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Pavement
The road pavement is the actual surface on which the vehicles will travel.
It's purpose is two fold, to provide friction for the vehicles and to transfer
normal stresses to the underlying soils.
Typically, pavements are built for three main purposes:
Types of pavements
1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement
Flexible pavement
Are those pavements which reflect the deformation of subgrade and the
subsequent layers to the surface. Flexible, usually asphalt, is laid with no
reinforcement or with a specialized fabric reinforcement that permits
limited flow or repositioning of
the roadbed underground
changes.
Rigid pavement
The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity or
flexural strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a wide area
of subgrade soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs with steel reinforcement.
Flexible pavement
• Surface course: This is the top layer and the layer that comes in
contact with traffic. It may be composed of one or several different
HMA sublayers.
• Base course: This is the layer directly below the HMA layer and
generally consists of aggregate (either stabilized or unstabilized).
• Subbase course: This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A
subbase is not always needed.
This section describes the typical rigid pavement structure consisting of:
• Surface course: This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC
slab.
• Base course: This is the layer directly below the PCC layer and
generally consists of aggregate or stabilized subgrade.
• Subbase course: This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A
subbase is not always needed and therefore may often be omitted.
Distress
Bleeding
BST bleeding in BST bleeding in HMA bleeding from
wheelpaths wheelpaths over-asphalting
Description: A film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface. It usually
creates a shiny, glass-like reflecting surface (as in the third photo) that
can become quite sticky.
Block Cracking
Description: Interconnected cracks that divide the pavement up into
rectangular pieces. Blocks range in size from approximately 0.1 m2 (1 ft2)
to 9 m2 (100 ft2). Larger blocks are generally classified as longitudinal and
transverse cracking. Block cracking normally occurs over a large portion
of pavement area but sometimes will occur only in non-traffic areas.
Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the block
cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2)
further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can provide years of
satisfactory service after developing small cracks if they are kept
sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and cracks with raveled
edges). Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an
overlay.
Problem: Roughness
Depression
Depression in left lane and
shoulder
Description: Localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower
elevations than the surrounding pavement. Depressions are very
noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.
Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab beneath the HMA surface
because of thermal and moisture changes. Generally not load initiated,
however loading can hasten deterioration.
Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack
seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the
cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. In general, rigid
pavement joints will eventually reflect through an HMA overlay
without proper surface preparation.
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks).
Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Longitudinal Cracking
Possible Causes:
Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack
seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the
cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can
provide years of satisfactory service after developing small cracks
if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks).
Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Patching
Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes:
Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The only way they can
be removed from a pavement's surface is by either a structural or non-
structural overlay.
Polished Aggregate
SMAs at the NCAT test 5 years of wear
track
Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the portion of aggregate
extending above the asphalt binder is either very small or there are no
rough or angular aggregate particles.
Potholes
Raveling
Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning, can be
hazardous because ruts tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut path as it is
steered across the rut.
Ruts caused by studded tire wear present the same problem as the ruts
described here, but they are actually a result of mechanical dislodging
due to wear and not pavement deformation.
Slippage Cracking
Slippage
cracking at a
bus stop
Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks generally having two
ends pointed into the direction of traffic.
Stripping
Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack
seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the
cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can provide
years of satisfactory service after developing small cracks if they
are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks).
Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Water Bleeding and Pumping
Possible Causes: During cold periods (e.g., winter) PCC slabs contract
leaving wider joint openings. If these openings become filled with
incompressible material (such as rocks or soil), subsequent PCC slab
expansion during hot periods (e.g., spring, summer) may cause high
compressive stresses. If these stresses are great enough, the slabs may
buckle and shatter to relieve the stresses. Blowup can be accelerated by:
Corner Break
Faulting
Faulting from ground Faulting in the truck Up close near a bus
level lane stop
Description: A difference in elevation across a joint or crack usually
associated with undoweled JPCP. Usually the approach slab is higher than
the leave slab due to pumping, the most common faulting mechanism.
Faulting is noticeable when the average faulting in the pavement section
reaches about 2.5 mm (0.1 inch). When the average faulting reaches 4
mm (0.15 in), diamond grinding or other rehabilitation measures should
be considered (Rao et al., 1999).
Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes: Load transfer dowel bars can fail for two principal
reasons:
Repair: Slabs with a single, narrow linear crack may be repaired by crack
sealing. More than one linear crack generally warrants a full-depth patch.
Patching
Patch on a residential Large utility patch Patch with poor
street edges
Description: An area of pavement that has been replaced with new
material to repair the existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect
no matter how well it performs.
Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes:
Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The only way they can
be removed is through an overlay or slab replacement.
Polished Aggregate
Popouts
Large popouts Popout close-up
Description: Small pieces of PCC that break loose from the surface
leaving small divots or pock marks. Popouts range from 25 - 100 mm (1 -
4 inches) in diameter and from 25 - 50 mm (1 - 2 inches) deep.
Repair: Isolated low severity popouts may not warrant repair. Larger
popouts or a group of popouts can generally be repaired with a partial-
depth patch.
Pumping
Repair: First, the pumping area should be repaired with a full depth patch
to remove any deteriorated slab areas. Second, consideration should be
given to using dowel bars to increase load transfer across any significant
transverse joints created by the repair. Third, consideration should be
given to stabilizing any slabs adjacent to the pumping area as significant
amounts of their underlying base, subbase or subgrade may have been
removed by the pumping. Finally, the source of water or cause of poor
drainage should be addressed.
Punchout
Severe punchout
Description: Localized slab portion broken into several pieces. Typically
a concern only with CRCP.
Severe crazing
Description: Pattern or map cracking (crazing) on the PCC slab surface
caused by reactive aggregates. Reactive aggregates are those that either
expand or develop expansive by products when introduced to certain
chemical compounds.
