Design and Construction of An EV Driveline Prototype With An Integrated Flywheel

UPTEC ES10 013
Examensarbete 30 hp
April 2010
Design and Construction of an

EV Driveline Prototype with an
Integrated Flywheel
Nils Finnstedt
Abstract
Design and Construction of an EV Driveline Prototype
with an Integrated Flywheel
Nils Finnstedt
Teknisk- naturvetenskaplig fakultet

UTH-enheten Research shows that flywheels have a significant potential for improving the
performance of EV (Electric Vehicle) drivelines. Flywheels can be used as power
Besöksadress: buffers that even out the energy flow between the primary energy storage device and
Ångströmlaboratoriet
Lägerhyddsvägen 1 the EV traction motor. This improves the potential energy density and extends the
Hus 4, Plan 0 lifetime of the primary energy storage device of the EV.
Postadress: In this degree project a prototype of a flywheel-buffered driveline was constructed.
Box 536
751 21 Uppsala The flywheel chosen was an electric motor/generator constructed at the Division of
Electricity at Uppsala University. Lead acid batteries were used as the primary energy
Telefon: storage device in the driveline and the traction motor was a DC-motor.
018 – 471 30 03
Telefax: Two DC/DC buck converters were designed for the driveline. The first limited the
018 – 471 30 00 current from the batteries to the flywheel and the second controlled the power from
the flywheel to the traction motor. Both converters were controlled by
Hemsida: microcontrollers. The current limiter was controlled by a hysteresis controller and
http://www.teknat.uu.se/student
the DC-motor power was regulated manually, under the constraint of a maximum
current PI-controller. The buck circuits were simulated in MATLAB Simulink prior to
their construction.
The performance of the driveline was satisfactory, despite the poor efficiency of the
DC-motor. The results showed that the efficiency of the flywheel and the power
converters was relatively high and that the flywheel had excellent power-buffering
properties.
Handledare: Janaína Gonçalves och Johan Lundin

Ämnesgranskare: Hans Bernhoff
Examinator: Kjell Pernestål
ISSN: 1650-8300, UPTEC ES10 013
Sammanfattning
Forskning har visat att svänghjul har potential att förbättra prestanda hos drivlinor för elfordon.
Svänghjul kan användas för att jämna ut effektflödet mellan drivlinans primära energilager och
dess drivmotor. Det primära energilagret kan vara optimerat för hög energitäthet istället för hög
effekttäthet om effekten från det är utjämnat och maxeffekten reducerad. För batterier, som är det
vanligaste primära energilagret för elfordon, ökar också livslängden och förlusterna sjunker om de
kan leverera en konstant effekt istället för den varierande effekten med de höga maxströmmarna
som drivmotorn kräver. Svänghjul är lämpliga att använda som energibuffertar i drivlinor för
elfordon eftersom de både har goda effekthanterings- och energilagringsegenskaper.
En prototyp av en elektrisk drivlina med ett integrerat svänghjul har designats och konstruerats i
detta examensarbete. Detta har varit en del av ett större forskningsprojekt på Avdelningen för
Elektricitetslära på Uppsala Universitet. Det svänghjul som användes i drivlinan var en
specialdesignad elektrisk motor/generator som tidigare konstruerats på avdelningen. Drivlinan
bestod förutom svänghjulet av blybatterier, en DC-motor som drivmotor, en last som mekaniskt
belastade DC-motorn, samt ett antal elektriska kretsar för att kontrollera effektflödet mellan
drivlinans olika delar.
De elektriska kretsarna som designades i arbetet var två DC/DC-konverterare. Den ena hade syftet
att begränsa strömmen fån batterierna till svänghjulets drivsystem och den andra att kontrollera
effekten från svänghjulet till DC-motorn. Kretsarna designades något olika för att jämförelser av
olika systemlösningar skulle kunna göras. Båda kretsarna kontrollerades av digitala
mikrokontrollers. Kretsarna datorsimulerades innan de konstruerades.
Bortsett från DC-motorns verkningsgrad, visade mätningar att drivlinans prestanda var god.
Svänghjulet och dess drivkretsar visade sig ha relativt hög verkningsgrad och dess förmåga att
jämna ut effektflödet från batterierna till drivmotorn var mycket god.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Background ...................................................................................................................................... 3
3 Aims and objectives......................................................................................................................... 4
4 Method ............................................................................................................................................. 5
5 Theory .............................................................................................................................................. 6
5.1 Electric machines ...................................................................................................................... 6
5.1.1 DC-Machines ..................................................................................................................... 6
5.1.2 PM Synchronous Machines ............................................................................................... 7
5.2 Batteries .................................................................................................................................... 8
5.3 Power Converters...................................................................................................................... 8
5.3.1 DC/AC ............................................................................................................................... 8
5.3.2 AC/DC ............................................................................................................................... 8
5.3.3 DC/DC ............................................................................................................................... 9
5.4 Electronic components............................................................................................................ 10
5.4.1 Switches ........................................................................................................................... 10
5.4.2 Diodes .............................................................................................................................. 11
5.4.3 Microcontrollers............................................................................................................... 11
5.4.4 Gate Drivers ..................................................................................................................... 12
5.5 Snubber Circuits...................................................................................................................... 12
5.6 Control Methods ..................................................................................................................... 12
5.6.1 Hysteresis Control............................................................................................................ 12
5.6.2 PID Controlled PWM ...................................................................................................... 13
5.7 Current Limitation .................................................................................................................. 14
5.8 Power Quality ......................................................................................................................... 14
5.9 PCB Design............................................................................................................................. 14
6 Basic Choices of Design ................................................................................................................ 16
7 Simulations .................................................................................................................................... 18
7.1 Current limiter simulations ..................................................................................................... 18
7.2 Traction motor drive simulations............................................................................................ 20
8 Final Choices of Design................................................................................................................. 23
8.1 Current limiter design ............................................................................................................. 23
8.2 Traction Motor Controller Design .......................................................................................... 25
9 Results............................................................................................................................................ 28
9.1 Power Converter Performance................................................................................................ 28
9.1.1 Current Limiter Performance........................................................................................... 28
9.1.2 Traction Motor Controller Performance .......................................................................... 30
9.2 Driveline Performance ............................................................................................................ 34
9.2.1 Steady State...................................................................................................................... 34
9.2.2 Drive Cycle ...................................................................................................................... 35
9.3 PCB ......................................................................................................................................... 37
10 Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 39
11 Future Work ................................................................................................................................. 41
12 Conclusions.................................................................................................................................. 42
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................... 42
References......................................................................................................................................... 43
Appendix........................................................................................................................................... 44
A. DC-motor dynamics................................................................................................................. 44
B. Power MOSFETs and IGBTs................................................................................................... 46
C. Snubber Design ........................................................................................................................ 48
D. Zieger-Nichols Rules ............................................................................................................... 51
E. Microcontroller codes............................................................................................................... 52
Current Limiter Code................................................................................................................ 52
Traction Motor Controller Code ............................................................................................... 53
F. Switch Losses ........................................................................................................................... 57
Nomenclature
C Capacitor
Cb Snubber capacitor in parallel with battery
Cd Snubber capacitor in parallel with diode
Cs Snubber capacitor in parallel with switch
Cw Drag Coefficient
Kp Proportional PID-coefficient
I Current
Ia Armature current
IC Capacitor Current
IL Inductor Current
IR Resistive Load Current
IS Switch Current
L Inductance
M Torque
R Resistance
Ra Armature resistance
Rs Snubber-resistor resistance
Td Differential PID-coefficient
Ti Integral PID-coefficient
U Voltage
VL Inductor Voltage
VR Resistive Load Current
VS Switch Voltage
fn Natural ringing frequency (Hertz)
fo Cut-off frequency
n Motor speed
Φδ Magnetic flux in air gap
ωn Natural ringing frequency (Radians)
ζ Damping coefficient
Abbreviations
AC Alternating Current
CAD Computer-Aided Design
DC Direct Current
EMF Electro Motive Force
ESR Effective Series Resistance
EV Electric Vehicle
FTP Federal Test Procedure
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
MOSFET Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PI Proportional, Integral
PID Proportional, Integral, Differential
PM Permanent Magnet
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
RC Resistor, Capacitor
RCD Resistor, Capacitor, Diode
VRLA Valve Regulated Lead Acid
1 Introduction
One of the greatest challenges facing mankind today is to reduce the impact of human beings on the
environment. Limiting climate change is essential for the future of human beings and other forms
of life on this planet. One way of achieving this is to limit the use of fossil fuels. To do this as
efficiently as possible, we need to both increase the percentage of alternative energy sources used,
and to decrease our total energy consumption. One efficient method of decreasing our total energy
consumption is to make new technology more energy efficient.
The transport sector consumes large amounts of fossil fuels with low efficiency. It is, with the
exception of trains, almost exclusively driven by combustion engines powered by fossil fuels. An
alternative to the fossil fuel-powered combustion engine needs to be found to reduce the
environmental impact from traffic.
Electric motors are an alternative to combustion engines in vehicles. Electric motors can with high
efficiency be powered from renewable energy sources and do not cause emissions where they are
being used. Electric vehicles (EVs) have been manufactured as long as other types of automobiles
[1]. The most common primary energy storage system used in EVs is batteries. The low energy
density of batteries has, however, until recently prevented the EV from competing with combustion
engine-powered vehicles. In recent years tremendous improvements have been made in terms of the
energy density of batteries, but the range of EVs and battery lifetimes are still low compared to the
range and performance of vehicles driven by conventional combustion engines.
Research has shown that one way of increasing the lifetime and energy density of EV primary
energy storages is to integrate power buffers in the drivelines, in the form of flywheels [2] [3]. A
flywheel is a rotating mass that stores energy in the form of kinetic energy. The principle is that the
average power of the EV’s traction motor is transferred to the flywheel from the primary energy
storage, while the varying traction motor power can be provided by the flywheel if the vehicle
accelerates. Power can also be transferred from the traction motor to the flywheel when the EV
brakes. This principle prolongs the lifetime of batteries, as they can work at a smooth and optimal
discharge rate and because the number of charge/discharge cycles can be reduced [4]. The energy
density of the primary energy source can be increased by the flywheel, as it enables the primary
energy source to be optimised for high energy density instead of for high maximum powers. Thus
by integrating a flywheel in the driveline, the range of the EV can be extended. An electric machine
is a suitable device for charging and discharging a flywheel in an EV driveline.
Simulations have shown that the average power needed to propel a car differs greatly from the
instantaneous power needed [5]. Figure 1 shows the simulation results of the average and the
instantaneous power (excluding internal losses) of a car with a mass of 1500kg, a dimensionless
drag coefficient, Cw, of 1.35, and a frontal area of 1.73m2 when driving according to a standard
FTP 75 (Federal Test Procedure) urban drive cycle. The fact that the average power is so much less
than the maximum power indicates the advantages of incorporating a flywheel into the driveline.
1
Power - US urban drive cycle, FTP 75
40
Max = 33kW
30
20 Average = 2.2kW
Power [kW]
10
-10
Min = -25kW
-20
-30
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time [s]
Figure 1: Calculated power for US urban drive cycle
The amount of storable energy is an important design parameter for a flywheel. If the flywheel is
only to be used as a power buffer, it does not have to be very large. Figure 2 shows simulations of
the energy stored in a flywheel if it is charged/discharged with the powers illustrated in Figure 1
[5]. The fact that the difference between the maximum and minimum energy in the flywheel is only
0.34kWh means that the flywheel only needs to be able to store that amount of energy. A flywheel
that can store more energy can, on the other hand, have the advantage that it can be used for
buffering energy when the EV is being charged from the grid.
Energy stored in flywheel and battery

