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- Physical
o Skin – Prevents entry of pathogens
- Tough, outer layer of dead cells contains keratin
o Secretes:
- TEARS – Secreted by lachrymal glands – Wash away microbes
- Sebum – Secreted by sebaceous glands containing fatty acids –
Antimicrobial action
- Mucus – Sticky secretion produced by goblet cells – Traps
airborne pathogens
- Mechanical
o Nasal hairs – Filter air drawn into nasal passages
o Cilia – Tiny hairs that beat with wave-like motion
- Chemical
o Lysozyme – Enzyme catalysing hydrolysis of molecules in cell walls of
bacteria
o Sweat – Contains lactate – Slows bacterial growth
o Hydrochloric acid – Kills most microorganisms
o Commensals – Parasitic organisms which don’t harm host – Convert
carbohydrate to lactate – Kills pathogenic bacteria – Found in vagina,
skin and large intestine
- Biological
o Harmless bacteria
Lines of defence
- First line
o External barriers
- Second line
o Internal barriers
o Non-specific Phagocytosis by macrophages
- Membrane invaginates so that
macrophage can engulf bacteria
Binds with lysosome
- Third line
o Antigen-antibody complex
o Specific
Immune response
- Antigens
o Substance triggering formation of antibodies
o Self
- Found in cell surface membrane in body cells
- Do not activate immune response - Bodies recognise them as part
of us
o Non-self
- Found on cell walls and membranes of bacteria, viruses, fungi,
animal parasites, pollen, incompatible blood cells
- Produce an immune response- Bodies recognise them as foreign
material
- Antibodies
o Immunoglobins
o Glycoprotein produced by lymphocytes - Presence of a specific antigen -
Combines with antigen to neutralise, inhibit or destroy it
o Structure:
- Y-shaped molecule
- Heavy chains and light polypeptide chains
• Held by disulphide bridges
- Two identical antigen binding sites
• Variable region
o Function:
- Neutralisation
• Antibodies block sites on bacteria and viruses
• Antitoxins produced to neutralise toxins from bacteria and
viruses
- Agglutination
• Antibodies bind with antigens
• Stick together
• More antibodies attack antigen Large clumps of antigen-
antibody complexes formed
- Opsinisation
• Antibodies facilitate with phagocytosis of pathogens
o Blood typing
- Antibodies used to find and destroy foreign cells
- Bind tightly Antigen-antibody complexes – Different types of
blood cells identified
- Determined used antibodies specifically reacting with proteins
- Looking for agglutination
LYMPHOCYTES
B-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes
- Made by stem cells in bone marrow - Made by stem cells in bone marrow
- Mature in lymph nodes and spleen - Mature in thymus gland
- Divide Plasma B – Secrete - Divide to Cytotoxic T – Destroy
to antibodies into circulation. produce: antigen directly. Attaches
produce: Each antibody specific to to them and releases
antigen. Lives 4 to 5 days chemical perforin to kill
them
Helper T – Attract and
stimulate macrophages.
Promote activity of other
T- and B-lymphocytes.
Increase antibody
production
Memory B – Programmed to Memory T – Multiply very
remember specific antigen. fast in second invasion of
Respond very rapidly to any antigen occurs. Produces
following infection bigger clone of T-
lymphocytes
Dividing B – Produce more B- Suppressor T – Slow
lymphocyte cells down vigorous response
of T-cytotoxic and T-
helper. Slows down
immune response
Cell-mediated response
1. APC engulfs antigen
2. Infection of body cells with virus causes surface antigens to be present
3. Correct T-lymphocyte recognises antigen
a. Due to match in shape
b. T-lymphocytes binds to antigen
4. T-lymphocyte triggered to divide by mitosis
a. Memory T-cell
b. Helper T-cell
c. Cytotoxic (killer) T-cell
5. Cytotoxic-T are specific to infected cell’s antigen
a. Circulate in body
b. Attach to antigens of infected cells
c. Kill the cells
6. Memory-T cells remain in blood for long time
a. Multiply rapidly in second invasion of antigen
VACCINATION
Primary response
- Triggered by body’s
first contact with
antigen
- B-lymphocytes divide
to form plasma cells
Produce antibodies
Secondary response:
- Triggered by
subsequent contact
with same antigen
previously caused
- B memory specific to antigen present Activated by antigen
o Stimulate plasma B to produce antibodies
AIDS
Replication of HIV
2. Binding and fusion:
a. Glycoprotein on outer surface of virus attaches to receptors on host
cell
b. Lipid bilayer of virus fuses with host cell’s membrane - Virus enters
the host cell
4. Reverse transcription:
a. Stimulates cell to make copy DNA from viral RNA template
5. Integration:
a. Viral DNA insert into host cell’s chromosomes
6. Transcription:
a. Viral DNA codes for production of thousands of
new viruses
OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS:
- An infection caused by pathogens
o Usually doesn’t cause disease in healthy host (with healthy immune
system)
o Weakened immune system presents “opportunity” for pathogen to
infect