean to make it a mimic session. A mimic session is used to
show how a task is accomplished. Talking them through the task step-
by-step provides a good feel for performing the task. After talking them
through once or twice, use real life examples that they can work
through on their own. A skill needs to be worked repeatedly several
times before it becomes rote or comfortable. Coach the learners, but
ensure they work through the problems on their own
Evaluation Phase - Chapter VI

This phase is ongoing throughout


the entire ISD process. That is, it is
performed during the analysis,
design, development, and
implementation phases. It is also
performed after the learners return
to their jobs. Its purpose is to
collect and document learner
performance in a training course, as well as on the job. The goal is to
fix problems and make the system better, not to lay blame.

The most exiting place in teaching is the gap between what the
teacher teaches and what the student learns. This is where the
unpredictable transformation takes place, the transformation
that means that we are human beings, creating and dividing
our world, and not objects, passive and defined - Alice Reich
(1983).

Evaluations help to measure Reich's gap by determining the value and


effectiveness of a learning program. It uses assessment and validation
tools to provide data for the evaluation. Assessment is the
measurement of the practical results of the training in the work
environment; while validation determines if the objectives of the
training goal were met.

Bramley and Newby identify five main purposes of evaluation:

1. Feedback - Linking learning outcomes to objectives and providing a


form of quality control.
2. Control - Making links from training to organizational activities and to
consider cost effectiveness.
3. Research - Determining the relationships between learning, training,
and the transfer of training to the job.
4. Intervention - The results of the evaluation influence the context in
which it is occurring.
5. Power games - Manipulating evaluative data for organizational politics.

Evaluations are normally divided into two broad catagories: f o r m a t i v e


and s u m m a t i v e .

Formative

Formative evaluation (also known as internal) is a method of judging


the worth of a program while the program activities are f o r m i n g (in
progress). This part of the evaluation focuses on the process.

Thus, formative evaluations are basically done on the fly. They permit
the learner and the instructor to monitor how well the instructional
objectives are being met. Its main purpose is to catch deficiencies so
that the proper intervention can take place. This allows the learner to
master the required skills and knowledge.

Formative evaluation is also useful in analyzing learning


materials, student learning and achievements, and teacher
effectiveness.... Formative evaluation is primarily a building
process which accumulates a series of components of new
materials, skills, and problems into an ultimate meaningful
whole. - Wally Guyot (1978)

Summative

The summative evaluation (also know as external) is a method of


judging the worth of a program at the end of the program activities
(summation). The focus is on the outcome.
If we refer to Kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation, levels one and two
(reactive and learning) are formative evaluations while levels three
and four (performance and impact) are summative evaluations. The
reactive evaluation is a tool to help determine if the objectives can be
reached, the learning evaluation is a tool to help reach the objectives,
the performance evaluation is a tool to see if the objectives have
actually been met, while the impact evaluation is a tool to judge the
value or worth of the objectives. Thus, there are four major break
points.

The various instruments used to collect the data are questionnaires,


surveys, interviews, observations, and testing. The model or
methodology used to gather the data should be a specified step-by-
step procedure. It should be carefully designed and executed to ensure
the data is accurate and valid.

Questionnaires are the least expensive procedure for external


evaluations and can be used to collect large samples of graduate
information. They should be trialed before using to ensure the
recipients of the questionnaire understand their operation the way the
designer intended. When designing questionnaires, keep in mind the
most important feature is the guidance given for its completion. All
instructions should be clearly stated...let nothing be taken for granted.

Revise System

Once a training deficiency has been noted, the ISD process is repeated
to correct the deficiency. This does not mean that the entire training
program is rebuilt -- just the portions that had deficiencies or will be
affected by the changes.

T h e F o u r L e v e l s o f Tr a i n i n g
Evaluation
Perhaps the best known training methodology is K i r k p a t r i c k ' s F o u r
L e v e l E v a l u a t i o n M o d e l (1994) of reaction, learning, performance,
and impact. The chart below shows how the evaluation process fits
together:

Level One - Reaction

As the word implies, evaluation at this level measures how the


learners react to the training. This level is often measured with
attitude questionnaires that are passed out after most training classes.
This level measures one thing: the learner's perception (reaction) of
the course.

