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The ozone molecule contains three atoms of The Meetings of the Parties to the Montreal
oxygen and is mainly formed by the action of Protocol appointed three Assessment Panels
the ultraviolet rays of the sun on the diatomic to review the progress in scientific knowledge
oxygen molecules in the upper part of the on their behalf. These panels are the
earth’s atmosphere (called the stratosphere). Scientific Assessment Panel, the
Atmospheric pollution near the Earth’s Technological and Economic Assessment
surface can form localized areas of ozone. Panel and the Environmental and Health
The stratospheric ozone layer protects life on Effects Assessment Panel. Each panel
earth by absorbing most of the harmful covers a designated area and there is a
ultraviolet radiation from the sun. natural level of overlap. The main reports of
the Panels are published every four years as
In the mid 1970s it was discovered that some required by the Meeting of the Parties. All the
manmade products destroy ozone molecules reports have an executive summary that is
in the stratosphere. This destruction can distributed more widely than the main report
result in damage to ecosystems and to itself. It became customary to add a set of
materials such as plastics. It may cause an questions and answers – mainly for non-
increase in human diseases such as skin expert readers – to the executive summaries.
cancers and cataracts.
This document contains the questions and
The discovery of the role of the synthetic answers prepared by experts who comprise
ozone-depleting chemicals such as the Environmental Assessment Panel. It is
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) stimulated based mainly on the 2006 report of the
increased research and monitoring in this Effects Panel but also contains information
field. Computer models predicted a disaster if from previous assessments. Readers who
no action was taken to protect the ozone need detailed information on any question
layer. Based on this research and monitoring, should consult the full reports for a more
the nations of the world took action in 1985 complete scientific discussion.
with the Vienna Convention for the Protection
of the Ozone Layer followed by the Montreal This set of questions refers mainly to the
Protocol on Substances that deplete the environmental effects of ozone depletion and
Ozone Layer in 1987. The Convention and climate change. The report of the Scientific
Protocol were amended and adjusted several Assessment Panel contains questions and
times as new knowledge that was obtained. answers related to the other scientific issues
addressed by that Panel. All these reports
can be found on the UNEP website:
(http://ozone.unep.org).
Q1. Can human activities have any effects on worldwide phenomena such as depletion of the ozone layer
and climate change? ................................................................................................................. 4
Q2. What is the relationship between ozone and solar ultraviolet radiation? ......................................... 5
Q4. What is the effect of pollution of the lower atmosphere on UV-B irradiation? .................................... 7
Q6. How does the UV index vary with location and time? .................................................................. 9
Q7. What are the effects of solar UV radiation exposure on the human eye and how can the eye be
protected? ............................................................................................................................ 10
Q8. What are the effects of solar UV-B exposure on the human skin and how can the skin be protected? . 11
Q10. What are the adverse effects of increased UV-B radiation on crops and forests? .......................... 13
Q12. What risks do the breakdown products of HFCs and HCFCs present to humans and the
environment? ........................................................................................................................ 15
Q13. How can I protect myself from the adverse health effects of UV-B while still receiving its benefits? ... 16
Q14. Does climate change alter the effect of UV radiation on aquatic ecosystems? .............................. 17
Q15. What effects does the depletion of ozone have on environmental processes and cycles? ............... 18
Q19. Are there any beneficial health effects of solar UV-B radiation? ................................................. 22
VI Sources of information
Q20. Where can I get more information about the science and effects of ozone depletion? ................... 23
Natural environmental cycles often span Measurements show that its concentration
thousands of years but most scientific has increased by almost 30% as a result of
measurements have been made only over human activities since the beginning of the
the past 150 years. It is often not easy to industrial revolution (around 1750), resulting
accurately determine the influence of humans in enhancement of the greenhouse
on any natural activity. In the case of the effectMethane and nitrous oxide emitted from
ozone layer, the depletion of the ozone over agricultural activities, changes in land use,
the Antarctica cannot be explained by natural and other sources are also potent
cycles but is caused by the increase of greenhouse gases.
synthetic chemicals in the stratosphere. The
relationship between these chemicals (e.g. The increase in greenhouse gasses
chlorofluorocarbons also known as CFCs) contributes to climate change in the form of
and ozone depletion has been proven by increased temperatures on the earth and a
experiments in laboratories, numerical rise in sea level. Carbon dioxide is produced
modelling studies and by direct when fossil fuels are used to generate energy
measurements in the atmosphere. and when forests are burned. Observations
show that global temperatures rose by about
By absorbing the infrared radiation emitted by 0.6 ˚C over the 20th century. Climate models
the earth, some gases control the way natural of the emission of greenhouse gases predict
energy flows through the atmosphere. Such that the global temperature will rise by about
gases are known as greenhouse gases. 1.4 – 5.8°C by the year 2100. If this happens,
Carbon dioxide, although only a tiny fraction the change would be much larger than any
of the atmosphere, is an important temperature change experienced over at
greenhouse gas. least the last 10,000 years.
