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I.INTRODUCTION
The demand for high data rate takes place with a resolution of 180
wireless multi-media applications has kHz resource blocks both in uplink and
increased significantly in the past few in downlink. The frequency dimension
years. The wireless user‘s pressure in the packet scheduling is one reason
towards faster communications, no for the high LTE capacity. The uplink
matter whether mobile, nomadic, or user specific allocation is continuous to
fixed positioned, without extra cost is enable single carrier transmission
nowadays a reality. Finding an optimal while the downlink can use resource
solution for this dilemma is a blocks freely from different parts of
challenge, not only for manufacturers the spectrum. The uplink single carrier
but also for network operators. The solution is also designed to allow
recent strategy followed within ETSI efficient terminal power amplifier
3GPP LTE and the WiMAX Forum design, which is relevant for the
was a new and evolutionary concept, terminal battery life. LTE solution
especially for mobile applications. enables spectrum flexibility where the
Both have adopted a new PHY layer transmission bandwidth can be
multi-carrier transmission with a selected between 1.4 MHz and 20
MIMO scheme, a promising MHz depending on the available
combination offering a high data rate spectrum. The 20 MHz bandwidth can
at low cost. provide up to 150 Mbps downlink user
data rate with 2 × 2 MIMO, and 300
The 3GPP LTE is acronym for Mbps with 4 × 4 MIMO. The uplink
long term evolution of UMTS.The peak data rate is 75 Mbps. The high
multiple access scheme in LTE network capacity also requires efficient
downlink uses Orthogonal Frequency network architecture in addition to the
Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) advanced radio features.
and uplink uses Single Carrier
Frequency Division Multiple Access The target in 3GPP Release 8 is
(SC-FDMA). These multiple access to improve the network scalability for
solutions provide orthogonality traffic increase and to minimize the
between the users, reducing the end-to-end latency by reducing the
interference and improving the number of network elements. All radio
network capacity. The resource protocols, mobility management,
allocation in the frequency domain header compression and all packet
retransmissions are located in the base ● OFDMA-PHY (scalable): based on
stations called eNodeB. eNodeB an FFT size from 128 to 2048 for
includes all those algorithms that are 802.16e.
located in Radio Network Controller
(RNC) in 3GPP Release 6 architecture. In addition to the multiple
Also the core network is streamlined physical layers, the 802.16 standards
by separating the user and the control support a range of options, including:
planes. The Mobility Management TDD, FDD, and half-duplex FDD (H-
Entity (MME) is just the control plane FDD) operation, TDM access with
element while the user plane bypasses variable frame size (2–20 ms),OFDM
MME directly to System Architecture with a configurable cyclic prefix
Evolution (SAE) Gateway (GW). The length, A wide range of bandwidths
architecture evolution is This Release 8 supported (1.25–28 MHz), Multiple
core network is also often referred to modulation and coding schemes:
as Evolved Packet Core (EPC) while QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM
for the whole system the term Evolved combined with convolutional codes,
Packet System (EPS) can also be used. convolutional Turbo codes, block
Turbo codes, and LDPC (Low-Density
WiMAX is the commonly Parity Check) codes, Hybrid ARQ and
used name for broadband wireless Adaptive antenna system (AAS) and
access based on the IEEE 802.16 MIMO.
family of standards.WiMAX stands for
worldwide interoperability for There is also a range of Radio
microwave access. The WiMAX forum Resource Management (RRM) options,
is an industry-led, nonprofit MAC features and enhancements in the
corporation formed to promote and standards. The WiMAX forum defines
certify compatibility and inter- system profiles that reduce all the
operability of 802.16 broadband optional features to a smaller set to
wireless products. IEEE 802.16 is an allow interoperability among different
IEEE Standard for Wireless MANs vendors. This is done through an
(WMANs). The most recent addition industry selection of features for MAC,
to the WiMAX family of standards is PHY, and RF from 802.16
802.16e, which is also called ‗Mobile specifications and forms the basis for
WiMAX. ‘ The IEEE standards specify testing conformance and
the physical layer (PHY) and the interoperability. Products certified by
Medium Access Layer (MAC), with no the WiMAX forum adhere to a
definition of higher layers. For IEEE Certification Profile that is based on a
802.16, those are addressed in the combination of band of operation,
WiMAX Forum Network Working duplexing option and bandwidth. The
Group. There is a range of options intended applications with the original
specified in IEEE 802.16, making the 802.16 standard were fixed access and
standards much more fragmented than backhaul, mainly for line-of-sight
what is seen in 3GPP and 3GPP2 operation. The addition of a physical
standards. The 802.16 standard defines layer for non-line-of-sight applications
four different physical layers, of which in IEEE 802.16-2004 and support for
two are certified by the WiMAX mobility in IEEE 802.16e opens up the
forum: standard for nomadic and mobile use.
