PETROLEUM

PETROLEUM
- liquid
- usually brown, green, amber or pitch black
- mixtures of millions of hydrocarbons (compounds made up of
elements carbon and hydrogen only)
- sometimes the following are present: sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen,
metals (nickel, vanadium, iron, copper)
- present as crude petroleum in the earth’s crust
- formed by anaerobic bacterial action on plant and animal matter

I. CLASSIFICATION OF PETROLEUM

1. According to the amount of valuable products present:

1.1. light crude oil
1.2. medium crude oil
1.3. heavy crude oil

LIGHT MEDIUM HEAVY

GASOLINE 27% 22% 7-16%
KEROSENE 10% 11% 14-19%
OILS 43% 15% 0
RESIDUE 20% 32% 70-74%

2. According to the nature of hydrocarbons present

2.1. paraffin base crude oil (contains saturated
hydrocarbons)
2.2. aromatic base crude oil (contains aromatic
compounds)
2.3. naphthenic base crude oil
2.4. mixed base crude oil

3. According to the amount of impurities present

3.1. “Sweet” crude oil
- contains only a very small amount of SULFUR and other
impurities
3.2. “Sour” crude oil
- contains a large amount of SULFUR and other impurities

II. PROPERTIES

1. Paraffinic Base Crude Oil

1.1. saturated straight chain hydrocarbon which has a
carbon content of more than 60%
 1.2. paraffinic wax is used for candles
1.3. gives off straight run gasoline of low octane number

Straight run gasoline – is that which you get directly from

crude petroleum by simple distillation

Octane number – is the rating of the gasoline which gives

the same knocking tendency as the corresponding mixture of
iso – octane and n – heptane)

Examples:
iso - octane - 100% octane no. is 100
n –heptane – 0%

iso – octane – 80% octane no. is 80

n – heptane – 20%

iso – octane – 0% octane no. is 0

n – heptane – 100%

1.4. lubricating oils obtained have a high pour point and

high viscosity index

2. Naphthenic Base Crude Oils

2.1. contains 35% carbon
2.2. contains saturated cyclic hydrocarbons
2.3. lubricating oils present have low pour points, low
viscosity index

3. Aromatic Base Crude Oil

3.1. contains 35% carbon
3.2. cyclic, unsaturated (parent: benzene)
3.3. source of asphalt

4. Mixed Base Crude Oil

- 50% paraffin base
- 25% aromatic base
- 25% naphthene base

PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM PETROLEUM

1. GAS FRACTION
- usually are for fuel and preparation of synthetic gas

1.1. Natural gas

- mostly methane (CH4)
 - obtained from petroleum well

1.2. Light gas

- mostly contains one or two carbon compound
- comes from crude distillation at refinery

1.3. Off gas

- mostly have products with one or two carbons, hydrogen gas
(H2), hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S), sulfur dioxide (SO2) from
petroleum refinery conversion process

1.4. LPG
- liquefied petroleum gas
- contains compound with 4 carbons and some with 3 carbons
- domestic fuel
- synthesis of gas

2. LIGHT ENDS

2.1. Petrol or motor spirit

- principal refinery product
- energy source for pistons engines and gas turbines

2.2. Solvent naphtha and kerosene

- used for jet fuel
- used for reformate stock

2.3. Refined and light heating oils

3. INTERMEDIATES

3.1. Heavy duty oils

3.2. Diesel oils
3.3. Gas oils
- used to enrich gas and fuel
- cracked to produce gasoline

4. HEAVY DISTILLATES

4.1. Heavy mineral – oils – used for medicinal purposes

4.2. Heavy flotation and frothing oils
4.3. Waxes – candles, sealing, paper treating, insulating
4.4. Lubricating oils

5. RESIDUE
 5.1. Lubricating oils
5.2. Fuel oils
5.3. Greases
5.4. Petrolatum
5.5. Asphalt
5.6. Road oils
5.7. Petroleum coke

6. BY – PRODUCTS

6.1. Detergents
6.2. Ammonia
6.3. Sulfur and derivates

7. PRECURSORS FOR PETROCHEMICALS

7.1. Acetylene
7.2. Ethylene
7.3. Propylene
7.4. Butene
7.5. Benzene
7.6. Toluene
7.7. Naphthalene

LUBRICANTS
- material applied between two machine elements which are
moving intermittently or continuously with respect to each other,
in order to:

- control wear and friction

- carry away heat
- protect surface from corrosion
- minimize noise
- wash away dirt and contaminants