Fig Q1.1 The decrease in ozone Figure: Q1.2 Global mean surface
concentrations since the 1970s, as depicted temperature change during the last 140
here, is much larger than can be explained by years, showing a marked increase over the
natural phenomena. past century
Stratospheric ozone is naturally formed in The radiation emitted by the sun contains an
chemical reactions involving ultraviolet ultraviolet component. This covers the range
sunlight and oxygen molecules. These of wavelengths from 100 to 400 nm and is
reactions occur continually wherever divided into three bands: UV-A (315 – 400
ultraviolet sunlight is present. The production nm), UV-B (280 – 315 nm) and UV-C (100 –
of stratospheric ozone is balanced by its 280 nm). As the sunlight passes through the
destruction in chemical reactions. Ozone atmosphere, all the UV-C and approximately
reacts continually with a variety of natural and 90% of the UV-B are absorbed mainly by
anthropogenic chemicals in the stratosphere. ozone and oxygen. UV-A radiation is less
affected by the atmosphere. Therefore, the
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth’s
surface is composed of mainly UV-A with a
In the lower atmosphere ozone is produced small UV-B component. A decrease in the
by the chemical reactions between mainly concentration of ozone in the atmosphere
nitrogen oxides and organic chemical results in increased UV-B radiation at the
pollutants produced by motor vehicle and surface of the earth. DNA and other biological
industrial emissions. The ozone in both the macromolecules absorb UV-B and can be
troposphere and the atmosphere absorbs the damaged in this process.
UV radiation received at the surface.
Figure Q2.1: Production of ozone in the Figure Q2.2: UV-B radiation as part of the
stratosphere. solar spectrum
The UV-B irradiation varies with the time of Snow is more common at higher altitudes,
the day, geographic location and the season. and reflects as much as 90% of the ultraviolet
The ultraviolet radiation that reaches the radiation. Dry beach sand and sea foam
earth is greatest in the tropics and decreases reflects about 25% of UV-B radiation. Clouds
towards the poles. For the same reason it is also reflect an appreciable amount of
greatest near local noon and least near radiation to the areas where they do not
sunrise or sunset. Outside the tropics it is directly obscure the sunlight
generally greater in the summer and least in
the winter. Clouds, particulate matter, The ultraviolet irradiation to which an
aerosols and air pollutants absorb and scatter individual is exposed is determined by a
some of the ultraviolet radiation and thereby combination of all these factors
diminish the amount reaching the earth's
surface. Under clear skies the maximum
irradiation occurs when the sun is directly
overhead.
While most of the atmospheric ozone is indicate the importance of particulate and
formed in the stratosphere, some ozone is pollution-related UV-B reductions.
produced in the lower atmosphere by the
chemical reactions between pollutants such At any particular location there is a direct
as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. This relationship between UV-B irradiation and the
ozone is a component of the photochemical amount of ozone in the atmosphere. UV-B
smog found in many polluted areas. Airborne increases with ozone depletion in the
particles (smoke, dust and sulphate aerosols) stratosphere but decreases with ozone
block UV radiation, but at the same time can formation in the lower atmosphere. The
increase the amount of scattered light (haze) natural UV-B variability (e.g., from time of
and therefore increase the UV exposure of day, or clouds) can be larger than the effect
side-facing surfaces (e.g., face, eyes). of pollution, but goes in both directions, up
Comparisons of measurements made in and down. The cumulative amounts will
industrialized regions of the Northern depend critically upon local conditions and
Hemisphere (e.g., central Europe) and in very are therefore difficult to model in a general
clean locations at similar latitudes in the way. Many detrimental effects of UV-B are
Southern Hemisphere (e.g., New Zealand) proportional to the cumulative UV-B
exposure.