In addition, provisions for multicast
● OFDM-PHY: based on an FFT size and broadcast services (MBS) are also
of 256 and aimed at fixed networks. included. This makes the standard
more similar to the evolved 3G
standards, but coming from a applications such as conversational
completely different direction. The services. The evolved 3G standards are
IEEE standards such as 802.16 are driven by the telecom industry,
driven by the datacom industry as targeting non-line-of-sight use and
Layer 1 and 2 standards, starting with mobility from the beginning, optimized
line-of-sight use for limited mobility, end-to-end standards for voice and
targeting best-effort data applications later also data services, now moving to
and now moving to higher mobility broader data applications including
and encompassing also other best-effort services.
III.PHY LAYER
1- PHY layer for WiMAX (IEEE802.16e based)
Fig.8 The block diagram of the transmitter of the downlink PHY layer of mobile WiMAX with 2-
antennas.
(b) Overview of the PHY layer the data into blocks, each of them
blocks is with the suitable size that can be
transmitted in one frame.
(1) padding one: is used if the data
(3) Randomizer:
size from the MAC layer is less
Aim: The randomization process
than the frame size according to the
ensures that there is no long runs of
selected modulation scheme and
ones or zeros in the input bits. This
code rate, so this block pads ones
will result in:
to reach the frame size.
Decrease the Peak to average
(2) slot concatenation is used if the
power ratio (PAPR).
data size from the MAC layer is
Ensure the clock synchronization at
larger than the number of data to be
the receiver as the transition
transmitted in one slot, so it divides
between bit values helps the constituent encoder with a
receiver in synchronization. constraintlength 7 and a native
If we have long runs of ones the code rate 1/2 The 6 bits from
power of the signal will be the end of the data block are
decreases until the threshold and appended to the beginning, to
hence error happened due to Gibbs be used as flush bits. These
phenomena. appended bits flush out the bits
left in the encoder by the
This can be achieved by: previous FEC block. The first
The randomization process is 12 parity bits that are generated
carried out using pseudo random by the convolutional encoder
binary generator (PRBG), as the output which depend on the 6 bits left
of PRBG is used as the input to an in the encoder by the previous
XOR Gate and the second input is the FEC block are discarded
block of data to be transmitted. Only and four optional coding
source bits are randomized .Elements schemes: Zero Tailing
that are not a part of the source data, Convolutional code,
such as framing elements and pilot Convolutional Turbo
symbols shall not be randomized.The code(CTC) along with H-ARQ,
LFSR shall be preset at the beginning and Block Turbo code(BTC)
of each frame to the value and low density parity check
100101010000000 and shall be (LDPC) codes
clocked once per processed bit. The most popular optional
The Derandomizer It has the channel coding scheme is
same construction of the Randomizer, (CTC) WiMAX uses duobinary
as the data has a XOR operation with turbo codes with a constituent
the output of PRPG that has a linear recursive encoder of constraint
feedback shift register (LFSR) has the length 4. In duo binary turbo
same seed value of the Randomizer codes two consecutive bits
used at the Transmitter from the uncoded bit sequence
are sent to the encoder
simultaneously, have been
defined in WIMAX as optional
channel coding schemes but are
unlikely to be implemented in
fixed or mobile WiMAX.