2.5 40
2
0.34 kWh
Energy Storage [kWh]
Vehicle Speed
Speed [km/h]
1.5
Energy in Battery
Energy in Flywheel 20
0.5
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time [s]
Figure 2: Energy in flywheel and battery
2
It is that the flywheel has both high specific energy and specific power that makes it suitable as an
EV power buffer. In comparison with batteries, flywheels can handle a lot more power, and in
comparison with capacitors, they can store a lot more energy. Figure 3 shows that flywheels fill the
gap between batteries and capacitors [4]. Low losses and a very long lifetime are two other
advantages of flywheels.
Figure 3: Specific energy and power for electric energy storage devices
Purely mechanical flywheels have been used for a long time in many different applications. The
technology of electrically powered flywheels for EV applications is, however, not especially
mature technology. So far, only EV prototypes with integrated flywheels have been constructed and
tested.
2 Background
Research has since 2005 been carried out on energy storage in flywheels for EV applications at the
Division of Electricity at Uppsala University. The novelty of the concept developed in Uppsala is
that the driveline is divided into two voltage levels. The windings in the flywheel machine are
arranged so that they divide the electric system into one high voltage level and one low voltage
level, similar to an electric transformer. The advantage of this is that batteries and fuel cells, which
can be used as primary energy storages for EVs, work intrinsically at low voltage levels while
traction motors work more efficiently at a higher voltage level [5]. The two-voltage-level flywheel
allows the batteries to be connected to the low voltage side of the flywheel and the traction motor to
the high voltage side.
The aim of the research project is to design the complete EV driveline prototype that is illustrated
in Figure 4. So far two flywheel prototypes have been designed and constructed at Uppsala
University. Until this degree project was carried out, the flywheels had, however, never been tested
3
in a driveline. The tests that were performed previously used a grid-connected power supply as a
primary power source for the flywheel and a variable resistor as a load.
Motor/ Energy storage

AC/DC/AC
Generator
AC/DC (battery, fuel cell
gas turbine etc.)
High voltage Flywheel Low voltage
High power Low power
Figure 4: Driveline design
3 Aims and objectives

The aim of this degree project was to design and construct an EV driveline prototype in which one
of the flywheels designed at the Division of Electricity could be integrated. The driveline needed to
include the eight parts presented in the block diagram in Figure 5 below.
Figure 5: Drive line components
The flywheel controller, the flywheel and the rectifier are the parts of the driveline that had been
previously constructed by the research group. These parts were not changed, except that the
flywheel controller circuit was replaced by a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) which was designed and
mounted as a part of the degree project. Apart from this, a battery system and a traction motor with
a braking load were selected and obtained, and a current limiting circuit and a motor controller
circuit were designed and constructed. To limit the scope of the project, it was decided to make the
driveline unidirectional, which means that power can only be transferred in one direction: from the
battery towards the load. The driveline was designed with a limited budget and should be seen as a
first prototype that can help the process of making a more advanced system in the future.
The objective of the degree project was to construct a test driveline, which would enable interesting
measurements to be made to give information about how a flywheel affects the dynamics of a
driveline system. Earlier, only tests of the flywheel itself, and not an entire driveline system were
made. A driveline is a complex system with many parts connected in series, and to understand its
dynamics fully practical tests need to be made. Apart from the dynamics of the total system, the
project can provide information about how power converter circuits should be designed. To
demonstrate the performance of the system constructed, it was decided that a number of
measurements should be made, once the construction was complete.
4
4 Method
This degree project was carried out according to the method presented below:
• Literature study within the relevant area
• Choice of a model to simulate
• Simulation of the model
• Evaluation of the simulations
• Design of a system to construct
• Construction of the system
• Measurements of the system performance
• Evaluation of the system
• Conclusions and observations
This method was chosen as it was considered to be the most efficient way to achieve the aims of
the project. A literature study provides the basic knowledge about how the different parts in a
system work. Simulations give knowledge about the dynamics of the specific system to be
constructed, so that a suitable design can be chosen for a prototype. Finally the construction of a
prototype gives knowledge about how the system works in reality and how the parts interact with
each other. A literature study and simulations save a lot of time and expense when constructing a
complex technical system.
The following report describes the way in which the method was carried out in practice, explains in
further detail the motivation for the choices made and presents the results.
5
5 Theory
The degree project started with a literature study within the relevant area. This provided the
background theory needed to choose a suitable design and to interpret the results. The relevant
theory is summarised in the following section.
5.1 Electric machines

There are several different types of electric motors and generators. Three types of machines
commonly found as traction motors in EVs are synchronous motors, asynchronous motors and DC-
motors [6]. As the work in this thesis has been focused on a DC-motor, and the flywheel in the
driveline is a three phase synchronous AC-motor, the theory will focus on these two motor types.
5.1.1 DC-Machines
As implied by their name, DC-motors can be fed directly from a DC power source. Apart from this,
DC-motors are suitable as EV motors because they have a high starting torque and they are easy to
speed control [7].
Like all rotating electric machines, the DC-motor has a rotor and a stator. A commutator that is
integrated in the motor transmits the relative rotation between the magnetic field in the stator and
the rotor in the DC-motor. In contrast to other types of motors, the DC-motor’s main magnetic flux
is constant with respect to the stator, and rotating with respect to the rotor. The stator of a DC-
motor contains field windings or field magnets if it is a permanent magnet (PM) machine. The rotor
contains armature windings that are isolated from each other and placed in axial slots in the
laminated rotor and connected to the commutator. The commutator consists of copper segments
that are isolated from each other and are in contact with connectors on the motor via brushes. When
the rotor rotates, the brushes slides across the different segments on the commutator so that
different armature windings carry the armature current, which means that the magnetic field made
by the armature windings shifts so that there is always a magnetic torque applied on the rotor.
Figure 6 shows the different parts of a DC-motor.
Field windings
Brushes
Stator
Rotor
Commutator
Figure 6: DC-motor
DC-motors can be magnetised either by permanent magnets or by electro-magnets. The field

windings in electrically magnetized DC-machines can be fed in different ways. They can be fed by
6
a separate DC-source or by the same source as the armature, in parallel with the armature, in series
or in a combination of both. The dynamics of the motor will depend on how the armature winding
is fed. The traction motor used in the driveline constructed in this degree project is a compound
motor. This means that there are two field windings; one is in series with the armature, called the
series winding, and one in parallel with the armature and the series winding, called the shunt
winding. More about how these windings affect the dynamics of DC-motors, and the dynamics of
DC-motors in general, can be found in Appendix A.
There are many ways of controlling the output of a DC-motor. The currents through the different
windings in the motor, that decide the torque and speed, can be regulated both by connecting
resistors in series with them or by regulating the supply voltage to the motor. The outputs can be
controlled via the inputs, manually or automatically or in a combination of the two.
5.1.2 PM Synchronous Machines

Synchronous electric machines are AC-powered machines in which the rotor rotates at the same
speed as the magnetic field from the stator. All synchronous machines have magnets in their rotors.
PM machines are magnetised by permanent magnets.
Traditional PM synchronous machines, in contrast to traditional DC-machines, have the magnets in

their rotor inside their stators. There are, however, other types of synchronous machines. In the
driveline built in this degree project, the electric machine that works as a flywheel is an axial flux
machine [8]. This means that the stator is placed axially between the two rotor discs that carry the
permanent magnets. The stator is made of bakelite and carries two sets of windings; one high
voltage winding and one low voltage winding. The machine can be seen in Figure 7.
Stator
Rotor
Figure 7: Flywheel machine
7
5.2 Batteries
Batteries are the most common energy storage devices used in EVs. There are several types of
battery technologies that are suitable for different applications. Essential features of EV traction
batteries are the following [9]:
- High energy density

- High charging and discharging power density
- Long lifetime with maintenance-free and high safety mechanisms
- Wide acceptance as a recyclable battery from an environmental standpoint
- Price
Four types of batteries commonly found as traction batteries in EVs are lead acid, nickel cadmium,
nickel metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries. However, in this degree project only lead acid
batteries were used.
Lead acid batteries have a relatively low energy density (30-50Wh/kg), but are the most
economical solution for larger power applications where weight is of little concern. In addition to
being inexpensive, lead acid batteries are robust and the technology is well-established and used in
many applications. There are two types of lead acid batteries: flooded lead acid batteries that
require maintenance by periodic replenishment of distilled water, and valve regulated lead acid
(VRLA) batteries that are maintenance free [10].
5.3 Power Converters

Power converters are electronic systems that convert power flows from one current and voltage
level to another. The following section will provide a theoretical discussion of the three different
types of power converters that are involved in this degree project.
The three converters used are based on the same components. They are composed of switches,
diodes, drivers, capacitors, inductors, resistors and control systems. Capacitors and inductors are
passive components that store energy in electric fields and magnetic fields, and are used to stabilise
voltage and current.
5.3.1 DC/AC
DC/AC converters, or inverters, convert direct power to alternating power. The DC/AC converter
used in the driveline constructed in this degree project, powers the variable speed flywheel machine
on its low voltage side. This means that it needs to vary both the output frequency and the voltage.
The DC/AC converter used is controlled by a microcontroller and consists of an IGBT bridge and
an output filter [11].
5.3.2 AC/DC
AC/DC converters, or rectifiers, convert alternating power to direct power. The rectifier used in the
driveline constructed in this degree project is used for extracting DC power from the three-phase
flywheel machine on its high voltage side.
8
The AC/DC converter used in the driveline is a full-wave passive three-phase rectifier. It is
constructed with six power diodes that are connected in a bridge as shown in Figure 8 [12].
3-phase AC source
Diode bridge
Load
Figure 8: Passive rectifier
When the rectifier is fed by a three-phase AC current the diodes that conduct are the two connected
to the phases with the momentarily highest and lowest phase voltages. The output DC voltage from
the rectifier can be smoothened by capacitors in parallel with the load.
5.3.3 DC/DC
As implied by the name, DC/DC converters are power converters that convert DC power at one
level of current and voltage to another. Some converters increase the voltage and decrease the
current, while others do the opposite. There are also DC/DC converters that both can increase and
decrease voltage depending on how they are controlled. The types of DC/DC converters designed
in this degree project are step-down converters.
Buck Converters
Buck converters, or step-down converters, are converters from which one can obtain an output
signal (current or voltage) which is lower than the input. How they work can be understood by
studying Figure 9 that shows a circuit diagram of a buck converter.
Switch Inductor
Capacitor
Diode Load
DC source
Figure 9: Buck converter
When the switch of the converter is conducting, the inductor current will increase and the inductor
will produce a negative voltage as it builds up energy in a magnetic field. When the switch opens,
the energy in the inductor will produce a positive voltage that will power the load so that the
current flows through the diode instead of the power source. The capacitor filters the output
voltage.
The output voltage of the buck circuit increases when the switch is closed and decreases when it is
open. If the inductor current never goes to zero, the average output voltage will be a linear function
of the average ratio of the switch position [13]. For example, if the switch is closed 50 % of the
9
total switching period, the average voltage across the load will be 50 % of the power source
voltage.
Figure 10 shows typical buck converter waveforms. It shows a sequence where the converter
switch switches from its on-position to its off-position two times. VL is the voltage across the
inductor, IL is the current through the inductor, VR is the voltage across the resistive load, IR is the
current through the resistive load, VS is the voltage across the switch, IS is the current through the
switch and IC is the current through the capacitor.
Figure 10: Buck converter waveforms
5.4 Electronic components

Electric systems are built of many different connected parts. In this section the electronic devices
used in the power converters built in this degree project will be examined.
5.4.1 Switches
Discrete power switches are essential components of power converters. There are many types of
switches, all of which have different advantages and disadvantages. All switches used in switched
mode power converters are semiconductors. The reason for this is that they have much shorter
switch times than any mechanical switch, which is of great importance in reducing switching
10
losses. Values that are important when selecting a switch can be summarised in the following list
[14]:
- Maximum current carrying capability