The values of the UV index extend from zero The UVI can be measured directly with
upwards – the higher the index value, the instruments designed specifically to measure
greater the potential for damage, and the less sun burning UV radiation. Alternatively, for
exposure time it takes for harm to occur. The clear sky conditions, the UVI can be
UVI was originally used in Canada, and was calculated from knowledge of the ozone and
defined so the maximum value in the South the solar elevation However, the UVI also
of the country was 10 at midday in the depends strongly on the cloud cover. Other
summer, and about 1 at midday in the winter. factors include the seasonally varying Sun-
For fair skinned individuals, a UVI of 10 or Earth separation, the altitude, atmospheric
more is usually considered as “extreme” pollution, and surface reflection. When the
because under those conditions, skin surface is snow-covered, the UVI can be up
damage can occur after less than 15 minutes to 90% greater than for snow-free surfaces.
of exposure. The UVI scale is an open-ended Several countries provide forecasts of UVI
scale. When the Sun is below the horizon the that take predicted changes in ozone and
UVI is zero, and at its maximum on the cloud cover into account.
Earth’s surface, for example in the Altiplano
region of South America in summer, the UVI
can exceed 25. In the tropics at sea level the
UVI can exceed 16. Further details about the UVI can be found at
Exposure UVI
Category Range
Low <2
Moderate 3–5
High 6–7
Very High 8 – 10
Extreme 11+
Table Q5.1: Exposure categories related to Figure Q5.1: Variation of the UVI as a
UVI ranges as adopted in mid-latitude function of sun elevation for four ozone
countries amounts
A global picture of the UVI can be derived by The presence of “patchy clouds” or snow-
instruments on board satellites. They indicate covered ground can result in very large UV
that the index varies with the latitude and the indices. A good example is the high altitude
time of the year, as can be seen from the two desert Puna of Atacama in Argentina, where
figures for September and March presented a UV index of 18 is common in January and
below. UV irradiation increases with altitude, December, with a maximum of 20 and even
and therefore the UVI is higher at mountain more on occasional days. A combination of
locations. small solar zenith angle near noon, high
altitude, a naturally low total ozone column
and a very clean atmosphere cause these
exceptionally high values.
Figure Q6.1: UV Index for June Figure Q6.2: UV Index for January
The commonest acute effect, photokeratitis Even clear spectacle lenses provide
(snow blindness) leaves few or no permanent protection from UV-B. However, in the case
effects, whereas cataract due to chronic of non-wrap around spectacles there is
exposure is irreversible and ultimately leads potential for ambient UV radiation to enter the
to blindness. eye from the side. This effect can be
exacerbated by tinted sunglass lenses which
Avoidance of sun exposure is an effective but encourage a wider opening of the eye. UV
impractical means of avoiding exposure of radiation-blocking soft contact lenses, that
the eyes to UV radiation. Despite these, cover the entire cornea, effectively shield the
additional protection is frequently needed cornea and ocular lens against UV radiation
under conditions of high ambient UV incident from all angles. They offer a UV
irradiation and/or reflective surfaces. protection alternative in those situations
where the wearing of sunglasses is not
Appropriate glass and plastic lenses absorb practical or convenient.
all UV-B and much of the incident UV-A
Figure Q7.1: Soft UV radiation-absorbing contact lens covering the entire cornea
The amount of UV radiation required to radiation is not well understood, but exposure
produce sunburn depends on the absorption in early life seems to be an important factor in
in the superficial layers (varying with the its development. Dark skinned persons have
amount of pigment) of the skin and on other natural protection in their skin against
genetic factors. The efficacy with which sunlight. Although melanoma does occur in
sunlight produces sunburn depends on the darker skinned persons, such cancers are
amount of UV-B radiation present; more UV- often not related to sun exposure.
B is present at high altitudes and more is
present in noontime sun than at earlier of Methods of decreasing sun exposure of the
later hours. Chronic exposure of the skin to skin include remaining indoors during the
UV radiation causes photo ageing (including peak UV-B hours around midday and seeking
wrinkling, thinning, and loss of elasticity); shade at other times. Broad brimmed hats,
however, UV-A may be more important than sunglasses and full-body clothing that reduce
UV-B in causes these latter changes. the area of exposed skin are also effective.