Learners are keenly aware of what they need to know to accomplish a


task. If the training program fails to satisfy their needs, a
determination should be made as to whether it's the fault of the
program design or delivery.
This level is not indicative of the training's performance potential as it
does not measure what new skills the learners have acquired or what
they have learned that will transfer back to the working environment.
This has caused some evaluators to down play its value. However, the
interest, attention and motivation of the participants are critical to the
success of any training program. People learn better when they react
positively to the learning environment.

When a learning package is first presented, rather it be e-learning,


classroom training, CBT, etc., the learner has to make a decision as to
whether he or she will pay attention to it. If the goal or task is judged
as important and doable, then the learner is normally motivated to
engage in it (Markus & Ruvulo, 1990). However, if the task is
presented as low-relevance or there is a low probability of success,
then a negative effect is generated and motivation for task
engagement is low.

This differs somewhat from Kirkpatrick. He writes, " R e a c t i o n m a y


best be considered as how well the trainees liked a
p a r t i c u l a r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m " (1996). However, the less relevance
the learning package is to a learner, then the more effort that has to
be put into the design and presentation of the learning package. That
is, if it is not relevant to the learner, then the learning package has to
"hook" the learner through slick design, humor, games, etc. This is not
to say that design, humor, or games are not important. However, their
use in a learning package should be to promote the "learning process,"
not to promote the "learning package" itself. And if a learning package
is built of sound design, then it should be help the learners to fix a
performance gap. Hence, they should be motivated to learn! If not,
something went dreadfully wrong during the planning and building
processes! So if you find yourself having to hook the learners through
slick design, then you probably need to reevaluate the purpose of the
learning program.

For more information on reaction, see Self-System.


L e v e l Tw o - L e a r n i n g

This is the extent to which participants change attitudes, improve


knowledge, and increase skill as a result of attending the program. It
addresses the question: D i d t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s l e a r n a n y t h i n g ? The
learning evaluation require post-testing to ascertain what skills were
learned during the training. In addition, the post-testing is only valid
when combined with pre-testing, so that you can differentiate between
what they already knew prior to training and what they actually
learned during the training program.

Measuring the learning that takes place in a training program is


important in order to validate the learning objectives. Evaluating the
learning that has taken place typically focuses on such questions as:

o What knowledge was acquired?


o What skills were developed or enhanced?
o What attitudes were changed?

Learner assessments are created to allow a judgment to be made


about the learner's capability for performance. There are two parts to
this process: the gathering of information or evidence (testing the
learner) and the judging of the information (what does the data
represent?). This assessment should not be confused with
e v a l u a t i o n . Assessment is about the progress and achievements of
the individual learners, while evaluation is about the learning program
as a whole (Tovey, 1997, p. 88).

Evaluation in this process comes through the learner assessment that


was built in the design phase. Note that the assessment instrument
normally has more benefits to the designer than to the learner. Why?
For the designer, the building of the assessment helps to define what
the learning must produce. For the learner, assessments are statistical
instruments that normally poorly correlate with the realities of
performance on the job and they rate learners low on the "assumed"
correlatives of the job requirements (Gilbert, 1998). Thus, the next
level is the preferred method of assuring that the learning transfers to
the job, but sadly, it is quite rarely performed.

Level Three - Performance (behavior)

In Kirkpatrick's original four-levels of evaluation, he names this level


"behavior." However, behavior is the action that is performed, while
the final results of the behavior is the performance. Gilbert said that
performance has two aspects -- behavior being the means and its
consequence being the end (1998). If we were only worried about the
behavioral aspect, then this could be done in the training environment.
However, the consequence of the behavior (performance) is what we
are really after -- can the learner now perform in the working
environment?

This evaluation involves testing the students capabilities to perform


learned skills while on the job, rather than in the classroom. Level
three evaluations can be performed formally (testing) or informally
(observation). It determines if the correct performance is now
occurring by answering the question, "Do people use their newly
acquired learnings on the job?"

It is important to measure performance because the primary purpose


of training is to improve results by having the students learn new skills
and knowledge and then actually applying them to the job. Learning
new skills and knowledge is no good to an organization unless the
participants actually use them in their work activities. Since level three
measurements must take place after the learners have returned to
their jobs, the actual Level three measurements will typically involve
someone closely involved with the learner, such as a supervisor.

Although it takes a greater effort to collect this data than it does to


collect data during training, its value is important to the training
department and organization as the data provides insight into the
transfer of learning from the classroom to the work environment and
the barriers encountered when attempting to implement the new
techniques learned in the program.