- Maximum voltage blocking capability
- Forward voltage drop during ON and its temperature dependency
- Leakage current during OFF
- Thermal capacity
- Switching transition times during both turn-on and turn-off
- Capability to stand dV/dt when switch is OFF or during turn-off
- Capability to stand dI/dt when switch is ON or during turn-ON
- Controllable dI/dt or dV/dt capability during switching transition
- Ability to withstand both high current and voltage simultaneously
- Switching losses
- Control power requirement and control circuit complexity
As mentioned, switching losses occur when switches have long switching times. Ideally, a discrete
switch has no losses. During the switching process, however, for a short period of time some
current will pass through the switch and there will be a voltage drop across it simultaneously. The
power that is burnt off during the switching processes defines the switching losses. The longer time
the switching process takes, and the more often it happens, the larger the losses will be.
All types of switches are controlled by control signals, some based on current and some on voltage.
Both types of switches used in this degree project, MOSFETs and IGBTs, are controlled by
voltage. When a certain positive voltage is applied to their control input, known as gate, relative to
their cathode, they will conduct. If the gate is at the same or lower potential than the cathode, the
switch will block the current from running from the anode to the cathode. A comparison between
IGBTs and MOSFETs can be found in Appendix B.
The switching time of a voltage-controlled switch is determined by the time it takes for the gate
voltage to rise and fall. Even though both MOSFETs and IGBTs have electrically isolated gates, it
takes some time to change their potential, as they have built-in parasitic capacitors, both between
the gate and the anode and between the gate and the cathode. The switching time is the time it takes
to charge or discharge these capacitors. To achieve a short switching time, a switch with a low gate
charge, which is the charge that is required to charge both the gate capacitors, should be chosen.
5.4.2 Diodes
Diodes are passive semiconductors that conduct current in one direction and block current in the
opposite direction. Power diodes are useful in applications such as rectifying circuits and to provide
current paths for inductive loads [15]. Diodes conduct when the voltage of the anode, in relation to
the cathode exceeds a certain voltage named knee voltage, often around 0.7V [15]. If the voltage is
increased above this level, the conducting current increases dramatically.
5.4.3 Microcontrollers
The switches in a power converter system need a system that controls their operations. If the power
flow in the converter is to be automated, an automatic control system needs to be implemented. A
11
control system needs components that can interpret the system outputs and transform them into an
input signal. A suitable component for this is the microcontroller.
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. It contains a central processing

unit, a clock, I/O ports, and a memory. The microcontroller can be programmed, which gives great
freedom to the user. Suitable microcontrollers for power switch control also have analogue-to-
digital converters that make it possible for them to interpret analogue measurement signals.
5.4.4 Gate Drivers

Gate drivers are the interface between control systems and high power electronic systems. As
switching losses depend on the time taken to charge and discharge the gate capacitors of power
switches, they should not be driven directly by the logic outputs from devices such as
microcontrollers. A gate-driving circuit for a voltage-controlled switch is a circuit that is made for
injecting or removing the gate charge fast. The larger currents the driver can handle, the faster the
gate charge can be injected or removed and the more efficient the power circuit will be. It is
therefore of great importance for the efficiency of the power system to have a well-designed gate
driver circuit [16].
5.5 Snubber Circuits

Snubber circuits, or snubbers, are small circuits that are added in many power converter circuits to
protect sensitive semiconductor devices from being damaged. Snubbers also fulfill other tasks. The
improvements snubber circuits can make to a power converter system are summarised in the
following list [17].
- Reduce or eliminate voltage or current spikes

- Limit dI/dt or dV/dt
- Transfer power dissipation from the switch to a resistor or a useful load
- Reduce total losses due to switching
- Reduce electro magnetic interference by damping voltage and current ringing
There are many different types of snubbers that are specialised for the different functions listed
above. The snubber that has been constructed in this degree project has been optimised to fulfill
two functions: to limit voltage spikes and to reduce ringing. A description of what causes these
problems and how snubber circuits should be designed to solve them, can be found in Appendix C.
5.6 Control Methods

There are several ways to control power systems. Different control strategies suit different power
systems and different control parameters. In all switched mode circuits, the positions of the
switches can be controlled. The two control strategies used in this degree project are hysteresis
control and PI-controlled PWM.
5.6.1 Hysteresis Control

Hysteresis control is a controlling strategy that is suitable for controlling current and voltage in
buck converters. It works through measuring the output that is to be controlled and comparing it
with a reference value. If the value of the output is larger than the reference value, the switch is
turned off, and if it is smaller, the switch is turned on. To prevent the switch from chattering when
12
it tries to keep the output at the reference value, a hysteresis dead band is created around the
reference value [18]. This means that the switch is turned off when the output is slightly above the
reference value and turns on when it is slightly below it. The larger the dead band is, the slower the
switching frequency will be, at the expense of causing a larger ripple in the output.
Hysteresis control is easy to implement and very robust. It gives an optimal input-output response
time, and the overshoot is eliminated [18].
A drawback of the hysteresis control strategy is that it puts high demands on the output
measurements. The measuring frequency needs to be a magnitude higher than the desired switching
frequency and the measuring noise a magnitude smaller than the hysteresis band.
5.6.2 PID Controlled PWM

Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a commonly used method for modulating switching devices. The
basic idea is that a switching frequency is defined, and the duty ratio, which is defined as the time
that the switch is on in relation to the PWM period, is varied to change a given system output.
If the duty ratio is to be regulated automatically by some kind of feedback system from the output,
a controlling function must be defined that relates the duty ratio to the error of the output. The
simplest regulator is a P-regulator (proportional) that adjusts the duty ratio proportionally to the
output error. More sophisticated regulators can also integrate the error and form a PI-regulator
(proportional, integral), or can also take the derivative of the error in what is known as a PID
(proportional, integral, differential) regulator.
A lot can be said about the PID regulator. The basics can, however, be understood fairly easily. The
P term of the regulator works by forming a control signal by multiplying the output error with a
constant Kp. A large Kp constant gives a fast regulator, but can make the output oscillate. The effect
of the P term of the regulator is large when the error is large, but small when the error declines. In
many systems, the error does not converge to zero if only a P regulator is used. This is the reason
why PI controllers are used. The I term of the regulator forms the control signal by multiplying the
integral of the output error with a constant Ti. If the output error does not converge, the
accumulated error grows and the PI controller reacts. The D term of the regulator is used to
increase its speed without making the output oscillate. It works by multiplying the derivative of the
output error with a constant Td. [19].
In order to get a good response from a P, PI or PID regulator it is essential to tune it. If a
mathematical model of the regulated system can be derived, there are several analytical methods to
find suitable values for the proportional, integrating and derivative constants. If a mathematical
model cannot be found, e.g. if the system is very complex, there are several experimental methods
that can be used to tune the regulator. One method that can be used is the Zieger-Nichols rules for
tuning PID controllers [20]. This method can be found in Appendix D.
One of the advantages of PWM is that the duty ratio does not have to be regulated as fast as the
switching frequency. This means that the output can be sampled at lower frequency than that
required for hysteresis control. It also means that there will be time to filter the measurements and
consequently eliminate their noise.
13
One of the drawbacks of PWM regulation is that it is not as fast as hysteresis control. If the speed
of the PID regulator is increased by using a too large proportional constant, instability problems
with large overshoots will occur [18].
5.7 Current Limitation

When an electric motor is started, the current can exceed the maximum level that its power system
can handle. This is due to that the back EMF, that normally limits the motor current, is low when
the motor is staring as it is proportional to the speed of the motor. Because of this, many motor
drives have some kind of current-limiting system that works when the motor shall be started. The
easiest way to limit the current to a motor is to connect resistors in series with it. Another way is to
make a buck circuit that decreases the voltage applied to the motor when the current level is too
high. Using a buck circuit to limit the current limits the losses in comparison to using resistors.
5.8 Power Quality

Ideally the power in electrical systems is delivered by single frequency AC or DC voltages and
currents. In reality this is not the case. Voltages and the currents in all power systems contain both
noise and harmonics. The content of power distortions in a system defines the power quality. The
power quality issues that have been taken in account in this degree project are the current ripple
created by the DC/DC-converters and the voltage spikes created when switches turn off.
There are many reasons why high power quality is desirable.
Current and voltage ripple leads to decreased efficiency and shortens the lifetime of power systems
[21]. Many power electronic devices are sensitive to voltage distortion and can malfunction or shut
down if the voltage quality is too bad. Moreover, voltage distortion leads to current distortion in all
types of loads. Bad current quality leads, amongst other things, to increased losses. As resistive
losses are given by I2R, the total resistive energy loss in a system will increase the more uneven the
current is. In addition to this, due to the skin effect, the resistance in a conductor increases with the
frequency. This means that the higher the frequency is, the more the current is concentrated to the
surface of the conductor and less of its cross section area is utilized [21]. Another reason for
reduced efficiency in systems with bad current quality is the fact that the magnetic flux will vary
around the conductors, if the current in them varies. Varying magnetic flux leads to hysteresis
losses and eddy losses in the iron in electric machines. The hysteresis losses are proportional to the
frequency of magnetic flux variations and the eddy losses to the frequency squared [21].
There are many ways to improve the power quality in a power system. There are various types of
filters, both passive and active, that can be implemented. Filters can, however, create losses
themselves. In the case of switched DC-DC converters, increasing the switching frequency or the
size of filter inductors can decrease the current ripple. The switching frequency and the size of the
filter should be optimised to minimise the total losses in the system.
5.9 PCB Design

A printed circuit board (PCB) is a board specially designed for a certain circuit, on which
components can be soldered. The board consists of a substrate and copper traces that are printed on
it. The substrate is an isolator that provides a structure that physically holds the circuit components
and the printed wires in place [22]. The wires can be placed on both sides of the substrate, and also
14
inside the substrate in multi-layer PCBs. The conductors in the different layers can be connected to
each other through holes called vias.
PCBs are manufactured industrially by photoplotters and CNC machines. A digital description of
the board design is needed in order to manufacture it. This description is made by the PCB designer
with a computer-aided design (CAD) program [22].
15
6 Basic Choices of Design
The first choices of system design were made based on the literature study, earlier experience,
design criteria and practical limitations. The following section gives a description of and motivation
for the basic choices that were made before any simulations of the system, or practical experiments
were carried out. The parts of the driveline that these choices affected are presented in the list
below:
• Battery
• Current limiter
• Traction motor controller
• Traction motor
• Load
The traction motor used was a compound DC-motor rated 10kW at 60V and 205A. This was
chosen for practical reasons. The motor was originally bought for other purposes but fitted well in
the system. No modifications were made to the motor, except for a mounting frame and a shaft
coupling between the motor and its load.
The mechanical load used to brake the motor was a DC-generator rated 1.9kW. The electrical load
used to brake the generator was a variable resistor rated 0-630Ω. These loads were chosen mostly
for practical reasons. Both the generator and the variable resistor were found in the lab where the
driveline was built. Beside the convenience of using these loads, they were suitable in the driveline.
Both the braking torque and the output power could easily be adjusted by regulating the field
current in the generator and the resistance of the resistor.
Lead acid batteries were chosen for powering the driveline. Four 12V batteries connected in series
gave an output voltage of 48V. This was enough to bring the flywheel to a speed which gave a high
voltage output of 80V. As the DC-motor was rated at 60V, this low voltage level was suitable. The
batteries chosen were 45Ah gel batteries. Lead-acid batteries were chosen as they are relatively
cheap, safe and easy to charge. 45Ah was a suitable value for the energy content of the batteries, as
it allows the flywheel to be run for the time it takes to do the tests likely to be done during one day
(~4 hours at 500W average input power). Gel batteries which are a type of VRLA batteries were
chosen as they are maintenance free.
Two buck circuits were chosen for the current limier and the DC-motor controller. Buck circuits
were chosen as they could perform what was required of the two power converter systems and as
they are efficient. The control systems were based on microcontrollers, as they are cheap, fast and
robust.
The current and the voltage quality are important design parameters of a power system. Finding the
optimal level of the power quality needs a lot of measurements. These measurements could not be
made before the driveline had been constructed. However the power quality had to be set to some
level for the power converters to be designed for. A current ripple of 0.5A was chosen as a suitable
value to aim for. This value can easily be changed in the future when an investigation of the losses
has been made.
16
Table 1 summarises the basic choices of design that were made in the beginning of the project.
Table 1: Basic choices of design