Basal and squamous cell carcinomas occur Sunscreens are designed to protect against
most often and with high frequency in fair- sunburn and can be highly. There is evidence
skinned individuals living in sunny climates. that they reduce the incidence of squamous
Fortunately, most of these skin cancers are cell carcinoma and precancerous lesions in
readily treated and rarely fatal. Cutaneous the skin. Obtaining a suntan will not usually
melanoma is considerably more dangerous, help to prevent UV-B induced skin cancer
but occurs with much lower frequency than and the UV radiation exposure needed to
the other types of skin cancer. The acquire the tan adds to the skin cancer risk.
relationship between melanoma and UV-B
Some cells of the immune system, called Numerous laboratory animal models of
antigen-presenting cells, reside in the skin. infectious diseases demonstrate that
Their function is to survey the skin for foreign exposure to UV radiation at a critical time
challenges, such as invading microorganisms during infection can increase the severity and
or tumour proteins. They capture any duration of the disease. UV exposure during
molecules they find and carry them to the immunization can reduce the effectiveness of
nearest lymph node where the active immune vaccinations. How these observations may
response is initiated. Exposing the skin to apply to human diseases remains a subject
UV-B radiation causes several changes - one of intense interest and research. Although
leads to a change in the antigen-presenting there are some examples such as with
cells so that the immune response may herpes virus infections (cold sores, shingles)
induce suppression. Another is to stimulate in which UV exposure before or after
the production of a particular range of immunisation can increase susceptibility to
immune mediators in the skin that also favour and the severity of an infection. The full
suppressing immune responses. implications of the immunological effects are
not well understood.
Figure Q9.1: Exposure to UV-B radiation decreases the effect of allergens on the human skin.
Only a small proportion of the UV-B radiation The biochemistry and physiology of plants
striking a leaf penetrates into the inner are influenced by UV-B exposure, such as in
tissues. When exposed to enhanced UV-B the accumulation of UV-B absorbing
radiation, many species of plants can compounds. It is not possible to conclude yet
increase the UV-absorbing compounds in whether changes in UV-B irradiation will have
their outer leaf tissues. Other adaptations any appreciable impact on the quality of food.
include increased thickness of leaves, Changes in plant biochemistry induced by
thereby reducing the proportion of inner UV-B radiation have been shown to influence
tissues exposed to UV-B radiation and the interactions between crop plants and
changes in the protecting waxy layer of the herbivorous insects.
leaves. Several repair mechanisms exist in
plants, including repair systems for damage During their evolution, plants and animals
to DNA and other vital biomolecules. The net have adapted to particular environments.
UV damage a plant experiences is the result They have acquired protection and repair
of the balance between the damage, mechanisms appropriate for their particular
protection and repair processes. situations. However, the present rate of
global change is so rapid that evolution may
Some varieties of crops are UV-B-sensitive not keep up with it, particularly in long-lived
and produce reduced yield following an plants like trees. Plants adapt to a rather
increase in UV-B. There are also UV-B- specific UV-B environment, and a change in
tolerant varieties, providing us with the UV-B may be detrimental even though it is
opportunity to breed and genetically engineer smaller than the difference between the
for UV-B tolerant crops. Commercial forests, natural irradiation at the equator and higher
tree breeding and genetic engineering may latitudes. For example, herbaceous plants
be used to improve UV-B tolerant plants. native to the southern tip of South America
While many forest tree species appear to be and the Antarctic Peninsula have been
UV-B tolerant, there is some evidence that shown to be affected by the current high
detrimental UV-B effects accumulate slowly levels of ambient UV-B irradiation. Over a
from year to year in certain species. long time and many generations, there is the
possibility that genetic adaptation can
develop.
In clear ocean and lake waters, ecologically- At the depth indicated, only 10 percent of the
relevant irradiation by UV-B can penetrate to UV-B radiation that was present at the
tens of metres. In turbid rivers and wetlands, water’s surface remains. The rest was
however, UV-B may be completely absorbed absorbed or scattered back towards the
within the top few centimetres. In aquatic ocean surface.
ecosystems, most organisms, such as
phytoplankton, live in the illuminated upper The eggs and larvae of many fish are
layer of a body of water that allows the sensitive to UV-B exposure. In the Gulf of
penetration of enough light to support Maine, UV penetrates to considerable depth
photosynthetic, or green, plants where where the embryos and larvae of the Atlantic
exposure to UV-B can occur. In particular, cod develop. Exposure to UV equivalent to
UV-B radiation may damage those organisms 10 m depth results in a significant mortality of
that live at the surface of the water during developing embryos and a significant
their early life stages. decrease in length of larvae. Such irradiance
occurs at many temperate latitudes where
effects of UV-B radiation have been shown these ecologically and commercially
for phytoplankton, fish eggs and larvae, important fish spawn. In freshwater lakes and
zooplankton and other primary and ponds, amphibian embryos are protected
secondary consumers. Most adult fish are from UV-B by the enzyme photolyase,
well protected from excessive solar UV since melanin pigmentation of eggs, jelly covering
they inhabit deep waters. Some shallow- around eggs, water depth and dissolved
water fish have been found to develop skin organic matter in water. Larvae can seek
cancer and other UV-related diseases. shelter from sunlight by swimming into
shaded areas and vegetation of pond. In
UV-B radiation reaches different depths in contrast, lobster larvae seem to be tolerant to
ocean water depending on water chemistry, UV radiation even though they develop in the
the density of phytoplankton, and the surface layers of the water column.