Level Four - Results

This is the final results that occur. It measures the training program's
effectiveness, that is, "What impact has the training achieved?" These
impacts can include such items as monetary, efficiency, moral,
teamwork, etc.

While it is often difficult to isolate the results of a training program, it


is usually possible to link training contributions to organizational
improvements. Collecting, organizing and analyzing level four
information can be difficult, time-consuming and more costly than the
other three levels, but the results are often quite worthwhile when
viewed in the full context of its value to the organization.

As we move from level one to level four, the evaluation process


becomes more difficult and time-consuming, however,it provides
information that is of increasingly significant value. Perhaps the most
frequently type of measurement is Level one because it is the easiest
to measure. However, it provides the least valuable data. Measuring
results that affect the organization is considerably more difficult, thus
it is conducted less frequently, yet it yields the most valuable
information.

Each evaluation level should be used to provide a cross set of data for
measuring training program.

The first three-levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation -- Reaction, Learning,


and Performance are largely "soft" measurements, however decision-
makers who approve such training programs, prefer results (returns or
impacts). That does not mean the first three are useless, indeed, their
use is in tracking problems within the learning package:
o Reaction informs you how relevant the training is to the work the
learners perform (it measures how well the training requirement
analysis processes worked).
o Learning informs you to the degree of relevance that the training
package worked to transfer KSAs from the training material to the
learners ( it measures how well the design and development processes
worked).
o The performance level informs you of the degree that the learning can
actually be applied to the learner's job ( it measures how well the
performance analysis process worked).
o Impact informs you of the "return" the organization receives from the
training. Decision-makers prefer this harder "result," although not
necessarily in dollars and cents. For example, a recent study of financial
and information technology executives found that they consider both
hard and soft "returns" when it comes to customer-centris technologies,
but give more weight to non-financial metrics (soft), such as customer
satisfaction and loyalty (Hayes, 2003).

Note the difference in "information" and "returns." That is, the first
three-levels give you "information" for improving the learning package.
While the fourth-level gives you "impacts." A hard result is generally
given in dollars and cents, while soft results are more informational in
nature, but instead of evaluating how well the training worked, it
evaluates the impact that training has upon the organization. There
are exceptions. For example, if the organizational vision is to provide
learning opportunities (perhaps to increase retention), then a level-two
or level-three evaluation could be used to provide a soft return.

This final measurement of the training program might be met with a


more "balanced" approach or a "balanced scorecard" (Kaplan &
Norton, 2001), which looks at the impact or return from four
perspectives:

o Financial: A measurement, such as an ROI, that shows a monetary


return, or the impact itself, such as how the output is affected. Financial
can be either soft or hard results.
o Customer: Improving an area in which the organization differentiates
itself from competitors to attract, retain, and deepen relationships with
its targeted customers.
o Internal: Achieve excellence by improving such processes as supply-
chain management, production process, or support process.
o Innovation and Learning: Ensuring the learning package supports a
climate for organizational change, innovation, and the growth of
individuals.

Item Analysis

One of the tools used in the evaluation process is an item analysis. It


is used to "Test the Test". It ensures testing instruments measure the
required behaviors needed by the learners to perform a task to
standard. When evaluating tests we need to ask the question: Do the
scores on the test provide information that is really useful and
accurate in evaluating student performance? The item analysis
provides information about the reliability and validity of test items and
learner performance. Item Analysis has two purposes (Brown &
Frederick, 1971): First, to identify defective test items and secondly, to
pinpoint the learning materials (content) the learners have and have
not mastered, particularly what skills they lack and what material still
causes them difficulty.

Item Analysis is performed by comparing the proportion of learners


who pass an test item in contrasting criterion groups. That is, for each
question on a test, how many learners with the highest test scores (U)
answered the question correctly or incorrectly compared with the
learners who had the lowest test scores (L)?

The upper (U) and lower (L) criterion groups are selected from the
extremes of the distribution. The use of very extreme groups, say the
upper and lower 10 percent, would result in a sharper differentiation,
but it would reduce the reliability of the results because of the small
number of cases utilized. In a normal distribution, the optimum point
at which these two conditions balance out is 27 percent (Kelly, 1939).