Battery VRLA batteries 48V
Power converters Buck converters
Power quality 0.5A maximum DC current ripple
Traction motor Compound DC-motor
Driveline load DC generator with variable load resistor
17
7 Simulations
After a literature study on the types of power circuits required in the driveline, and a decision about
their topography, the circuits were simulated on a computer. The aim of the simulations was to
understand the dynamics of the system and to discover what results to expect when certain values
of the components in the system were changed. The simulations also provided an indication of
which components should be ordered. This saved both time and money.
The simulations were made in MATLAB Simulink, which is a toolbox for MATLAB made for
modelling and simulating dynamic systems. The programming interface is graphical and consists of
block programming tools.
The method used to make the simulations of the buck circuits was to control the switches by
feedback loops from current-measuring device in the system. The current measurements gave an
output signal that was converted to a logic input for the switch via a hysteresis control block. This
had the advantage that for a certain current quality, given by the hysteresis band width, and a
certain current, given by the hysteresis band level, the switching frequency could be found. If the
frequency was too high, larger inductors could be added to the system, as they make the current
level more stable.
7.1 Current limiter simulations

To reduce the complexity of the simulations some simplifications of the system were made. The
load for the current limiter was in reality the flywheel, driven by the DC/AC-converter. This was
approximated as a constant resistive load, with the same resistance as the windings of the flywheel.
In reality, the load had inductance and a back EMF, which were ignored here. The inductance of
the flywheel is, however, small (0.19mH), as it is coreless and the back EMF is small in the start-up
phase, when the current limiter will be used. As the inductance of the windings and the back EMF
make the current level more stable, the approximation can be seen as a worst case scenario.
Designing the current limiter so that it can limit the current without being dependent on inductance
from the load increased the reliability of the system.
Other simplifications made include the imperfections in the used components. For example the
reverse recovery time of diodes and parasitic inductances in conductors were ignored. These are
very important factors for the system, but as the simulations were not used for studying transients,
these simplifications were possible.
Many different simulations were made and the model used is shown in Figure 11.
18
Figure 11: Simulink current limiter model
Figure 12 and Figure 13 show two different plots from a simulation of the current limiter. Figure 12
shows the control signal to the switch and the inductor current measured by the system during the
beginning of a simulation. Figure 13 shows the load current and load voltage during the same time
period and simulation as in Figure 12. The simulation is made for a hysteresis band between 9.75A
and 10.25A, a source voltage of 48V, an inductor of 3.75mH and a capacitor of 4.7mF.
Hysteresis controlled current

10.5
Switch control signal
Measured current (A)
10
1
9.5
0
9
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (sec) -3
x 10
Figure12: Inductor current and control signal
19
Load current and voltage
13
10.2
10
12.5
Load voltage (V)

9.8
Load current (A)
9.6
12
9.4
9.2
11.5
9
8.8
11
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (sec) -3
x 10
Figure 13: Load current and voltage
The simulations showed that the current ripple through the resistive load was smallest if the current
measuring device was placed between the diode and the capacitor. If the device was between the
capacitor and the load, the current ripple was the same as the hysteresis band. If it was placed
before the capacitor, the capacitor evened out the current and decreased the ripple.
The simulations also showed that the greater the filter capacitance was, the smaller the voltage
ripple across the load was, up to the level when the capacitor current increased and decreased
relatively linearly with respect to the time. Increasing its size of the capacitor above this level did
not improve the power quality significantly. The smaller the hysteresis band used, the smaller the
capacitor needed to be.
Figure 12 and Figure 13 show that the switching frequency of the current limiter needs to be around
4.9 kHz to keep the inductor current ripple within 0.5A.
7.2 Traction motor drive simulations

Simplifications were also made in the simulations of the DC-motor controller. The motor was
simplified by two parallel current paths with the impedance of the DC-motor’s shunt winding and
its series and armature winding. As in the current limitation circuit, the back EMF and the
imperfections in the components were ignored. The inductance of the motor was, however, not
ignored as it is much larger than in the flywheel. The simplifications were motivated in the same
way as regards the current limiter.
As the motor was simplified to its equivalent impedance, no control system based on the output of
the motor could be simulated. This was the reason why the simulations were made by controlling
the input to the motor. The current was controlled in the same way as in the simulations of the
current limiting circuit. However, this was not a problem, as the objective of the simulations was to
give information about the power converter system, not the motor output dynamics. Simulations
were performed both with and without an extra inductor in the buck circuit. As the motor is an
20
inductive load, an extra inductor was not strictly required. Another difference between the current
controller buck circuit and the motor control buck circuit was the filter capacitor.
The model used for the motor controller simulations is shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14: Simulink DC-motor controller model
Figure 15 and Figure 16 show two different plots of a simulation of the motor control power
system. Fig15 shows the control signal to the switch and the current measured by the control
system during the beginning of a simulation. Figure 16 shows the armature current and voltage
during the same time period as in Figure 15. The simulations were made for a hysteresis band
between 19.75A and 20.25A, a source voltage of 60V without an extra inductor in the buck circuit.
21
Hysteresis controlled curent
20.5
Switch control signal

Measured current (A)
20
1
19.5
0
19
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
Time (sec) -4
x 10
Figure 15: Total motor current and control signal
Armature current and voltage

20.5 50
40
Armature voltage (V)

Armature current (A)
20 30
20
19.5 10
19 -10
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
Time (sec) -4
x 10
Figure 16: Armature current and voltage
The simulations showed that it was not suitable to use filter capacitors anywhere in the motor
control buck circuit. As all parts of the load are inductive, it was not suitable to add a filter
capacitor in parallel with any part of the load. Connecting a capacitor in parallel with an inductor
causes a resonance phenomenon that is associated with increased losses.
Figure 15 and Figure 16 show that the switching frequency of the DC-motor controller needs to be
around 34 kHz to keep the current ripple within 0.5A without any filter inductor or capacitor in the
buck circuit.
22
8 Final Choices of Design
After the computer-based simulations, practical experiments were made. Before the experimental
process started further designing parameters were chosen. These decisions were necessary prior to
starting the experiments, as a lot of components needed to be ordered. Some of the decisions were
motivated by the simulations and some by practical reasons. As the designing of the driveline was
part of a research project, some choices were motivated by the fact that interesting conclusions
could be drawn by choosing and evaluating certain system solutions. As two buck-converters were
constructed, different system solutions could be made for them both and their function could be
compared. The following section describes the choices that were made after the simulations were
completed and during the experimental process. Table 2 summarises the system solutions for the
two buck-converters.
Table 2: Final choices of design

Part of the Power Converter Current Limiter Traction Motor Controller
Switch IGBT MOSFET
Buck output filter Diode, inductor, capacitor Diode
Snubber circuit No Yes
Switch driver IR2110 IR2110
Microcontroller dsPIC30F 2010 dsPIC30F 2010
Current sensor Hall Effect sensor Hall Effect sensor
Control strategy Hysteresis control PWM, PI maximum-current control
8.1 Current limiter design

The current limiter was the first of the two DC/DC converters to be designed. This fact affected its
design as efforts were made not to make it too complex. If the first converter was simple, more time
could be spent on the second converter, when experience from the first one had been gained.
The switch that was used in the current limiting circuit was an IGBT. This was partly decided as
the research group that the degree project was made for, had experience of the actual IGBT.
Another reason for choosing an IGBT was that the current limiting switch only switches when the
flywheel is in its start-up phase. The rest of the time the switch is continuously conducting. This
means that the most important performance of the switch is its static conducting performance,
which means that the IGBT is a more suitable switch than a MOSFET. IGBTs are also in general
rated for higher voltages than MOSFETs. This makes the requirement for voltage-spike-reducing
snubber-circuits smaller when using IGBTs, which was a reason for using an IGBT in the first
converter to be designed. The actual IGBT that was used was a module containing two transistors,
which meant that the body diode of one of the switches could be used as a protection diode in the
buck circuit. The IGBT was a SKM600GB066D made by Semikron, rated at 600V and 690A
(continuously).
By studying the simulations it can be seen that if the current smoothening inductor in the current
limiting circuit is 3.75mH, and the current ripple is set to a maximum of 0.5A, a switching
frequency of 4.9kHz is required. This is a suitable switching frequency for the IGBT as it can be
made both higher or lower if the specifications of the power quality are changed. On the basis of
this conclusion, an inductance value of 3.75mH was used in the experimental setup. The filtering
23
capacitor was set to 4.7mF, as the simulations showed that this was adequate. The inductors that
were used were chosen as they were readily available and had suitable inductance values. The
conductors of the inductors were, however, under dimensioned for the application.
The IGBT driver and microcontroller were also chosen because of earlier experience. The
microcontroller chosen was a dsPIC30F 2010 made by Microchip. It is a 16-bit digital signal
controller with a 10-bit 1 Msps Analog-to-Digital Converter. The driver was an IR2110 made by
International Retifier. It can deliver an output current of 2.5A and has a high side and a low side
that can be used for driving two switches. However, only the low side was used in the setup. The
driver voltage was set to 15V.
Hysteresis control was used for the current controller. This was mainly motivated by the fact that it
is fairly straightforward to implement. The code made for the hysteresis controller can be found in
Appendix E.
A Hall Effect current sensor was used. This was motivated by the fact that they have good accuracy
and do not create excessive losses in the power circuit ass when measuring current with a shunt
resistor. The current limiter was designed so that the level at which the current was limited could be
adjusted with a potentiometer connected to the microcontroller. The current sensor was a HAL 50-s
made by LEM. Figure 17 shows a circuit diagram and Figure 18 shows a photo of the current
limiter circuit.
Current Sensor
L
IGBT
3.75 mH Flywheel
48V C 4.7 mF Controller
BATTERY Input
Hysteresis Control System
Figure 17: Current limiter circuit diagram
24
Capacitor
Hysteresis Control System

Inductor
Current Sensor
IGBT
Figure 18: Photo of current limiter circuit
8.2 Traction Motor Controller Design