presence of dissolved and particulate matter.
The map indicates the average depth UV-B
penetrates into ocean water.
CF3 CXyH
O
O CF2Cl C OH
CF3 C OH
TFA
The intensity of UV-B radiation is usually the If you must go out during the central hours in
greatest during the central hours of the day sunny countries, cover all exposed skin
(about 10:00 to 14:00). Many news outlets surfaces with a sunscreen of sun protection
and government websites report the daily factor (SPF) 10 or greater, (depending on the
UV-Index, with values ranging from 1 to more location and irradiation of the sunlight and the
than 20. UV alerts are issued in some susceptivity of your skin type to sunlight) but
countries when unusually high UV-indexes not as a way to stay out longer; you can get
are predicted. damage even through a sunscreen. The skin
of children is very sensitive to UV-B radiation.
When you go outside, particularly if you They need protective clothing and should
cannot avoid the midday hours, the general stay in the shade as much as possible during
advice is to seek shade. The popular the central hours. Sunscreens, if used, need
Australian advice “to slip (on a shirt), slap (on to be high SPF (20 -40) and need to be re-
a hat), slop (on some sunscreen)” (modified applied frequently especially when swimming.
by the New Zealanders to “slip, slap, slop and UV-B exposure during childhood appears to
wrap” [add wrap-around sunglasses]) is raise one’s susceptibility to UV-B damage
useful. later in life
Hats with brims more than 10 cm wide are While there have been concerns that under-
recommended for head and eye protection exposure to UV-B radiation may impair
and can reduce exposure of the eyes by up vitamin-D status, the Auckland Cancer
to 50%. The hood of a jacket, and similar Society suggests that 30 minutes outside per
headwear having sides, often provides day (not in the midday hours) should be
protection from UV-B from the side. Wrap- sufficient to support adequate vitamin D
around sunglasses are better at protecting status for most individuals.
the entire eye than conventional sunglasses
with open sides.
These complex changes are likely to have Climate change influences the amount of ice
significant effects on ecosystems, including and snow cover in polar and sub polar areas.
biological production (e.g. human marine Ice and snow strongly attenuate the
resources) as well as changes in the global penetration of solar radiation into the water
hydrological cycle, vertical mixing and column. Any substantial decrease in ice and
efficiency of carbon dioxide uptake by the snow cover will alter the exposure of aquatic
ocean. However, the effects will vary over ecosystems to solar UV radiation.
time and between different locations.
Changes in temperature and the intensity and Shifts in atmospheric circulation will change
frequency of rainfall may alter the input of wind fields, influencing mixing and the depth
terrestrially-derived coloured dissolved of the upper mixed layer. Such changes and
organic matter (CDOM) to inland and coastal increases in temperature affect the
aquatic ecosystems. For example, decreased stratification of the surface layer and the
rainfall and increased temperature cause potential impact of UV-B on near surface
reductions in CDOM inputs and consequent organisms. Changing winds will also
increases in the depth to which UV influence coastal upwelling systems and the
penetrates. In addition, the amount of potential for possible influence of these
penetration that is dependent upon dissolved systems to UV radiation. Another aspect is
and suspended material in the water column, the dependence of many physiological
changes the ratio of UV-A to UV-B to PAR. responses on temperature..
These changing ratios, in turn, have various
influences on decomposers, producers and
consumers.
Figure Q14.1:The
aquatic ecosystem
UV radiation influences the biological of the physical climate system, such as wind,
productivity of oceans, including the precipitation and the exchange of heat and
production of gases at their surfaces and energy between the air and the oceans.
their subsequent transfer to the atmosphere. There are also similarly complex interactions
Once in the atmosphere, trace gases such as between biogeochemical cycles on land and
carbon dioxide (CO2) interact with the the integrated climate system that may have
physical climate system resulting in important implications for organisms on
alterations to climate and feedbacks in the Earth. At this stage, it is not possible to
global biogeochemical system. Since predict the overall environmental effects of
atmospheric CO2 plays a central role in the these complex interactions between changes
distribution of heat in the atmosphere, its in climate and UV radiation.
increasing concentrations may affect many
components
Figure Q 15.1: Interations between environmental processes and cycles.( Figure provided by the
US Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS) and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI)).