NOTE: With the large and normally distributed samples used in the
development of standardized tests, it is customary to work with the
upper and lower 27 percent of the criterion distribution. Many of the
tables used for the computation of item validity indices are based on
the assumption that the "27 percent rule" has been followed. Also, if
the total sample contains 370 cases, the U and L groups will each
include exactly 100 cases, thus preventing the necessity of computing
percentages. For this reason it is desirable in a large test item analysis
to use a sample of 370 persons.

Because item analysis is often done with small classroom size groups,
a simple procedure will be used here. This simple analysis uses a
percentage of 33 percent to divide the class in three groups, Upper
(U), Middle (M), and Lower (L). An example will be used for this
discussion. In a class of 30 students we have chosen 10 students (33
percent) with the highest scores and 10 students (33 percent) with the
lowest scores. We now have three groups: U, M, and L. The test has
10 items in it.

Next, we tally the correct responses to each item given by the


students in the three groups. This can easily be done by listing the
item numbers in one column and prepare three other columns, named
U, M, L. As we go through each student's paper, we place a tally mark
next to each item that was answered correctly. This is done for each of
the ten test papers in the U group, then each of the ten test papers in
the M group, and finally for each of the ten papers in the L group. The
tallies are then counted and recorded for each group as shown in the
table below.
A measure of item D i f f i c u l t y is obtained by adding the number
passing each item in all three criterion groups (U + M + L) as shown in
the fifth column. A rough index of the validity or discriminative value of
each item is found by subtracting the number of persons answering it
correctly in the L group from the number answering it correctly in the
U group (L - U) as shown in the sixth column.

Reviewing the table reveals five test items (marked with an *) that
require closer examination.

o Item 2 show a low difficulty level. It might be too easy, having been
passed by 29 out of 30 learners. If the test item is measuring a valid
performance standard, then it could still be an excellent test item.
o Item 4 shows a negative value. Apparently, something about the
question or one of the distracters confused the U group, since a greater
number of them marked it wrong than the L group. Some of the
elements to look for are: wording of the question, double negatives,
incorrect terms, distracters that could be consider right, or text that
differs from the instructional material.
o Item 5 shows a zero discriminative value. A test item of this nature with
a good difficulty rating might still be a valid test item, but other factors
should be checked. i.e. Was a large number of the U group missing
from training when this point was taught? Was the L group given
additional training that could also benefit the U group?
o Item 7 show a high difficulty level. The training program should be
checked to see if this point was sufficiently covered by the trainers or if
a different type of learning presentation should be developed.
o Item 9 shows a negative value. The high value of the negative number
probably indicates a test item that was incorrectly keyed.

As you can see, the item analysis identifies deficiencies either in the
test or in the instruction. Discussing questionable items with the class
is often sufficient to diagnose the problem. In narrowing down the
source of difficulty, it is often helpful to carry out further analysis of
each test item. The table below shows the number of learners in the
three groups who choose each option in answering the particular
items. For brevity, only the first three test items are shown. The
correct answers are marked with an *.

This analysis could be done with just the items that were chosen for
further examination, or the complete test. You might wonder why
perform another analysis for the complete test if most of the test items
proved valid in the first one. The answer is to see how well the
distracters performed their job. To illustrate this, look at the distracters
chosen for item 1. Although the first analysis showed this the be a
valid test item, of the distracters chosen by the learners, only A and B
we used. Nine learners choose distracter B, seven learners choose
distracter C, while none choose distracter D. This distracter needs to
be made more realistic or eliminated from the test item. This type of
analysis helps us to further refine the testing instrument.

Learning, Performance, and Training Acronyms


For definitions, see the Learning & Training Glossary

AA - Abbreviated Analysis
AAMOF - As A Matter Of Fact
AAR - After Action Review
ADDIE - Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate (SAT or
ISD)
AFAIK - As Far As I Know
AL - Accelerated Learning
ALARA - As Low As Reasonably Achievable
ASAP - As Soon As Possible
ASTD - American Society for Training and Development
A/V - Audio Visual

B&P - Bid and Proposal


BEER - Behavior, Effect, Expectation, Results (for feedback for
improvement)
BET - Behavior, Effect, Thanks (for positive feedback)
BLT - Baseline Test
BOF - Birds of Feather
BPR - Business Process Re-engineering
BST - Basic Skills Trainer
BTW - By The Way
BZ - Bravo Zulu (USN signal for 'job well done')