Many of the design parameters chosen for the DC-motor controller differed from those chosen for
the current limiter. This decision was made because interesting conclusions could be made by
comparing different system solutions.
One difference was that a MOSFET was chosen for the switch in the motor controller buck circuit.
The choice was motivated by the fact that the switch in the motor driving circuit has to switch
under all conditions, except for when maximum current is required, and therefore the dynamic
performance of the switch is very important. Also, as a MOSFET was chosen, it was possible to
have a sufficiently high switching frequency so that no extra inductor was required in the power
converter. The chosen MOSFET was an IXFN140N20P made by IXYS. Its rating is 200V and
140A (continuously).
As the MOSFET has a faster switching time than the IGBT and has a lower voltage rating,
measurements showed that a snubber circuit was required in combination with the MOSFET.
The first snubber to be designed was intended to reduce voltage peaks. Four 22μF polypropylene
capacitors were connected in parallel with the power source. This reduced the voltage spikes
essentially, but to make them even smaller a 10nF capacitor was connected in parallel with the
MOSFET. As a MOSFET is an effectively resistive conductor, the discharge of this capacitor
should not be a problem. This will have to be proved by testing the lifetime of the switch. The 10nF
25
capacitor was chosen because it reduced the current spike essentially. If this reduction had been
made by increasing the size of the capacitors in parallel with the power source, their size would
have had to be increased substantially. This would have been a more costly and space-consuming
solution than connecting the capacitor in parallel with the MOSFET.
To reduce the ringing, an extra capacitor and resistor were connected in parallel with the MOSFET
according to the damping theory presented in Appendix C. The ringing frequency was measured to
7MHz. This ringing frequency in combination with the 10nF voltage snubber capacitor in parallel
with the switch, means, according to Equation C3 (found in Appendix C), that the damping resistor
should be 2.27Ω. A 10Ω thick film power resistor was used as a damping resistor, as it was readily
available. Equation C6 motivated that a 15nF capacitor was used as high pass filter capacitor. An
attempt to build a RCD-snubber was made. The result, however, was not satisfactory.
The same control system hardware was chosen as for the current limiter. The same microcontroller,
current sensor and gate driver were used in both systems. The software was, however, designed
differently. As a comparison between hysteresis control and PWM control is of interest, it was
decided to use a PWM control for the motor controller. As the time for the degree project was
limited, no closed loop control system for the motor speed, torque or power were made. However, a
closed loop controller for limiting the maximum current to the motor was constructed, for
protection reasons.
The motor controller was designed so that the motor torque and speed could be regulated by
varying the duty ratio of the switch via a potentiometer connected to the microcontroller, on the
condition that the current did not exceed its maximal value. If the potentiometer was adjusted to a
duty ratio that would lead to a current larger than the maximum current, the duty ratio was
automatically adjusted by a PI-controller.
If the current exceeded its maximum value, which was set in the microcontroller code, the PI
controller regulated the duty ratio so that the current remained on the maximum level until the duty
ratio was decreased manually with the potentiometer or the back EMF of the motor reduced the
current below the maximum level. The PI regulator was tuned by using Zieger-Nichols rules, which
can be found in Appendix D. The critical value of the proportional regulating constant Kcr that first
gave sustained oscillations of the output was 0.2. If the proportional constant was set to 0.2, the
period of the oscillations Pcr was measured to 1.2ms. According to Table D1 in Appendix D the
values for the PI constants should be set to Kp=0.45*Kcr and Ti=Pcr /1.2. The constants were
consequently set to Kp=0.09 and Ti=0.001. The duty ratio of the PWM signal was updated every
other PWM cycle. The code made for the PWM controller can be found in Appendix E. Figure 19
shows a circuit diagram and Figure 20 shows a photo of the traction motor controller.
26
R 10 Ω
15 μF ..C C 10 μF
.. Current Sensor
Traction Motor
Rectifier Output
C C C C MOSFET
M
.. .. .. ..
2.2 μF 2.2 μF 2.2 μF 2.2 μF
..
PI - PWM Control system
Figure 19: Traction motor controller circuit diagram
Current Sensor
Snubber Capacitors
MOSFET and
Diode
PI – PWM Control System
Circuit Braker
Figure 20: Photo of traction motor controller circuit
27
9 Results
As the main objective of this degree project was to design and construct a driveline, the main result
is the actual driveline prototype. Figure 21 shows a photo of the final driveline prototype. To
demonstrate the functioning of the prototype some measurements of the system performance have
been carried out. Many more measurements can be made in the future. The measurements that have
been made so far are described below.
Generator Traction
Load
Motor
Motor
RectifierController
Flywheel
Current Controller
limiter
Batteries
Flywheel
Figure 21: Photo of driveline
9.1 Power Converter Performance

The power converters are important parts of the driveline prototype. They affect both the efficiency
and the dynamics of the system. Some measurements of the performance of the current limiter and
the traction motor controller are given below. As the other two power converters were not designed
as part of this degree project, no measurements of their performance have been made.
9.1.1 Current Limiter Performance

As mentioned, when the DC-current to the flywheel reached a certain level it was restricted within
the limits of a hysteresis band with a buck converter. Figure 22 shows the inductor current in the
buck converter, which is the current to the flywheel controller, and the control signal to the IGBT,
when the current was limited to 10A.
28
Figure 22: Current limiter performance
Figure 22 shows that the switching frequency is around 14.2 kHz when the current is limited
between approximately 9.7A and 10.3A. The switching frequency controlled by the hysteresis
controller varies, partly because of varying back EMF from the flywheel, and partly because of
noise on the current sensor signal. The current sensor used for measuring the current illustrated in
Figure 22 was a Hall Effect sensor, as was the one used by the control system. The current
measurements made by the control system were made with a sample rate of 170 kHz.
Figure 23 shows the emitter-collector voltage and the gate-collector voltage during a turn-on
sequence for the IGBT.
29
IBGT Turn-On
60
15
50
Emtitter-collector voltage (V)
Gate-collector voltage (V)

40
10
30
20
5
10
0
0
-10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec) -5
x 10
Figure 23: IGBT turn-on sequence
Figure 23 shows that the turn-on time for the IGBT is around 1.4 μs, if it is measured as the time
when there is a current through and a voltage drop across the device simultaneously. The current
starts flowing at approximately the same time as the positive gate voltage is applied, and the
emitter-collector voltage drops to zero, as can be seen in Figure 23, when the gate voltage exceeds
a certain threshold voltage.
The total losses in the IGBT were calculated by measuring the drain current and the emitter-
collector voltage. The reliability of the results can however be questioned, because of the limited
bandwidth of the current sensor used. The results can be found in Appendix F.
9.1.2 Traction Motor Controller Performance

The same measurements that were made on the current limiter, were also made on the traction
motor controller. Figure 24 shows the current to the motor and the control signal to the MOSFET
when the current was limited to approximately 20A by the PI-controller at a PWM frequency of
57.6 kHz.
30
PWM controlled current
30 50
25 40
20 30
Gater voltage (V)

Motor current (A)
15 20
10 10
5 0
0 -10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec) -4
x 10
Figure 24: DC-motor controller performance
Figure 24 shows that the current ripple is between approximately 20.9A and 20.3A when the PWM
frequency is 57.6 kHz if the spikes are neglected. In addition to the PWM frequency, the current
ripple depends on the voltage level produced by the flywheel and the back EMF produced by the
traction motor. The higher the flywheel voltage is and the nearer to 50% the duty ratio is, the larger
the current ripple is. The current measurement in Figure 24 was made with a Hall Effect sensor, but
not the same one as the control system used. The rectified output voltage from the flywheel used in
the test shown in Figure 24 was 60V.
Figure 25 shows the emitter-collector voltage and the gate-collector voltage during a turn-on
sequence for the MOSFET in the DC-motor controller.
31
MOSFET Turn-On
60
15
50
Drain-source voltage (V)
Gate-source voltage (V)

40
10
30
20
5
10
0
0
-10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (sec) -6
x 10
Figure 25: MOSFET turn-on sequence
By measuring the turn-on time in the same way as in Figure 23, it can be seen that the turn-on time
for the MOSFET is approximately 175 ns.
Measurements of the MOSFET switching losses were carried out, as for the IGBT. These results
are more unreliable than those from the IGBT as the bandwidth of the current sensor was limited
and the switching process was faster for the MOSFET than for the IGBT. The results of the
measurements can be found in Appendix F.
Snubber performance
A snubber circuit was required for the motor controller switch. The three figures below illustrate
the effect of the snubber. Figure 26 shows the drain to source voltage across the MOSFET before
the snubber was implemented.
Drain-source voltage, no snubber

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
3.768 3.77 3.772 3.774 3.776 3.778 3.78
Time (sec) -3
x 10
Figure 26: Turn-off sequence with no snubber
32
Figure 26 shows that the voltage spikes and ringing are major problems when the MOSFET is
turned off. When the duty ratio was increased above the level shown in Figure 26, the ringing
reached such a high level that it affected the gate charge so that the switch started to conduct.
Figure 27 shows the drain to source voltage across the MOSFET when the voltage-spike-reducing
snubber had been implemented.
Drain-source voltage, voltage snubber

120
100
80
60
40
20
-20
3.772 3.7725 3.773 3.7735 3.774 3.7745 3.775 3.7755 3.776 3.7765 3.777
Time (sec) -3
x 10
Figure 27: Turn-off sequence with voltage-spike-reducing snubber
Figure 27 shows that the voltage spike was reduced by the snubber from 140V to100V. The ringing
was also reduced by the capacitors. Note that the duty ratio was increased in Figure 27 in
comparison to Figure 26.
Figure 28 shows the drain to source voltage across the MOSFET when the final snubber had been
implemented.
Drain-source voltage, final snubber

100
80
60
40
20
-20
3.772 3.7725 3.773 3.7735 3.774 3.7745 3.775 3.7755 3.776 3.7765 3.777
Time (sec) -3
x 10
Figure 28: Turn-off sequence with final snubber
33
Figure 28 shows that the final snubber reduces the ringing and the voltage spike to 80V. The duty
ratio is the same in Figure 27 and Figure 28.
9.2 Driveline Performance

To analyse the performance of the total driveline, simultaneous measurements were made at several
points in the driveline. By feeding the flywheel, the traction motor, and varying the generator load
in different ways, interesting observations about the system performance and dynamics could be
made.
Two different driveline performance tests were carried out. Both tests measured the same
parameters. In addition to the traction motor speed and the flywheel speed, the currents and
voltages were measured in the three measuring points shown in the Figure 29.
Figure 29: Driveline measuring points
The current sensors used by the current limiter and the motor controller were used for the driveline
performance tests. As the sensors had fixed positions in the driveline, the current measurements
were made at these points. To be able to calculate the power on both sides of the flywheel, voltage
measurements were performed at the same points. As the load of the generator was a resistor, it was
enough to measure voltage across it to be able to calculate the current and power passing through it.
9.2.1 Steady State

The first test was carried out when the driveline was running at a steady state. This was achieved by
letting both the current limiter and the traction motor controller limit the current to the flywheel and
the motor, and tuning the generator load so that the speed of the flywheel and the traction motor
were as constant as possible.
Figure 30 shows the driveline voltages, the flywheel speed and the motor speed from the steady
state test. The current to the flywheel was kept at 11A and the traction motor current at 26A. The
load for the generator was 630Ω. The measurements have been smoothened so that their values can
more easily be read in the plot. The measuring points in the driveline were the ones shown in
Figure 29.
34
Driveline voltages and speeds at steady state
50 Limited Battery Voltage 3000
Resistor Voltage
Flywheel Speed 2500
40
Motor Speed
Motor Voltage
2000
30
Speed (rpm)
Voltage (V)
1500
20
1000
10
500
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (sec)
Figure 30: Steady state measurements
The power to the flywheel and the power to the traction motor could be calculated from the
measurements presented in Figure 30. The average power to the flywheel was 467.9 W and to the
traction motor 362.1W. This means that the combined efficiency of the flywheel controller, the
flywheel and the traction motor controller was 73.6%. When calculating the efficiency of the
system, the speed of the flywheel was approximated as constant. The electric power extracted from
the generator was very low. Almost all mechanical power that was developed by in the traction
motor was dissipated by friction in the motor and the generator. The average power in the
measurements presented in Figure 30 that was dissipated from the generator by the resistive load
was 2.0W.
9.2.2 Drive Cycle

The second test that was carried out was a simple drive cycle. The drive cycle was achieved by
programming the traction motor controller to vary the current to the motor, and letting the current
to the flywheel be kept constant. At the same time, the magnetisation of the load generator was
varied so that the traction motor was kept within reasonable speed limits. If the speed and the back
EMF of the traction motor became too high, when the current to the motor was held at a certain
level, the power extracted from the flywheel to the motor could increase so much that the flywheel
could stop spinning. The resistance of the generator load was kept constant at 630Ω. Figure 31
shows the current to the flywheel and to the traction motor during the drive cycle performed. Figure
32 shows the speeds of the flywheel and the traction motor measured in the same test. Figure 33
shows the driveline voltages measured in the test. The measuring points in the driveline used in the
tests were the ones shown in Figure 29. In all the figures the measurements have been smoothened.
35
Driveline currents during drive cycle
40
Motor Current
30 Limited Battery Current
Current (A)
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec)
Figure 31: Drive cycle currents
Driveline speeds during drive cycle

2000
1500
Speed (rpm)
1000
500
Motor Speed
Flywheel Speed
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec)
Figure 32: Drive cycle speeds
Driveline voltages during drive cycle