Possible Causes: All PCC will shrink as it sets and cures, therefore
shrinkage cracks are expected in rigid pavement and provisions for their
control are made. However, uncontrolled shrinkage cracking can indicate:
Spalling
Repair: Spalling less than 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face can
generally be repaired with a partial-depth patch. Spalling greater than
about 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face may indicated possible
spalling at the joint bottom and should be repaired with a full-depth patch.
Construction
HMA production is the first step in construction. The basic purpose of an HMA plant is to
properly proportion, blend, and heat aggregate and asphalt to produce an HMA that meets the
requirements of the job mix formula (JMF) (Roberts et al., 1996). There are two basic types
of HMA plants commonly in use today: the batch plant, and the drum mix plant. Batch
plants produce HMA in individual batches while drum plants produce HMA in a continuous
operation. Each type of plant can produce the same types of HMA and neither type of plant
should impart any significant plant-specific HMA characteristics. The choice of a batch or
drum mix plant depends upon business factors such as purchase price, operating costs,
production requirements and the need for flexibility in local markets; both can produce
quality HMA. This section gives a brief overview of batch and drum mix plants. More
detailed information on plant operations can be found in:
• Transportation Research Board (TRB). (2000). Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving
Handbook 2000. Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council. Washington, D.C.
• Roberts, F.L., Kandhal, P.S., Brown, E.R., Lee, D.Y., and Kennedy, T.W.
(1996). Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design, and Construction.
National Asphalt Pavement Association Research and Education
Foundation. Lanham, MD.
Batch Plants
Batch plants, which produce HMA in individual batches, are the older of the two types of
HMA production facilities. HMA was originally made in batches; it was not until the 1970s
that drum plants became a popular HMA production option. Currently about 70 percent of all
operational HMA plants in the U.S. are batch plants while about 95 percent of all newly
manufactured plants in the U.S. are drum plants (Roberts, et al., 1996). This means that as
older batch plants are retired they are more than likely to be replaced by new drum plants,
which can provide greater mobility and production capacity. Typical batch quantities range
from 1.5 to 5 tons of HMA. Figure 7.18 shows the basic components of a batch plant and
their functions.
Drum Plants
Drum plants, which produce HMA in a continuous manner, generally offer higher production
rates than batch plants for comparable cost. Typical production rates for drum plants vary
between about 100 tons/hr up to over 900 tons/hr depending upon drum design. Figure 7.19
shows the basic components of a drum plant and their functions.
All PCC intended for pavement use is ready-mixed concrete. Ready-mixed concrete refers to
PCC that is delivered to the customer in a freshly mixed and unhardened state (NRMCA,
2002). Therefore, PCC production involves the batching and mixing of portland cement,
aggregate, water and admixtures to form a ready-mixed concrete in accordance with the
approved mix design. There are three basic production methods: truck mixing, central
mixing and shrink mixing. Other methods of PCC mixing do exist but they are not common
in pavement applications and are therefore not covered in this Guide. Truck mixed PCC is
dry batched into a concrete mixing truck then blended in the truck either at the batching plant
or in route to the job site. Central mixed PCC is batched and mixed in a central facility and
then loaded into a truck for transport to the job site. Shrink mixed PCC is partially mixed in a
plant mixer and then discharged into a truck mixer where the mixing is completed. This section provides a
brief overview of truck, central and shrink mixing. More detailed information on plant
operations can be found in:
Truck mixed PCC is usually proportioned by batching the separate ingredients directly into
the concrete mixing truck. The ingredients are usually charged in a certain order to ensure
good mixing of all ingredients. Although the specific order depends upon local practice,
mixing plant procedures and possibly job specifications.
Truck mixed PCC (see figure 7.68) is appropriate for all types of pavement construction, but
is particularly well-suited for instances that can take advantage of a concrete mixing truck's
monitored, continuously agitated storage volume (the mixing drum) and its ability to
precisely deliver PCC through its chute (see Figure 7.69). These situations might include:
intersection paving, street paving, pavement repair, urban environments, high traffic areas
and staged/phased construction. Disadvantages of truck mixed PCC are longer load and
unload times (due to the nature and opening size of the mixing drum) and the higher
operating cost of a concrete mixing truck when compared to an end or bottom dump truck.
Central mixed PCC is usually proportioned by batching the separate ingredients into a central
plant mixer (see Figures 7.70 through 7.73) where they are completely mixed before
discharge into a transport vehicle. Transport vehicles can be concrete mixing trucks or
conventional end and bottom dump trucks depending upon travel distance and other
requirements. About 20 percent of the concrete plants in the U.S. use a central mixer
(NRMCA, 2002). Central mixing plants can either be permanent or mobile (see Figure 7.74)
and offer the following advantages (NRMCA, 2002):
Shrink mixed PCC is partially mixed in a plant mixer before discharging into a truck mixer.
The short mixing period in the plant mixer reduces the bulk volume of the overall ingredients
by allowing fine aggregate, portland cement and water to fill the large void space in bulk
coarse aggregate. Typically, 1 m3 (1.3 yd3) of fully mixed PCC requires about 1.58 m3 (2.07
yd3) of individual ingredients (ACPA, 1995). Thus, with shrink mixing, more PCC can be
loaded into each truck mixer. Many central mixing plants use a stationary plant-mounted
mixer to shrink mix PCC before charging their truck mixers. The amount of mixing that is
needed in the truck mixer varies in these applications and should be determined via mixer
uniformity tests. Generally, about thirty turns in the truck drum, or about two minutes at
mixing speed, is sufficient to completely mix shrink-mixed concrete (NRMCA, 2002).
References:
1. http://training.ce.washington.edu/wsdot/
2. http://www.acpa.org/
3. http://www.enggpedia.com