CAI - Computer Assisted Instruction


CAT - Computer Aided Testing
CAUSED - Can they do it, do they have a positive Attitude, is it Useful
to them, are they Skilled in it, do they have similar Experience, is it
Different.
CAX - Computer Assisted Exercises
CBI - Computer Based Instruction
CBL - Computer Assisted Learning
CBT - Computer Based Training or Competency Based Training
CETA - Cost Effective Training Analysis
CIPP - Context, Input, Process, and Product (an evaluation model
developed by educators, Daniel L. Stufflebeam and Guba)
CMI - Computer Managed Instruction
CMP - Course Management Plan (also see TMP)
CMS - Courseware Management Systems
COTS - Commercial Off-The-Shelf
CP - Change Proposal
CPI - Continuous Process Improvement
CPM - Critical Path Method
CRI - Criterion Referenced Instruction
CYA - Cover Your A**

DMP - Data Management Plan


DR - Design Review
DSM - Don't Shoot Me
DT&E - Developmental Test and Evaluation
DTP - Detailed Test Plan
DUMBER - Dull, Unrealistic, Mediocre, Boring, Evaporating, Rote (see
SMARTER)

EAC - Estimate At Completion


ECR - Electronic Classroom
ELO - Enabling Learning Objective
ENDEX - End of EXercise
ERP - Enterprise Resource Planning
EOD - End Of Discussion
EOL - End Of Lecture
EOM - Exercise Object Model
EPS - Electronic Performance Support
EPSS - Electronic Performance Support System
ERIC - Educational Resources Information Center
ET - Embedded Training; Evaluation Tool
ETC - Estimate To Complete

FAS - Feasibility Analysis Study


FAT - Final Acceptance Testing
FEA - Front End Analysis
FOJT - Formal On-the-Job Training
FTX - Field Training Exercise
FWIW - For What It's Worth
FY - Fiscal Year
FYCP - Future Years Corporate Plan
FYI - For Your Information

GIGO - Garbage In, Garbage Out


GOK - God Only Knows
GTA - Graphical Training Aid
GUI - Graphical User Interface (pronounced goo-ey)

HEL - Human Engineering Laboratories


HF - Human Factors
HFE - Human Factors Engineering
HPT - Human Performance Technology
HR - Human Resources
HRD - Human Resource Development
HRM - Human Resource Management
HUMINT - Human Intelligence

I&D - Integration and Development


I&KP - Instructor and Key Personnel
IAW - In Accordance With
IC - Intelligence Correlation
ICDR - Initial Critical Design Review
ICH - Instructor Contact Hour
ICW - Interactive Courseware
IDEAL - (Problem Solving) I = identify the problem, D = define and
represent the problem, E = explore possible strategies, A = act on the
strategies, L = look back and evaluate the effects of your actions
IDT - Integrated Development Team
IDs - Instructional Designers
IFTDO - International Federation of Training and Development
Organizations
IG - Instructor Guide
IIRC - If I Recall Correctly
IKPT - Instructor and Key Personnel Training
IMI - Interactive Multimedia Instruction
IMHO - In My Humble Opinion
INOP - In-operational
INPO - In No Particular Order
I/O - Input/Output
IOW - In Other Words
IP - Interpersonal
IPR - In-Process Review or In-Progress Review
IPT - Integrated Product Team
IQ - Intelligence Quotient
IS - Instructor Station
ISD - Instructional System Development
ISD/SAT - Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to
Training
ISPI - International Society for Performance Improvement
ISO - International Standards Organization
IT - Instructional Technology
ITP - Individual Training Plan
ITS - Integrated Training System or Individual Training Standard
IV&V - Independent Verification and Validation

JA - Job Aid
JITT - Just-In-Time Training

KA - Knowledge Acquisition
KAS (KSA) - Knowledge, Attitudes, Skills
KISS - Keep It Simple Stupid
KITA - Kick In The Ass (a motivational method)
KM - Knowledge Management

L
LB - Leaky Bucket
LCMS - Learning & Content Management System
LMS - Learning Management System
LG - Lecture Guide
LMS - Learning Management System
LO - Learning Objective
LRC - Learning Resource Center
LTM - Long Term Memory

M&S - Modeling and Simulation


MBTI - Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
MINIEX - Mini-EXercise
MOP - Measure Of Performance
MPA - Motivation Problem analysis
MS - Milestone

NA - Needs Assessment
NBL - Not Bloody Likely
NDI - Non Developmental Item
NIS - Not In Specification
NLP - Neuro-Linguistic Programming
NSPI - National Society for Performance and Instruction