250
Motor Voltage
200 Limited Battery Voltage
Resistor Voltage
Voltage (V)
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec)
Figure 33: Drive cycle voltages
By comparing Figure 31 and Figure 32 it can be seen that there is a delay between the current fed to
the traction motor and the motor speed. This is due to the moment of inertia of the traction motor
36
and generator. It takes time to change the speed of the rotating mass. Figure 32 also shows that
more power is extracted from the flywheel than is fed to it, as the flywheel speed decreases
throughout the test. Figure 32 and Figure 33 show that the voltages that the motor and the flywheel
are fed with are more correlated with the speeds of the machines than with the currents that they are
fed with. This is an effect of that the winding resistances are small and it can be understood by
studying Equation A2 in Appendix A.
The power to the flywheel controller, to the traction motor and to the generator load can be
calculated from the measurements presented in Figure 31 and Figure 33. Figure 34 shows a plot of
these calculations. The motor power is the power fed from the traction motor controller to the
traction motor, the limited battery power is the power fed from the current limiter to the flywheel
controller and the resistor power is the power fed from the generator to the resistor.
Driveline powers during drive cycle
800 Motor Power

Limited Battery Power
600 Resistor Power
Power (W)
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec)
Figure 34: Drive cycle powers
Figure 34 shows the positive effects of the flywheel. The power to the traction motor varies
between approximately 150W and 700W, while the power feeding the flywheel from the batteries
is almost constant at approximately 375W. The figure also shows that the power extracted from the
generator to the resistive load is small.
9.3 PCB
In this degree project a PCB was designed and constructed for the flywheel controller. Figure 35
shows a drawing of the board made in the program Eagle. Figure 36 shows a photo of the board
when the components were soldered on to it. The PCB was used in the tests presented previously.
37
Figure 35: PCB layout
Figure 36: Photo of mounted PCB
38
10 Discussion
The results of the degree project were generally positive. The functionality of the driveline was
satisfactory, but the results also demonstrated that some of the design details were suboptimal. Here
follows a discussion about the project results, how they have been achieved and how they could
have been improved.
The method used for designing and constructing the driveline worked well. The simulations
implied that the switching frequencies would need to be considerably lower than the practical
measurements showed that they needed to be to keep the current ripple within 0.5A. Nevertheless,
the simulations gave an indication of the magnitude of the frequencies. The reason that the
frequencies were lower in the simulations than in reality was presumably that the measurements of
the values of the components (inductors, resistances) that were used for simulating the system were
not very precise. Multimetres were used for making the measurements.
The functionality of the two constructed power converters was proven. As the current-measuring
equipment available was suboptimal, only limited conclusions could be drawn from the results.
Had faster current sensors been available, measurements could have been made that would indicate
whether the efficiency of the chosen converter design was optimal. However, the driveline
constructed can be used to make more precise measurements with more suitable equipment in the
future.
The measurements of the turn-on time of the switches could be used to compare the efficiency of
the two power converters. The IGBT had a turn-on time approximately eight times as large as the
turn-on time of the MOSFET. The MOSFET, on the other hand, had four times as high switching
frequency. According to this, the IGBT should have double as high switching losses as the
MOSFET. Thus, the switching losses can be reduced by using MOSFETs and a high switching
frequency. In addition to reduced switching losses, resistive losses in the inductor can be reduced
by using higher switching frequencies as this allows smaller inductors to be used. On the other
hand, the conducting losses are lower in the IGBTs than in the MOSFETs. The snubber circuit that
the MOSFET requires also creates losses. Higher switching frequencies also give rise to increased
skin effect in conductors and increased eddie and hysteresis losses in the electric machines.
Designing an optimal power converter is a complex issue. Hopefully the prototype constructed can
be used for making experiments that can lead to an optimal design.
Economy is one of the many other factors, besides efficiency, that determine how good a driveline
design is. Economy has not been an issue when designing the prototype. But if it is taken into
consideration, the power converter solution with small inductors, high switching frequencies and
MOSFETs is better than the solution with IGBTs and lager inductors. MOSFETs are in general
cheaper than IGBTs and high power inductors cost more the higher inductance they have. A good
solution for the current limiter, from an economic and efficiency point of view, would be to use the
existing switches in the flywheel controller and modify its control system so that it measures the
flywheel current and limits the current itself.
In addition to the switches and the inductors, the two constructed power converter systems differ in
that they are controlled by different control systems. Both systems work efficiently. The main
difference is that the hysteresis-controlled current limiter gives a constant current ripple and the
39
PI/PWM-controlled traction motor controller gives a constant switching frequency. It can not be
predicted which of the two systems is favourable for the applications. However as the switching
frequency is only an important property in the sense that it may not reach a too high level, the best
solution may be to use a hysteresis controller with a maximum switching frequency limit.
The results from the tests of the driveline performance were very positive apart from the low
efficiency of the traction motor and the generator. The combined efficiency of the flywheel
controller, the flywheel, the rectifier and the DC-motor controller of 73.6% is high in view of the
fact that the driveline has not been especially optimised. It would be interesting to measure all the
parts of the driveline individually, to discover which parts need to be improved. The part of the
driveline that clearly had the largest losses was the traction motor and the generator. Probably this
was due to friction losses in the motor. As the motor was rated for a much higher current than what
was used, it had unnecessarily large brushes that gave arise to large friction losses. The friction
losses would have been less significant if the motor had been driven at the power it was rated for
(10 kW). The friction losses became dominating at the low power of the driveline. The coupling
between the motor and generator was also not optimal. The motor and the generator were not
totally aligned, which resulted in energy being dissipated by making the set-up vibrate.
Another reason for the low efficiency of the traction motor and the generator was that the motor
was rated for a high current and low voltage. For a motor to be as efficient as possible, it should be
rated at a low current and a high voltage. A motor powered by a higher voltage, closer to the output
voltage from the flywheel, at the relevant power would be more suitable than the used motor. In the
constructed driveline, the flywheel was on its low voltage side powered by a voltage higher than
the traction motor voltage that was fed by the flywheel’s high voltage side. It would have been
better to use the DC-machine that was used as a generator, as a traction motor. It was rated at
1.5kW at 220V, as compared to10kW at 60V. This machine could therefore have been driven at a
much higher voltage, at the relevant power.
Much can be said about the performance of the DC-motor and the generator. However, the
combined efficiency of the motor and the generator is less interesting from the research point of
view that the driveline was designed for. The aim of the research is to see the effects of the
flywheel. The low efficiency of the traction motor is not especially interesting, as it does not have
anything to do with the flywheel. That the flywheel had a relatively high efficiency and that it had a
very good capability of buffering power is a much more interesting result than that the traction
motor had low efficiency.
40
11 Future Work
Many measurements need to be made to evaluate the driveline constructed in the project. Apart
from pure measurements, a lot of modifications can be made to the system, to find a more optimal
driveline design. Here follow some suggestions of future work that can be carried out:
• The power can be measured at all points of the driveline so that the losses can be identified
• The switching frequencies of the power converters can be varied to see how that affects the
driveline performance
• The traction motor can be changed to one rated at a lower power and a higher voltage, e.g.
the one used as a generator
• Measurements can be made for a certain drive cycle, with and without the flywheel to see
how the batteries are affected
In addition to these measurements and small modifications, much work still needs to be done on the
driveline before it would function well in an EV. Four major tasks are listed below:
• The system power needs to be scaled up