(5) Puncturing: In order to achieve
code rates higher than 1/2, the
output of the encoder is punctured,
(4) Channel Coding:
using a specified puncturing
The OFDMA PHY supports
pattern
Mandatory tail-biting
(6) Interleaving: The interleaver is
Convolutional Coding, The
defined by a two step permutation:
convolutional encoder uses a
The first step ensures that the further multiplied by a
adjacent coded bits are mapped pseudorandom unitary number to
onto nonadjacent subcarriers, provide additional layer 1
which provides frequency encryption. Preamble and
diversity and improves the midamble symbols are further
performance of the decoder. scaled by 2 2 which allowsboost
The second step ensures that in the power and allows for more
adjacent bits are alternately accurate synchronization and
mapped to less and more various parameter estimations,
significant bits of the such as channel response and noise
modulation constellation, thus variance.
avoiding long runs of lowly (8) OFDMA:
reliable bits., The interleaver (i) OFDM Symbol Structure
indices are determined using The flexibility of the WiMAX
following equations PHY layer allows one to make an
optimum choice of various PHY
layer parameters, such as cyclic
prefix length, number of
subcarriers, subcarrier separation,
(7) Symbol Mapping: Mobile and preamble interval, such that the
WiMAX supports QPSK, 16QAM performance degradation owing to
ICI and ISI (intersymbol
and 64QAM in DL, but In the UL,
interference) is minimal without
64QAM is optional in gray coded compromising the performance.
scheme. Each modulation The four primitive parameters that
constellation is scaled such that the describe an OFDM symbol, and
average transmitted power is unity, their respective values in IEEE
assuming that all symbols are 802.16e-2005, are shown in Table
2.
equally likely. The symbols are
The OFDMA symbol structure consists 1. Data subcarriers are used for
of three types of sub-carriers: carrying data symbols.
2. Pilot subcarriers are used for at the amplifier. No power is allocated
carrying pilot symbols. The pilot to the guard subcarrier toward the edge
symbols are known a priori and can be of the spectrum in order to fit the
used for channel estimation and spectrum, of the OFDM symbol within
channel tracking. the allocated bandwidth and thus
reduce the interference between
3. Null subcarriers have no power adjacent channels.
allocated to them, including the DC
subcarrier and the guard subcarriers The power in the pilot subcarriers, as
toward the edge. The DC subcarrier is shown here, is boosted by 2.5 dB,
not modulated, to prevent any allowing reliable channel tracking even
saturation effects or excess power draw at low-SNR conditions.
The relevant information about the estimation, and noise and interference
starting position and the duration of the estimation. To create the preamble in
various zones being used in a UL and frequency domain, BPSK modulation
DL subframe is provided by control
is used.
messages in the beginning of each DL
subframe.
Frame Control Header (FCH):
In a frame, the following control The FCH follows the preamble. It
information is used to ensure optimal provides the frame configuration
system operation: information such as MAP
message length and the
Preamble: The preamble is the modulation and coding scheme
first OFDM symbol of the frame. and usable sub-channels.
DL-MAP and UL-MAP: The
The preamble can be used for a DL-MAP and UL-MAP provide
variety of PHY layer procedures, subchannel allocation and
such as time and frequency Multiple users data regions within
the frame and other control
synchronization, initial channel
information for the DL and UL closed-loop time, frequency, and
sub-frames respectively. power adjustment as well as
Since MAP contains critical bandwidth requests.
information that needs to reach all UL CQICH: The UL CQICH
users, it is often sent over a very channel is allocated for the MS to
reliable link, such as BPSK with rate feedback channel state
information.
1/2 coding and repetition coding.
UL ACK: The UL ACK is
allocated for the MS to feedback
The BS also transmits the downlink
DL HARQ ( Hybrid Automatic
channel descriptor (DCD) and the
Repeat Request ) acknowledge.
uplink channel descriptor (UCD)
Burst Regions is used as Data
following the UL-MAP message,
regions from different users each
which contains additional control
burst has the same modulation
information pertaining to the
and code rate for all users that are
description of channel structure and the
included in this burst.
various burst profiles that are allowed
within the given BS. TTG & RTG : Transmit/Receive
and Receive/Transmit Transition
In order to conserve resources, the Gaps .
DCD and the UCD are not transmitted Frame duration is almost 5 ms (it
every DL frame. is variable from 2 ms to 20 ms).