OJT - On-the-Job Training


OOBE - Out-Of-Box Experience
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OTM - One Time Measure
OTOH - On The Other Hand
OTP - Outline Test Plan
P

P3I - Pre-Planned Product Improvement


PA - Performance Assessment
PE - Practical Exercise
PEBCAK- Problem Exists Between Chair And Keyboard
PERT - Project Evaluation and Review Technique
PFA - Pulled from the Air (as in the most common way of establishing
budgets)
PI - Programmed Instruction
PIP - Programmed Instructional Package
PITA - Pain In The Ass
PLATO - Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations
PMFJI - Pardon Me For Jumping In
PMI - Preferred Modes Indicator
PMP - Program Management Plan
PPM - Policy and Procedures Manual (or Memo)
PPPPP - Prior Planning Prevents Poor Performance
POI - Program of Instruction
PPP - Personnel Performance Profile
PR - Program Review
PSI - Personalized System of Instruction
PTR - Problem Trouble Report

QA - Quality Assurance
QAR - Quality Assurance Evaluator
QC - Quality Control
QI - Quality Improvement
QM - Quality Management
QVT - Quality Verification Test

R
R&D - Research and Development
RAD - Rapid Application Development
RBM - Rational Behavioral Model
RESA - Research, Evaluation, and Systems Analysis
RFI - Request For Information
RFP - Request For Proposal
RFT - Ready For Training
RGL - Reading Grade Level
RLO - Reusable Learning Object
ROTFL, ROTFLMAO - Rolling On The Floor Laughing My Ass Off
RTFM - Read The F****** Manual

SA - Situational Awareness
SAT - Systems Approach to Training
SCI - Student Centered Instruction
SCORN - Sharable Content Object Reference Model
SCORM - Sharable Content Object Reference Model
SDLRS - Self Directed Learning Readiness Scale (developed by
Gugliamino)
SGI - Small Group Instruction
SGL - Small Group Leader
SIM - Simulator
SIMTECH - Simulation Technology
SITD - Still In The Dark
SKA - Skills, Knowledge, Attitude
SMART - Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time based
(objective and goal setting)
SMARTER - Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Timely,
Exciting, Recorded (see DUMBER)
SME - Subject Matter Expert
SN - Sequence Number
SOO - Statement Of Objectives
SOS - Save Our Ship
SOW - Statement Of Work
SP - Start Point
SPEC - Specification
SQ3R - Survey the material to be learned, develop Questions about
the material, Read the material, Recall the key ideas, Review the
material (learning strategy)
SQT - Skills Qualification Test
SS - Student Station
STD - Standard
STM - Short Term Memory
STRAP - System Training Plan
STX - Situational Training Exercise
SWAG - Scientific Wild Ass Guess

T&D - Training and Development


T&E - Training And Evaluation
TA - Transactional Analysis
TADS - Training Analysis Data Sheet
TADSS - Training Aids, Devices, Simulators, and Simulations
TBA - To Be Announced
TBD - To Be Determined
TBT - Technical Based Training
TD - Training Development
TDNS - Training Development Needs Statement
TDS - Training Development Study
TDSS - Training Devices, Simulations, and Simulators
TE - Training Emphasis
TEA - Training Effectiveness Advocate or Training Effectiveness
Analysis
TEE - Training Effectiveness Evaluation
TEEP - Training Effectiveness Evaluation Plan
TEMP - Test and Evaluation Master Plan
TFT - Technical Feasibility Test
TINSTAAFL - There Is No Such Thing As A Free Lunch
TKT - Threshold Knowledge Test
TLA - Training Level Assignment
TLO - Terminal Learning Objective
TM - Technical Manual
TMO - Training Material Outline
TMP - Training Management Plan
TNG - Training
TO - Task Order
TOIS - Task Oriented Instructional System
TOS - Training Objective Statement
TPR - Trained Personnel Requirement
TPS - Training Path System
TPTB - The Powers That Be
TQM - Total Quality Management
TQR - Training Quality Report
TR - Training Requirement
TRADE - Training Devices
TRD - Technical Requirements Document
TRIM - Time Related Instructional Management
TRPPM - Training Planning Progress Methodology
TSA - Training Situation Analysis
TSFC - Training System Functional Characteristics
TSP - Training Support Package
TT - Technical Test
TTHSS - Touch, Taste, Hear, Sight, Smell (5 Senses)
TWI - Training Within Industry