• The speed of the flywheel needs to be taken into account in the control system, so that the
level of energy extracted from the flywheel does not become so large that it stops the
flywheel from spinning during operation
• The power converters need to be made bidirectional so that energy can be transferred from
the traction motor to the flywheel when the EV is braked, and from the flywheel to the
batteries when the flywheel is to be stopped
• The losses in the flywheel need to be reduced, e.g. by designing magnetic bearings and a
vacuum enclosure
41
12 Conclusions
The main achievement of this degree project was the design and construction of the driveline. The
driveline proved to have good performance and can be used for future research.
The results showed that the flywheel controller, the flywheel and the traction motor controller had a
combined efficiency of 73.6%. They also showed that the flywheel had excellent power buffering
properties. The traction motor and the generator, which acted as a mechanical load for the motor,
had a low efficiency. The motor, which was over-dimensioned and had large friction losses, can
easily be replaced by a more suitable one.
The two DC/DC-converters that were designed proved to have good functionality. Their designs
demonstrated the differences between two different types of semiconductor switches and two
different control strategies. The results proved that the MOSFET had a shorter turn-on time than the
IGBT. However the IGBT did not require a snubber circuit. The RC-snubber that was designed for
the MOSFET reduced the voltage spikes across it and the ringing remarkably. Both hysteresis
control and PI-controlled PWM proved to be good control strategies for current limitation. The
driveline is well-suited for experimentally determining which of these switches and control
methods are best for the two applications.
Acknowledgements
Janaina Goncalves de Oliviera, Magnus Hedlund, Johan Lundin, Juan de Santiago, Johan
Abrahamsson, Venugopalan Kurupath, Ulf Ring, Mårten Einarsson, Hans Bernhoff, Mimi
Finnstedt, Finn Finnstedt and Stella Andermo
Thank you - you have been the most important components in my driveline!
42
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Universitet, 2009.
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43
Appendix
A. DC-motor dynamics
When the rotor in a DC-machine rotates the armature windings are exposed to a rotating magnetic
field from the poles in the stator. This results in a varying magnetic flux through the armature
windings which, according to Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law, gives an electro motive force (EMF)
that is opposed to the voltage from the power source, which is called a back EMF. Equation shows
that the back EMF is proportional to the speed of the motor (n) and of the magnetic flux (Φδ) in the
air gap [23].
EMF ∝ n * Φ δ Equation A1
The voltage across the armature (U) will, according to Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s law, if the
derivative of the armature current is small, be given by Equation A2 where Ra is the armature
resistance and Ia is the armature current [23]:
U = EMF + Ra * I a Equation A2
This formula is valid even if the back EMF is larger than the supply voltage (U) across the
armature. This means that the current (Ia) must be negative. In this mode, the motor will be working
as a generator that delivers energy from the shaft of the motor to the “power source”. This process
can be taken advantage of to charge the batteries when braking an EV with regenerative brakes.
As mentioned, the traction motor used in the driveline constructed in this degree project is a
compound motor. Figure A1 shows an equivalent circuit of a compound motor.
Series Winding
Shunt Winding
Armature
Figure A1: Equivalent circuit of compound motor
The advantage of the compound motor in this application is its relation between torque and speed.
This can be understood by studying Equation A3 that gives the torque (M) [23] and Equation A4
that gives the speed (n) [7] of a DC-motor.
M ∝ I a * φδ Equation A3
U − Ra * I a
n∝ Equation A4
φδ
44
As the magnetic flux in the air gap is a function of the current in the field windings, it will be large
when the motor is to be started, as the armature current is large when the back EMF is small, and
the armature current passes the series winding. This means, according to Equation A3, that the
starting torque in a compound motor is large. When the speed of the motor is high, however, and
the back EMF almost reduces the armature current to zero, the magnetic flux will not be reduced to
zero, as the current will pass through the shunt winding. This means, according to Equation A4 that
the speed of the compound motor will not increase to infinity when the armature current diminishes
to zero.
The resistance in the series winding of a compound motor is less than in the shunt winding, as the
maximum current passing through it needs to be a lot larger. The inductance, on the other hand, is a
lot larger in the shunt winding, so that a small current can provide a high enough magnetic flux.
45
B. Power MOSFETs and IGBTs
Power MOSFETs
Power MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors) are the most commonly used
power switches in applications below 600 V [24]. The circuit symbol for a MOSFET is shown in
Figure B1. The anode of the MOSFET is called drain and the cathode source.
Drain
Gate
Source
Figure B1: MOSFET circuit symbol
The greatest advantage of the power MOSFET is its dynamic performance. MOSFETs allow high
switching frequencies and high efficiency in combination. The main disadvantage of the power
MOSFET is its static performance. The losses in the transistor when it is in its ON state can be
critical, if it is conducting large currents. The MOSFET is effectively a resistive load, which means
that the losses will be proportional to the collector current squared [24]. This is not the case for all
semiconductor switches, i.e. the voltage drop across the current controlled power bipolar junction
transistors (BJTs) does not depend on the current passed from its anode to cathode, but on the
current flow through its gate. Current can pass from the cathode to the anode in a power MOSFET,
even in its OFF state. This can be seen upon like an integrated body diode
IGBTs
IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) are the most commonly used power switches in
applications between 600V and 3000V [24]. The development of the IGBT was a way to overcome
the problem with the poor current-handling capability of the MOSFET and the high gate currents of
the BJT. Some BJTs need as high gate currents as a fifth of the collector current to stay in the ON
state [25]. The construction of the IGBT is based on a combination between a MOS isolated gate
transistor and a BJT. Figure B2 shows the circuit symbol of an IGBT. The anode of the IGBT is
called emitter and the cathode collector.
Emitter
Gate
Collector
Figure B2: IGBT circuit symbol
46
The IGBT does not have as good dynamic performance as the MOSFET. To achieve the same
switching time for an IGBT as for a MOSFET of the same ratings, a more advanced gate driving
circuit is required. The advantage of the IGBT, on the other hand, is its very low conducting losses.
The conducting losses are proportional to the current, and not to the current squared, as in the case
of the MOSFET. IGBTs can unlike MOSFETs be manufactured without an integrated body diode
[16].
47
C. Snubber Design
Here follows the theory about the snubber circuits that have been designed in this degree project.
The circuit that was built had the purpose to reduce the voltage spikes and the voltage ringing
across a switch.
Voltage spikes over semiconductors occur if they shift from conducting mode to blocking mode in
a short time. This is a phenomena created by inductance. If an inductor current is decreased, the
stored energy in the magnetic field of the inductor will work like a voltage source that aims to keep
the current constant.
If a switch is powering an inductive load, there will often be a freewheeling diode anti-parallel with
the load, as in the buck converter shown in Figure 9. This will prevent the load inductance from
producing voltage spikes across the switch. There is, however, always parasitic inductance in all
conductors. The parasitic inductance is often small, but can cause severe voltage spikes across
switches and diodes during their turning off processes, especially if the switching times are short
and the conducting currents large.
A way to reduce voltage spikes is to use capacitors. By charging electrical fields, capacitors can
absorb the energy stored in the magnetic fields of inductors, and thereby reduce voltage spikes.
Another way of explaining this mechanism is that if the current flowing through a switch or a diode
can be led into a capacitor when the device blocks the current, the derivative of the current will be
smaller and the voltage spike created by the parasitic inductance will decrease.
Parasitic inductance in power circuits does not only create problems with voltage spikes, but also a
problem called ringing. When either snubber capacitors or parasitic capacitors in devices are
charged up after a turn-off process, they will start discharging. This will keep on until the
capacitors have become negatively charged and start to get charged again. A resonance
phenomenon will consequently occur every time the device blocks current. This current and voltage
resonance is called ringing. Ringing causes problems related to electromagnetic interference.
Ringing can be solved by adding a resistor to the snubber circuit. The resistor burns off the energy
stored in the parasitic inductor and thereby solves the problem. If a snubber consists of capacitors
an resistors it is called a RC-snubber.
Snubber capacitors used for reducing voltage spikes, are often connected in parallel with a switch
or a diode, as the capacitors Cs and Cd shown in Figure C1. In a buck converter, capacitors can also
be connected in a parallel with the battery as the capacitor Cb in Figure C1.
48
Cs
Switch Inductor
Cb Cd
.. Diode Load
DC source
Figure C1: Snubber capacitors
Placing a capacitor in parallel with a switch can cause problems. The capacitor will be charged
when the switch is open, and will discharge when the switch closes. The discharging current can
become so large that the device gets damaged, depending on the turn-on time and the type of
switch. When capacitors are placed in parallel with the batteries in a buck circuit this problem does
not arise.
When choosing a capacitor for voltage spike reduction, it is important to choose the right type of
capacitor. The capacitor should have as low effective series resistance (ESR) as possible. If the
ESR value is large, the capacitor will have a large time constant, which will result in it not being
able absorb current fast enough, and the voltage spike will remain. The value of the capacitance is
also important for the time constant. The capacitance should be set so that the voltage spikes reach
the required levels. Capacitors placed in parallel with switches increase the switching losses in the
system in addition to being a risk of damaging the switches.
To reduce ringing resistors can be connected in parallel with a switch. In reference [26] a derivation
of the voltage across a RC-snubbed device is made. It has the form of a damped oscillation where
the natural frequency ( ωn ) of the ringing, in radians, and the damping coefficient ( ζ ) is given by
Equation C1 and Equation C2, where L is the parasitic inductance, C is the capacitance in parallel
with the switch and Rs is the snubber resistor.
1
ωn = Equation C1
LC
1
ζ = Equation C2
2ω n Rs C
When designing a snubber, the snubber resistor that gives an optimal damping to the system should
be found. A too small damping coefficient allows oscillations to continue and too large damping
leads to unnecessary losses. A suitable value for the damping coefficient is 0.5 [26]. This results in
a snubber resistor value given by Equation C3.
1 1 L
Rs = = = Equation C3
2ζω n C ωnC C
49
Reducing ringing across semiconductor devices by connecting resistors in parallel with them is not
a good idea, as current will flow through the resistor as long as the device is in its OFF mode. This
will lead to substantial system losses. A solution to this problem is to connect the resistor to a high-
pass filter, that easily passes the ringing frequency, but blocks all lower frequencies and DC. The
snubber circuit will then have an equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure C2.
Figure C2: RC-snubber
The cut-off frequency f o of a high-pass filter is given by Equation C4, where Cs is the filter
capacitor [27].
1
fo = Equation C4
2πRS C s
If the cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter is set to the ringing frequency, the damping
coefficient of the snubber will be affected. Instead a somewhat lower cut-off frequency should be
chosen. A suitable value for the cut-off frequency is 2 π times lower than the ringing frequency fn
[26]. This gives Equation C5 and Equation C6.
1 f ω 1
fo = = n = n2 = ⇔ Equation C5
2πRS C s 2π 4π 4π LC
2
1 2π LC
Cs = = Equation C6
Rs f n RS
A way of combining a voltage spike reduction snubber with a ringing reduction snubber, without
having a capacitor connected directly across a switch as Cs in Figure C1, which may risk damaging
the switch, is to make a RCD-snubber. RCD stands for resistor, capacitor and diode. The diode in a
RCD-snubber is connected in parallel with a resistor, which in its turn is connected in series with a
capacitor, as shown in Figure C3.
Figure C3: RCD-snubber
With a RCD-snubber the current blocked by the switch will be able to flow into the capacitor so
that the voltage spike is reduced. The time constant of the snubber will be low, as the diode will
bypass the resistor. When, on the other hand, the capacitor discharges, the diode will be biased in
reverse and the current will have to pass the resistor. This can both solve the problem of ringing
and the problem of large discharging currents through the switch.
50
D. Zieger-Nichols Rules
Zieger-Nichols rules for tuning PID controllers can be used for finding values for the PID constants
that give a good input/output response [20]. The constants can be chosen by studying the output of
the system when it is only proportionally regulated and Kp is set to the critical value Kcr that first
gives sustained oscillations of the output. The PID constants can be set according to the Table D1,
where Kcr is the critical proportional constant and Pcr is the period of the oscillations.
Table D1: Zieger-Nichols rules

Type of Controller Kp Ti Td
F 0.5 Kcr ∞ 0
PI 0.45 Kcr Pcr /1.2 0
PID 0.6 Kcr 0.5Pcr 0.125 Pcr
51
E. Microcontroller codes
Current Limiter Code

/*********************************************/
/* Connect RB0 ---> Current sensor */
/* Connect RB1 ---> Driver input */
/* Connect RB2 ---> Potentiometer */
/*********************************************/
#include "p30f2010a2.h"
/* Setup Configuration For ET-dsPIC30F2010 */
_FOSC(XT_PLL16); // Enable Clock Switching,Enable Fail-Salf Clock
// Closk Source = Primary XT + (PLL x 16)
_FWDT(WDT_OFF);
// Disable Watchdog
_FBORPOR(PBOR_ON & BORV_45 & PWRT_64 & MCLR_EN);
// Enable Brown-Out = 4.5V,Power ON = 64mS,Enable MCLR
_FGS(CODE_PROT_OFF); // Code Protect OFF
/* End Configuration For ET-dsPIC30F2010 */
/* Definition of global variables*/
int channel0Result = 0; // The read value from the current sensor
int channel2Result = 0; // The read value from the potentiometer
/* ADC interrupt */
void __attribute__((__interrupt__)) _ADCInterrupt(void);
/* Start main program here */
int main(void)
{
/** Digital output that can be used for seeing how the process is runnuing **/
TRISBbits.TRISB3 = 0;
LATBbits.LATB3 = 1;
LATBbits.LATB4 = 1;
/* Intialize the ADC */
ADPCFG = 0xFFFA; /** AN0 and AN2 are analog inputs**/
TRISEbits.TRISE0 = 0; /** Config RE0 = Output **/
ADCON2bits.VCFG = 0; /** VCFG=000 means: Vdd Vss are voltage references**/
ADCON2bits.CSCNA = 1; /** 1 = Scan inputs **/
ADCON3bits.ADCS = 3; /** Tad = internal 2*Tcy.**/
ADCON2bits.CHPS=0; /** CHPS = 00 Converts CH0**/
ADCON1bits.SSRC=7; /** SSRC bit = 111 implies internal**/
/** counter ends sampling and starts converting **/
ADCSSL = 0x5; /** Let AN0 and AN2 be scanned**/
ADCHS = 0; /** 0000 = Channel 0 positive input is AN0**/
ADCON3bits.SAMC =0; /** AUTO-Sample time = O**/
ADCON1bits.ASAM = 1; /** auto start sampling**/
ADCON2bits.SMPI = 1; /** Interrupts at the completion of conversion for**/
/** each 2nd sample/convert sequence.**/
ADCON2bits.BUFM = 0; /** Buffer configured as one 16-word buffer**/
/** ADCBUF(15...0)**/
ADCON2bits.ALTS = 0; /** Always use MUX A input multiplexer settings**/
/* Set up the Interrupts */
IFS0bits.ADIF = 0; /** Clear AD Interrupt Flag **/

IPC2bits.ADIP = 4; /** Set ADC Interrupt Priority **/
IEC0bits.ADIE = 1; /** Enable the ADC Interrupt **/
ADCON1bits.ADON = 1; /** turn ADC ON **/
/** Digital output B1 gives the control signal to the driver **/
LATBbits.LATB1 = 1;
while (1) /** Loop continue**/
{
// Compare the value from the current sensor and the potentiometer
if (channel0Result>channel2Result-10)
// -10 sets the level of the upper hysteresis limit
52
LATBbits.LATB1 = 0; // turn the switch of if the current is to large
}
if (channel0Result<channel2Result - 35)
// -35 sets the level of the lower hysteresis limit.
// Change this to adjust the hystersis band!
{
LATBbits.LATB1 = 1; // Turn the switch on if the current is low enough
}
//This can be uncommented to se how fast the main loop is operating

//LATBbits.LATB3 = !LATBbits.LATB3;
}
}
/** ADC interrupt **/

void __attribute__((interrupt, no_auto_psv)) _ADCInterrupt(void)
{
channel0Result = ADCBUF0; /* Get the conversion result current limiter*/

channel2Result = ADCBUF1; /* Get the conversion result potentiometer*/
// This can be uncommented to show how fast the ADC interrupt is operating
// LATBbits.LATB4 = !LATBbits.LATB4;
IFS0bits.ADIF = 0; /* Clear ADC Interrupt Flag */
}
Traction Motor Controller Code

/****************************************************/
/* Connect RB0 ---> Potentiometer */
/* Connect RB1 ---> Current sensor */
/* Connect RE8(FLTA) ---> Error Motor Stop */
/* Connect RE1(PWM1H) ---> Driver input */
/****************************************************/
#include "p30f2010a2.h" // For dsPIC30F2010 MPU Register