Each frame has 47 OFDM
UL Ranging: The UL ranging symbols each symbol duration is 102.9
sub-channel is allocated for µs
mobile stations (MS) to perform
(4) Rate-matching and physical- buffer with the systematic bits inserted
layer hybrid-ARQ functionality first, followed by alternating insertion
The task of the rate-matching and of the first and second parity bits. The
physical-layer hybrid-ARQ bit selection then extracts consecutive
functionality is to extract, from the bits from the circular buffer to the
blocks of code bits delivered by the extent that fits into the assigned
channel encoder, the exact set of bits to resource. The set of bits to extract
be transmitted within a given TTI. As depends on the redundancy version
illustrated in Figure 16.30 , the outputs corresponding to different starting
of the Turbo encoder (systematic points for the extraction of coded bits
bits,first parity bits, and second parity from the circular buffer. As can be
bits) are first separately interleaved. seen, there are four different
The interleaved bits are then inserted alternatives for the redundancy
into what can be described as a circular version.
(5) Bit-level scrambling by the MAC scheduler for
LTE downlink scrambling implies that transmission of the transport block(s)
the block of code bits delivered by the to the terminal. Each resource block
hybrid-ARQ functionality is multiplied consists of 84 resource elements (12
( exclusive-or operation) by a bit-level subcarriers during 7 OFDM symbols)
scrambling sequence . In general, when deciding what set of resource
scrambling of the coded data helps to blocks to use for transmission to a
ensure that the receiver-side decoding specific terminal, the network may
can fully utilize the processing gain take the downlink channel conditions
provided by the channel code. Without in both the time and frequency domain
downlink scrambling, the channel into account. Such time/
decoder at the mobile terminal could, frequency-domain channel-dependent
at least in principle, be equally scheduling, taking channel variations
matched to an interfering signal as to However, in some cases downlink
the target signal, thus not being able to channel-dependent scheduling is not
properly suppress the interference. By suitable an alternative means to handle
applying different scrambling radio-channel frequency selectivity is
sequences for neighbor cells, the to achieve frequency diversity by
interfering signal(s) after descrambling distributing a downlink transmission in
are randomized, ensuring full the frequency domain. In order to
utilization of the processing gain provide the possibility for distributed
provided by the channel code resource-block allocation in case of
(6) modulation resource allocation type 2, as well as to
The downlink data modulation allow for distributing the transmission
transforms the block of scrambled bits of a single resource-block pair in the
to a corresponding block of complex frequency domain, the notion of a
modulation symbols. The set of Virtual Resource Block (VRB) has
modulation schemes supported for the been introduced for LTE. What is
LTE downlink includes QPSK, being provided in the resource
16QAM, and 64QAM, corresponding allocation is the resource allocation in
to two, four, and six bits per terms of VRB pairs. The key to
modulation symbol, respectively. All distributed transmission then lies in the
these modulation schemes are mapping from VRB pairs to Physical
applicable to the DL-SCH, PCH, and Resource Block (PRB) pairs, that is, to
MCH transport channels. As will be the actual physical resource used for
described in Chapter 18, only QPSK transmission. The LTE specification
modulation can be applied to the BCH defines two types of VRBs: localized
transport channel. VRBs and
distributed VRBs.
(7) Antenna mapping In case of localized VRBs, there is a
The Antenna Mapping jointly direct mapping from VRB pairs to
processes the modulation symbols PRB pairs as illustrated in Figure.
corresponding to, in the general case, However, in case of distributed VRBs,
two transport blocks, and maps the the mapping from VRB pairs to PRB
result to the different antenna ports pairs is more elaborate in the sense that
(8) Resource-block mapping Consecutive VRBs are not mapped
The resource-block mapping maps the to PRBs that are consecutive in the
symbols to be transmitted on each frequency domain,
antenna port to the resource elements even a single VRB pair is
of the set of resource blocks assigned distributed in the frequency
domain.The basic principle of ● Transmit diversity
distributed transmission consists of ● Closed-loop spatial multiplexing
two steps: including codebook-based beam-
o A mapping from VRB pairs to forming
PRB pairs such that consecutive ● Open-loop spatial multiplexing
VRB pairs are not mapped to
frequency-consecutive PRB Transmit diversity
pairs This provides frequency In case of two antenna ports, LTE
diversity between consecutive transmit diversity is based on Space
VRB pairs. The spreading in the Frequency Block Coding (SFBC). As
frequency domain is done by can be seen from Figure 16.33 , SFBC
means of a block-based ‗ implies that consecutive modulation
interleaver ‘ operating on symbols 1 are mapped directly on
resource-block pairs. adjacent subcarriers on the first
o A split of each resource-block antenna port. On the second antenna
pair such that the two resource port, the swapped and transformed
blocks of the resource-block pair symbols are transmitted
are transmitted with a certain on the corresponding subcarriers. In
frequency gap in between case of four antenna ports, LTE
(second step of Figure 16.32 ). transmit diversity is based on a
This provides frequency combination of SFBC and Frequency
diversity also for a single VRB Shift Transmit Diversity (FSTD). As
pair. This step can be seen as the can be seen in combined SFBD/FSTD
introduction of frequency implies that pairs of modulation
hopping on a slot basis. symbols are transmitted by means of
SFBC with transmission alternating
(9) Multi-antenna transmission between pairs of antenna ports
LTE supports the following multi- (antenna ports 0 and 2 and antenna
antenna transmission schemes or ports 1 and 3, respectively).