Yes - The outdoor service life of commercial plastics is often limited by their UV-stability and
weatherability.
Available data on the degradation of plastics The outdoor lifetimes of plastics, however,
by the UV in sunlight show that for common depend not only on their chemical nature but
polymers a portion of the damage that occurs also on their formulations and specifically on
over time is attributable to the UV-B radiation the type and concentration of photostabiliser
component. As any depletion of the additives used in them. Reductions in service
stratospheric ozone layer would increase the life of plastics can probably be countered by
UV-B content of the solar radiation reaching using higher than normal concentrations of
the earth’s surface, this would therefore existing light stabilizers in the formulation,
increase the rate of degradation of those better surface protection of materials (e.g.
plastics (and other natural materials such as painting wood) or by using different polymeric
wood). The extent to which the service life of materials that are more UV resistant for
these materials will be shortened by this outdoor applications. These approaches
phenomenon will of course depend on the might be able to retain service life at present-
type of polymer, the locations of exposure, day levels but at an increased cost of the
and the light-stabilizers used in the products.
formulation.
Halocarbons such as CFCs have contributed have lower global warming potentials
to positive direct radiative forcing and (GWPs), and because total halocarbon
associated increases in global average emissions have decreased, their contribution
surface temperature. Ozone depletion due to to climate change has been reduced.
ODSs has an indirect cooling effect of the Ammonia and those hydrocarbons used as
ODSs. Warming due to ODSs and cooling halocarbon substitutes are very likely to have
associated with ozone depletion are two a negligible effect on global climate. The
distinct climate forcing mechanisms that do relative future warming and cooling effects of
not simply offset one another. Bromine- emissions of CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, PFCs
containing gases currently contribute much and halons vary. ODS indirect cooling is
more to cooling than to warming, whereas projected to cease upon ozone layer
CFCs and HCFCs contribute more to recovery, so that GWPs associated with the
warming than to cooling. HFCs and PFCs indirect cooling effect depend on the year of
contribute only to warming. emission, compliance with the Montreal
Protocol and gas lifetimes.
Actions taken under the Montreal Protocol
have led to the replacement of CFCs with Substitution for ODSs in air conditioning,
HCFCs, HFCs, and other substances and refrigeration, and foam blowing by HFCs,
processes. Because replacement species PFCs, and other gases such as
generally hydrocarbons are not expected to have a
significant effect on global tropospheric
chemistry
Figure Q 17.1: Ozone depleting compounds have both warming and cooling effects on the
atmosphere.
In the majority of people, most of their vitamin people with dark skin require more exposure
D is acquired from exposure of the skin to than those with fair skin to make the same
sunlight. Vitamin D is very important for amount of vitamin D. Individuals deficient in
many aspects of general health. It has been circulating vitamin D can develop bone
known for many years that it is required for defects, resulting in an increased risk of
the growth, development and maintenance of osteoporosis and fractures in adults, and of
bone. More recently, it has been suggested rickets in children. Adequate vitamin D status
to play a protective role against the is now implicated in the prevention of an
development of several internal cancers, increasing number of non-skeletal disorders.
autoimmune diseases and infectious These include several internal cancers such
diseases. as colorectal and prostate, autoimmune
diseases such as multiple sclerosis and
Although the human diet contains some items insulin-dependent diabetes, and infections,
rich in vitamin D, such as oily fish, more than such as tuberculosis. Consideration is
90% of vitamin D is produced by exposure of urgently required regarding how to balance
the skin to solar UV radiation. Vitamin D is this positive effect of solar UV radiation
synthesised most effectively when the sun is exposure with the negative effects on the skin
at its height in the summer months, and and the eye of too much exposure.
UNEP http://ozone.unep.org
WMO http://www.wmo.ch
WHO http://www.who.int
IPCC http://www.ipcc.ch
NOAA http://www.noaa.gov/airquality.html
EPA http://www.epa.gov
NASA http://jwocky.gsfc.nasa.gov
NIWA http://www.niwascience.co.nz
WOUDC http://www.woudc.org