UI - User Interface
V

VAK - Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic


VI - Visual Information
VV&A - Verification, Validation, and Accreditation
VV&C - Verification, Validation and Certification

WAG - Wild Assed Guess


WBI - Web Based Instruction
WBPSS - Web Based Performance Support System
WBS - Work Breakdown Structure
WBT - Web Based Training
WIIFM - What's In It For Me
WYSBYGI - What You See Before You Get It
WYSIWYG - What You See Is What You Get

YAFA - Yet Another Fine Acronym


YMMV - Your Mileage May Vary
YOYO - You're On Your Own
YTD - Year To Date

ZD - Zero Defects
Karl Popper's the T h r e e W o r l d s o f K n o w l e d g e

What is the object of knowledge?" asks young Grasshopper. "There is no object


of knowledge," replies the old Shaman, "To know is to be able to operate
adequately in an individual or cooperative situation." "So which is more
important, to know or to do?" asks young Grasshopper. "All doing is knowing,
and all knowing is doing," replies the Sage, and then continues, "Knowing is an
effective action, that is, knowledge operate effectively in the domain of existence
of all living creatures." (paraphrased from Maturana & Varela, 1992).

Maturana & Varela wrote that the observers' cognition is a process involving the
entirety of their interactivity, not just abstract thinking; thus, cognition cannot be
segregated from what they actually put into practice.
One of the most popular epistemology models (except for perhaps in the
behavioral sciences) is Sir Karl Popper's writings on the Three Worlds of
Knowledge. The behavioral sciences (knowledge/learning/management
professions) seem to prefer and stay within the realm of Michael Polanyi's
concept of personal and tacit knowledge. However, Polanyi's epistemology is
narrower and has a limited basis for understanding knowledge as compared to
Popper's work, which provides a broader epistemological foundation.

Karl Popper theorizes that there are three worlds of knowledge:


o World 1 is the physical universe. It consists of the actual truth and reality that we
try to represent, such as energy, physics, and chemistry. We may exist in this
world, however, we do not always perceive it and then represent it correctly.
o World 2 is the world of our subjective personal perceptions, experiences, and
cognition. It is what we think about the world as we try to map, represent, and
anticipate or hypothesis in order to maintain our existence in an every changing
place. Personal knowledge and memory form this world, which are based on self-
regulation, cognition, consciousness, dispositions, and processes. Note that
Polanyi's theory of knowledge is based entirely within this world.
o World 3 is the sum total of the objective abstract products of the human mind. It
consists of such artifacts as books, tools, theories, models, libraries, computers,
and networks. It is quite a diverse mixture that ranges from a claw-hammer to
Maslow¹s hierarchy to Godel's proof of the incompleteness of arithmetic. While
knowledge may be created and produced by World 2 activities, its artifacts are
stored in this world. Popper also includes genetic heredity (if you think about it,
genes are really nothing more than a biological artifact of instructions).

And of course, there are various relationships between these three worlds:
o World 1 drives and enables world 2 to exist, while world 2 tries to control and
regulate world 1.
o World 2 produces world 3, while world 3 helps in the recall and the
training/education/development/learning of world 2.
o World 3 describes and predicts world 1, while world 1 is the inferred logic of world
3.

In addition, since world 2 is composed of people, we can use our senses to cut
across boundaries and observe and test the exchanges and relationships of
worlds 1 and 2.

Thus, knowledge surrounds us (world 1), becomes a part of us (world 2), and is
then stored in historical contents and contexts by us (world 3 artifacts).

In this framework are two different senses of knowledge or thought:

o Knowledge in the subjective sense, consisting of a state of mind with a disposition


to behave or to react [cognition].
o knowledge in an objective sense, consisting of the expression of problems,
theories, and arguments.

While the first is personal, the second is totally independent of anybody's claim to
know -- it is knowledge without a knowing subject.

A T T H E F I S H H O U S E S

by Elizabeth Bishop

It is like what we imagine knowledge to be: dark, salt, clear moving, utterly free,
drawn from the cold hard mouth of the world, derived from the rocky breasts
forever, flowing and drawn, and since our knowledge is historical, flowing, and
flown.

Thus, knowledge goes far beyond the knowing/doing dichotomy. . . it is drawn,


derived, flowing, historical, and forever.

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