transmission modes , in addition to
single-antenna transmission:
1- ASN Functions, Decompositions, and • AAA proxy: transfer of device, user, and
Profiles service credentials to selected NSP AAA
and temporary storage of user‘s profiles
The ASN performs the following functions: • Relay functionality for establishing IP
• IEEE 802.16e–based layer 2 connectivity connectivity between the MS and the CSN
with the MS • Radio resource management (RRM) and
• Network discovery and selection of the allocation based on the QoS policy and/or
subscriber‘s preferred CSN/NSP request from the NSP or the ASP
• Mobility-related functions, such as The ASN-GW provides ASN
handover, location management, and paging location management and paging; acts as a
within the ASN, including support for server for network session and mobility
mobile IP with foreign-agent functionality management; acts as an authenticator and
AAA; provides mobility tunnel
The ASN may be decomposed into establishment and management with BSs;
one or more base stations (BSs) and one or acts as a client for session/mobility
more ASN Gateways (ASN-GW) as shown management; performs service flow
in Fig.9. The WiMAX NRM defines multiple authorization (SFA), based on the user
profiles for the ASN, each calling for a profile and QoS policy; provides foreign
different decomposition of functions within agent functionality; and performs routing
the ASN. (IPv4 and IPv6) to selected CSNs. Table 2.1
The BS is defined as representing lists the split of the various functional
one sector with one frequency assignment entities within an ASN between the BS and
implementing the IEEE 802.16e interface to the ASN-GW, as per the ASN profiles
the MS. Additional functions handled by the defined by the WiMAX Forum. It should be
BS in both profiles include scheduling for noted that the ASN gateway may optionally
the uplink and the downlink, traffic be decomposed into two groups of
classification, and service flow management functions: decision point (DP) functions and
(SFM) by acting as the QoS policy enforcement point (EP) functions. When
enforcement point (PEP) for traffic via the decomposed in such a way, the DP functions
air interface, providing terminal activity may be shared across multiple ASN
(active, idle) status, providing DHCP proxy Gateways. Examples of DP functions
functionality, relaying authentication include intra-ASN location management and
messages between the MS and the ASN- paging, regional radio resource control and
GW, reception and delivery of the traffic admission control, network session/mobility
encryption key (TEK) and the key management (server), radio load balancing
encryption key (KEK) to the MS, serving as for handover decisions, temporary caching
RSVP proxy for session management, and of subscriber profile and encryption keys,
managing multicast group association via and AAA client/proxy. Examples of EP
Internet Group Management Protocol functions include mobility tunneling
(IGMP) proxy. A BS may be connected to establishment and management with BSs,
more than one ASN-GW for load balancing session/mobility management (client), QoS
or redundancy purposes. and policy enforcement, foreign agent, and
routing to selected CSN.
Table 2.1 Functional Decomposition of the ASN in Various Release 1 Profiles
4- Network Discovery and Selection and multiple service providers are offering
services over the available networks. To
WiMAX networks are required to facilitate such operation, the WiMAX
support either manual or automatic selection standard offers a solution for network
of the appropriate network, based on user discovery and selection. The solution
preference. It is assumed that an MS will consists of four procedures:
operate in an environment in which multiple
networks are available for it to connect to
NAP discovery, NSP discovery, NSP NSP enumeration and selection: The MS
enumeration and selection, and ASN may make a selection from the list of
attachment. available NSPs by using an appropriate
algorithm. NSP selection may be automatic
NAP discovery: This process enables the or manual.