TYPES OF LUBRICANTS

1. L IQUID LUBRICANTS
1.1. Water – used in ship propeller bearings
1.2. Chemical liquids – often become lubricants when moving elements
must be encased or submerged in processing such liquids
1.3. Lubricating oils – comes from the residue, the bottom product in
crude oil distilling unit

TERMS USED TO EXPRESS THE PROPERTIES OF LUBRICATING OIL:

a. Viscosity – resistance of fluid to flow (units used: centistokes/centipoises)
b. Viscosity index – used to express the relationship between viscosity and
temperature
- in lubricating oils: the higher the temperature, the lower the
viscosity
- viscosity index: between 0 – 100
c. Flash point – the lowest temperature at which a combustible material will give
off sufficient amount of vapor to form an inflammable mixture with air
d. Fire point – temperature at which a combustible material will burn
continuously for about 5 seconds
e. Cloud point – temperature at which paraffin wax and similar substances will
crystallize and separate from oil
f. Pour point – lowest temperature at which oil will pour or flow when chilled
without any disturbance
g. Carbon residue – it provides an indication of the coke – forming properties of
petroleum products

2. SEMI – SOLID LUBRICANTS

- usually selected for open – types, relatively low – speed

machine elements
- major lubricant of this type is GREASE, a suspension of a
thickener in a lubricating liquid

2.1. OIL THICKENERS

2.1.1. Silica Gel

- results in good grease
- no soap deposits left in the mechanism
- its water is poor

2.1.2. Bentonite
- results in good grease for rough equipment
- no known solvent for washing the bentonite

2.1.3. Mineral or Metallic Soap

- produces soap grease, similar to conventional laundry soap

2.2. PROPERTIES OF SOAP GREASE

2.2.1. Penetration
- the relative consistency or hardness of grease

2.2.2. Dropping point

- temperature at which semi – solid lubricant changes to the liquid
state
2.3. TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND USES OF SOAP GREASE

2.3.1. Calcium Soap Grease

- low dropping point (210ºF)
- resistant to small quantity of water
- displaced if large amount of water is present and rusting will
occur
- separate into oil and soap
- used in plain bearings operating below 150ºF

2.3.2. Sodium Soap Grease

- can be worked into lather even with small quantity of water
- high dropping point (350 –450ºF)
- they emulsify to form soap oil mixture in the presence of water
- provide good rust protection in the presence of moisture
- used where the temperature is 200ºF

2.3.3. Lithium Soap Grease

- water resistant
- high dropping point
- have preferential wetting for metals over water so that rustling
does not occur
- provides low shear

2.3.4. Barium Soap Grease

- high dropping point
- water resistant
- very stable
- provides low shear
- used for bearings at high speed

2.3.5. Strontium Soap Grease

- similar in properties with barium soap grease but is less stable
- for high speed bearings

2.3.6. Aluminum Soap Grease

- water resistant
- they form gummy material like rubber above 200ºF
- used for low – speed plain or ball bearing
- good as chassis lubricant, when properly used

2.4. ALL PURPOSE GREASE

- Lithium, barium or strontium soap greases are sometimes referred to
as all – purpose grease because they have high resistance to water, high
temperatures and bleeding of oil.
3. SOLID LUBRICANTS
- used as mild polishing agent or lapping compound
- used preferably on low – speed equipment in which the
operation is too slow to support and oil or grease film
examples;
3.1. graphite
3.2. mica
3.3. zinc oxide
3.4. molybdenum disulfide

WAXES

- vaseline, mineral fats, petroleum jelly, or ointment

- contains 10% oil
- completely soluble in benzene, ether, chloroform, carbon
disulfide, hot oils
- slightly soluble in alcohol
- insoluble in water
- color is yellow to amber

Uses of waxes:
1. lubricant
2. as a polishing agent
3. medicinal ointment

SELECTION OF PROPER LUBRICANT

In the selection of a lubricant for certain machine elements, the following

factors should be considered:

1. The nature of the relative motion involved

2. The relative speed between members
3. The nature of the load between bearing surface
4. The magnitude of the load between bearing surfaces
5. The temperature range under which the lubricant must operate
6. The cooling required and method of cooling
7. The method of supplying lubricant to bearing surfaces
8. The atmosphere in which the bearings will operate
9. The bearing materials involved
10. The design and finish of the bearing members
11. The life required
12. The friction losses allowed

PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL LUBRICANT

 1. Resist any viscosity change due to temperature or any other reason
2. Be non – flammable in all temperatures
3. Resist oxidation at all temperatures and therefore form no acids, varnish,
carbon and other material
4. Be resistant to all types of degreasing materials except when it is
necessary to clean off the lubricant
5. Give complete rust protection under all conditions
6. Resist “squeezing out” under pressure
7. Have no internal friction and still have a viscosity
8. Lubricate all surfaces without creeping beyond the point it is needed

METHODS OF APPLICATION

1. Manual Application of Lubricant

- this is done by injecting oil into holes into which channel leads to
the bearing surfaces
- this method gives a periodic supply of oil’
- this is used only where a small quantity of lubricant is necessary
- the method does not guarantee a sufficient supply of oil at all
times and is apt to result in too much oil at the time of
application
- the method is useful only where the bearing to be lubricated
does minor functions and operates under conditions which do
not make rigid demands upon the bearings

2. Devices for Direct Application of Lubricants

- this method is used where a constant oil supply has to be
maintained
- this is limited by the small capacity of the oil container of the
application devices
- this is used in machines which use only limited amounts of oil
for given periods of operation
- this is also used in machines where a uniform supply of
lubricant is required; or where it is desirable to control the rate at
which the oil is fed to the bearings
- these devices include:
1. bottle oilers
2. wick – fed oilers

FORMS OF LUBRICANT DISTRIBUTION

1. Oil lubrication
use of a circulation system which includes filters, coolers and turbines
by gravitational force or by flooding
 Example: ring – oiled shaft bearing whose rings ride and rotate
on the journal; as they turn, they dip into oil in the base and
carry it to the top of the journal
use of a splash system
Example: compressors use this system
A connecting rod splashes the oil into a trough where
it is distributed to the other lube points. (Cross heads)
use of a force or pressure system
Related to the circulation system. The system is complete with
tank pumps, coolers, instrumentation, etc.

2. Grease lubrication
- is applicable in areas where there is difficulty in retaining the oil

use of pressure guns

Types of pressure guns: push type (direct acting)
Hand – pump operating type

compression cocks
- grease is fed into the bearing where the cock is screwed down
by the hand

grease plugs
- on some high pressure plugs, grease in the form of a stick is
used for lubrication and sealing of the valve internals;
- when screwed down, the plug or screw is removed, thereby
forming a space for the insertion of the grease stick;
- the replaced plug is turned down slowly to force the grease into
the lubrication groove

STORAGE AND HANDLING OF LUBRICANTS

Contamination of oil or grease with dust, dirt or moisture results in reduction

of its effectiveness and cause an increase of wear and maintenance.

The presence of water in oil or grease destroys or nullifies the additives which
might be present at that time.

The drums containing the lubricants should always be stored on their sides to
prevent any water to accumulate on top.

Drums of this usage should be kept under constant temperature or under

cover to avoid absorption of moist air.
ASPHALT

It is defined as a brown to black cemetitious material composed principally of

bitumens which come from natural or petroleum sources.

SOURCES OF ASPHALT

1. Natural asphalt
asphalt lake
- asphalt deposits which appear on the surface of the earth
vein asphalt
- sometimes called asphaltic coal
rock asphalt
- porous rock impregnated with asphalt

2. Petroleum asphalt
Types of Petroleum Asphalt according to Manufacture
Straight – run asphalt
- produced directly from the distillation column
Cracked asphalt
- produced by the thermal and catalytic cracking of residue from
petroleum refining
- used for roofing, water proofing
Blown or oxidized asphalt
- used in ink, paint, rubber additives, roofing

Types of Petroleum Asphalt according to the State in which they occur

Solid
- blown or oxidized asphalt
- used as roofing compounds, paints, rubber blends, water
proofing, pipe coatings, undersealing concrete pavements
Semi – solid
- refined to meet specifications for paving purposes (asphalt
cement)
Liquid
- asphalt so soft that penetration is not an appropriate means of
measuring consistency

TYPES OF LIQUID ASPHALT

a. Rapid Curing (RC) – cut black asphalt

- asphalt cement liquefied with naphtha or gasoline type diluent
 b. Medium Curing (MC) – cut black asphalt
- asphalt cement liquefied with kerosene as diluent
c. Emulsified Asphalt – produced by mixing together water
with an emulsifying agent and asphalt cement

PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT CEMENT (SOLID)

1. consistency (measured by penetration test)

2. ductility
3. flash point
4. solubility – detect mineral matter and other foreign products

USES OF ASPHALT

1. used in paving work (asphalt acts as binder)

2. building work
exterior wall covering
dam proofing/water proofing
roofing
3. asphalt paints
4. additive for ink, paints, rubber