#include "pwm.h" // Used MCPWM Library Function
#include "adc10.h" // Used 10 Bit ADC Library Function
/* Setup Configuration For ET-dsPIC30F2010 */

_FOSC(XT_PLL16); // Enable Clock Switching, Enable Fail-Salf Clock
// Clock Source = Primary XT + (PLL x 16)
_FWDT(WDT_OFF);
// Disable Watchdog
_FBORPOR(PBOR_ON & BORV_45 & PWRT_64 & MCLR_EN);
// Enable Brown-Out = 4.5V, Power ON=64mS, Enable MCLR
_FGS(CODE_PROT_OFF); // Code Protect OFF
/* End Configuration For ET-dsPIC30F2010 */
/* pototype section */
void init_mcpwm(void); // Initial MCPWM Function
void init_adc(void); // Initial RB0 and RB1 = 10 Bit ADC
void delay(unsigned long int); // Delay Time Function
void __attribute__((__interrupt__)) _ADCInterrupt(void);
// ADC interrupt with PI maximum current limiter
/* Definition of global variables */
unsigned int gas = 0; // The value read from the potentiometer
unsigned int current = 0; // The value read from the current sensor
unsigned int max = 350; // The maximum current, 350 gives ~33A
unsigned int Duty = 0; // The duty ratio calculated by the PI regulator
int error; // The difference between the actual current and the
// maximum current
int integral = 0; // The integral of the error
float Kp = 0.09; // The proportional constant in the PI regulator
float Ki = 0.001; // The integral constant in the PI regulator
/* Start Main Program Here */

int main(void)
53
{
init_mcpwm(); // Initial MCPWM = 57.6 KHz

init_adc(); // Initial the ADC
//Digital outputs that can be used for seeing how the process is running
LATBbits.LATB2 = 0;
LATBbits.LATB3 = 0;
//Limits for the current if the drive cycle programmed in the continuous loop shall be run
//(uncomment the three following lines)
// int tempmax=300; //Max current in the drive cycle

// int tempmin=150; //Min current in the drive cycle
// max = tempmax; //Set the max current to tempmax
while(1) // Loop Continue

{
//A drive cycle that increases/decrease the current linearly between tempmax and tempmin, if //the
following two loops are uncommented
//while(max > tempmin)

//{
// max = max - 1;
// delay(20000); //This sets the time for the decreasing of the current
//}
//while (max < tempmax)
//{
// max = max + 1;
// delay(20000); //This sets the time for the increasing of the current
//}
//LATBbits.LATB2 = !LATBbits.LATB2; //This can be uncommented to show how fast the main //loop is
operating
}
}
/********************************/
/* Initial PWM for dsPIC30F2010 */
/* -> PWM Frequency = 57.6 KHz */

/********************************/
void init_mcpwm()
{
CloseMCPWM(); // Disable MCPWM Before New Config
// Config MCPWM Interrupt Control

ConfigIntMCPWM(PWM_INT_DIS & // Disable PWM Interrupt
PWM_INT_PR6 & // PWM Interrupt Priority = 6
PWM_FLTA_DIS_INT & // Disable Fault-A Interrupt
PWM_FLTA_INT_PR7); // Fault-A Interrupt Priority = 7
SetMCPWMFaultA(PWM_OVA1H_INACTIVE & // Enable Fault-A Control PWM1H = OFF

PWM_FLTA_MODE_LATCH & // Fault-A Mode = Latch
PWM_FLTA1_EN); // Enable Fault-A CH1
//***************************************************
// XTAL = 7.3728MHz
// Fosc = 7.3728 MHz x 16 = 117.9648 MHz
// Fcy = Fosc / 4
// = 117.9648 / 4 = 29.4912 MHz
// Tcy = 1 / 29.4912 MHz
// = 33.90842 nS
//***************************************************
// PWM Clock = Prescale = 1
// 1 Cycle PWM = 1 / 29.4912 MHz
// Desire MAX Duty Cycle = 1024
// PWM Period = 1024/2
// = 512
54
// Frequency = 29.4912 MHz/ 512
// = 57.6 KHz
// Duty Cycle = 1...1024
//****************************************************
OpenMCPWM(512, // PTPER = Period = 57.6 KHz

400, // SEVTCMP = Special Time, the AD conversion is trigged
//when the PTMR value is 400
// PTCON
PWM_EN & // Enable PWM Function
PWM_IDLE_STOP & // Disable PWM in IDLE Mode
PWM_OP_SCALE1 & // PWM Post Scale = 1
PWM_IPCLK_SCALE1 & // PWM Input Clock Prescale = 1
PWM_MOD_FREE , // PWM = Free Running
// PWMCON1
PWM_MOD1_IND & // PWM1 = Free Mode
PWM_PEN1H, // PWM1 High
// PWMCON2
PWM_SEVOPS1 & // Special Even Post Scaler = 1:1
PWM_OSYNC_PWM & // Override Sync. With PWM Clock
PWM_UEN); // Enable PWM Update
}
/********************************/
/* Initial ADC for dsPIC30F2010 */
/* Used RB0 and RB1 = 10 Bit ADC */
/********************************/
void init_adc()
{
ADCON1bits.ADON = 0; /** Turn-OFF ADC Before Change Config**/
/* Intialize the ADC */

ADPCFG = 0xFFFC; /** AN0 and AN1 are analog inputs**/
ADCON2bits.VCFG = 0; /** VCFG=000 means: Vdd Vss are voltage references**/
ADCON2bits.CSCNA = 1; /** 1 = Scan inputs **/
ADCON3bits.ADCS = 4; /** Tad = internal Tcy*5/2.**/
ADCON2bits.CHPS=0; /** CHPS = 00 Converts CH0**/
ADCON1bits.SSRC=3; /** SSRC bit = 011 implies Motor Control PWM **/
/**interval ends sampling and starts conversion**/
ADCSSL = 0x3; /** let AN0 and AN1 be scanned**/
ADCHS = 0; /** 0000 = Channel 0 positive input is AN0**/
ADCON1bits.ASAM = 1; /** auto start sampling**/
ADCON2bits.SMPI = 1; /** Interrupts at the completion of conversion for**/
/** each 2nd sample/convert sequence.**/
ADCON2bits.BUFM = 0; /** Buffer configured as one 16-word buffer **/
/**ADCBUF(15...0)**/
ADCON2bits.ALTS = 0; /** Always use MUX A input multiplexer settings**/
/* Set up the Interrupts */
IFS0bits.ADIF = 0; /** Clear AD Interrupt Flag **/

IPC2bits.ADIP = 4; /** Set ADC Interrupt Priority **/
IEC0bits.ADIE = 1; /** Enable the ADC Interrupt **/
ADCON1bits.ADON = 1; /** turn ADC ON **/
}
/***********************/
/* Delay Time Function */
/***********************/
void delay(unsigned long int count1)
{
while(count1 > 0) {count1--;} // Loop Decrease Counter
}
/************************************************/
/* ADC interupt with PI maximum current limiter */
/************************************************/
void __attribute__((interrupt, no_auto_psv)) _ADCInterrupt(void)
{
55
//LATBbits.LATB3 = !LATBbits.LATB3; //This can be uncommented to show how fast the main
//loop is operating
gas = ADCBUF0; /* Get the conversion result from the potentiometer*/

current = ADCBUF1; /* Get the conversion result from the current sensor*/
// PI-Regulator
error = max - current;
integral = integral + error;
Duty = Duty + Kp * error + Ki * integral;
//Avoid negative duty ratios

if (Duty < 0)
{
Duty = 0;
}
//Compare the value of the potentiometer and the calculated maximum duty ratio
if (Duty < gas)
{
SetDCMCPWM(1,Duty,0); //(PDC1 Register,Duty Cycle,PWMCON2.UDIS=0(Enable
//Update PWM1)
}
else
{
SetDCMCPWM(1,gas,0); //(PDC1 Register,Duty Cycle,PWMCON2.UDIS=0(Enable
//Update PWM1)
Duty = gas; //Make the memory of the regulator accurate when the
//current limiter does not set the duty ratio
integral = 0; //Set the integrated error to 0 when the current
//limiter does not set the duty ratio
}
IFS0bits.ADIF = 0; /* Clear ADC Interrupt Flag */

}
56
F. Switch Losses
An attempt was made to measure the switch losses for the IGBT and the MOSFET in the power
converters designed in this degree project. The current through and the voltage across the switches
were measured. By multiplying these, the losses in the switches could be found. The device used to
measure the current was a Hall Effect sensor that was rated for a maximum AC-current of 50 kHz.
The current measured was a DC-current, but it was switched at high speed. It could not be proved
that the speed of the current sensors were too slow, but the results of the calculations of the
MOSFET losses indicate that it was so. The temperature of the heat sink of the MOSFET was not
sufficiently high for the measurements to be correct. As the switching speed of the IGBT was much
lower than that of the MOSFET, the losses measured for the IGBT are more reliable than the ones
for the MOSFET. Figure F1 and Figure F2 show the measurements of the switch voltages and
switch currents that were made to allow calculations of the switch losses.
IBGT voltage and current
100
Emtitter-collector voltage (V)
50
Emitter current (A)

0
15
10
1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2

Time (sec) -3
x 10
Figure F1: IGBT losses
According to the measurements, the IGBT losses were 15.8W.
57
MOSFET voltage and current
100
50
Drain current (A)

0
15
10
3.76 3.765 3.77 3.775 3.78 3.785 3.79

Time (sec) -3
x 10
Figure F2: MOSFET losses
According to the measurements, the MOSFET losses were 57.2W.
58

Design and Construction of An EV Driveline Prototype With An Integrated Flywheel

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Design and Construction of An EV Driveline Prototype With An Integrated Flywheel

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UPTEC ES10 013

Design and Construction of an

Teknisk- naturvetenskaplig fakultet

Handledare: Janaína Gonçalves och Johan Lundin

Energy stored in flywheel and battery

Motor/ Energy storage

3 Aims and objectives

Figure 5: Drive line components

5.1 Electric machines

DC-motors can be magnetised either by permanent magnets or by electro-magnets. The field

5.1.2 PM Synchronous Machines

Traditional PM synchronous machines, in contrast to traditional DC-machines, have the magnets in

Figure 7: Flywheel machine

- High energy density

5.3 Power Converters

Figure 8: Passive rectifier

Figure 9: Buck converter

Figure 10: Buck converter waveforms

5.4 Electronic components

- Maximum current carrying capability

A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. It contains a central processing

5.4.4 Gate Drivers

5.5 Snubber Circuits

- Reduce or eliminate voltage or current spikes

5.6 Control Methods

5.6.1 Hysteresis Control

5.6.2 PID Controlled PWM

5.7 Current Limitation

5.8 Power Quality

5.9 PCB Design

Table 1: Basic choices of design

7.1 Current limiter simulations

Hysteresis controlled current

Load voltage (V)

7.2 Traction motor drive simulations

Figure 14: Simulink DC-motor controller model

Switch control signal

Armature current and voltage

Armature voltage (V)

Table 2: Final choices of design

8.1 Current limiter design

Hysteresis Control System

Figure 17: Current limiter circuit diagram

Hysteresis Control System

Figure 18: Photo of current limiter circuit

8.2 Traction Motor Controller Design

PI - PWM Control system

Figure 19: Traction motor controller circuit diagram

Figure 21: Photo of driveline

9.1 Power Converter Performance

9.1.1 Current Limiter Performance

Emtitter-collector voltage (V)

Gate-collector voltage (V)

9.1.2 Traction Motor Controller Performance

Gater voltage (V)

Drain-source voltage (V)

Gate-source voltage (V)

Drain-source voltage, no snubber

Drain-source voltage, voltage snubber

Drain-source voltage, final snubber

9.2 Driveline Performance

Figure 29: Driveline measuring points

IFS0bits.ADIF = 0; / Clear AD Interrupt Flag /

/ ADC interrupt /

IFS0bits.ADIF = 0; / Clear AD Interrupt Flag /