MS to discover all available NAPs within a
coverage area. The MS scans and decodes ASN attachment: Once an NSP is selected,
the DL MAP of ASNs on all detected the MS indicates its selection by attaching to
channels. The 24-bit value of the ―operator an ASN associated with the selected NSP
ID‖ within the base station ID parameter in and by providing its identity and home NSP
DL MAP as defined in IEEE 802.16 serves domain in the form of a network access
as the NAP identifier. identifier.
Service type PoA IP address scheme (IPv4) PoA IP address scheme (IPv6)
Fixed access Static or dynamic Static or stateful autoconfiguration
Nomadic access Dynamic Stateful or stateless autoconfiguration
Mobile access DHCP for P-MIP terminals Stateful or stateless authconfiguration
MIP based for C-MIP terminals
P-MIP=Proxy-Mobile IP mode.
C-MIP=Client-Mobile IP mode.
Table 2.3 PoA IP address method according to the WiMAX access services and IP version
6- Mobility
The mobility procedures are divided into ASN anchored mobility procedures.
two mobility levels: This refers to MS mobility where no CoA
address update is needed, also known as (EPC) network. Together LTE and SAE
micromobility. comprise the Evolved Packet System (EPS).
CSN anchored mobility procedures. EPS uses the concept of EPS bearers
The macromobility between the ASN and to route IP traffic from a gateway in the
CSN is based on mobile IP protocols PDN to the UE. A bearer is an IP packet
running across the R3 interface. flow with a defined Quality of Service
(QoS) between the gateway and the UE.
CSN anchored mobility implies that, in the 1- Overall Architectural Overview
case of IPv4, the MS changes to a new
anchor FA (Foreign Agent). WiMAX EPS provides the user with IP
systems must support at least one of the connectivity to a PDN for accessing the
following mobile IP schemes: Internet, as well as for running services such
as Voice over IP (VoIP). This is achieved by
Proxy-MIP. In this case, the MS is means of several EPS network elements
unaware of CSN mobility management which have different roles.
activities and there is no additional
Fig. 10 shows the overall network
signalling/overhead over the air to complete
architecture including the network elements
the CSN mobility.
and the standardized interfaces. At a high
level, the network is comprised of the CN
Client MIP (CMIPv4). In this case,
(EPC) and the access network (E-UTRAN).
the MIP client in the MS participates in
While the CN consists of many logical
inter-ASN mobility.
nodes, the access network is made up of
essentially just one node, the evolved
b- LTE NodeB (eNodeB), which connects to the
LTE has been designed to support UEs. The EPC and E-UTRAN network
only packet switched services, It aims to elements are described in more detail below.
provide seamless Internet Protocol (IP) a- The Core Network
connectivity between User Equipment (UE)
and the Packet Data Network (PDN), The CN (called EPC in SAE) is
without any disruption to the end users‘ responsible for the overall control of the UE
applications during mobility. While the term and establishment of the bearers. The main
‗LTE‘ encompasses the evolution of the logical nodes of the EPC are:
radio access through the Evolved-UTRAN
(E-UTRAN), it is accompanied by an • PDN Gateway (P-GW);
evolution of the non-radio aspects under the • Serving Gateway (S-GW);
term ‗System Architecture Evolution‘ (SAE) • Mobility Management Entity (MME).
which includes the Evolved Packet Core
Fig. 10 The EPS network elements.
The E-UTRAN is responsible for all compressing the IP packet headers which
radio-related functions, which can be could otherwise represent a significant
summarized briefly as: overhead, especially for small packets such
as VoIP.
Radio Resource Management. This covers
all functions related to the radio bearers, Security. All data sent over the radio
such as radio bearer control, radio admission interface is encrypted
control, radio mobility control, scheduling
and dynamic allocation of resources to UEs Connectivity to the EPC. This consists of
in both uplink and downlink the signaling towards the MME and the
bearer path towards the S-GW.
Header Compression. This helps to ensure
efficient use of the radio interface by
On the network side, all of these controller node is that, as the UE moves, the
functions reside in the eNodeBs, each of network must transfer all information related
which can be responsible for managing to a UE, i.e. the UE context, together with
multiple cells. Unlike some of the previous any buffered data, from one eNodeB to
second- and third generation technologies, another, mechanisms are therefore needed to
LTE integrates the radio controller function avoid data loss during handover. An
into the eNodeB, thus reducing latency and eNodeB may be served by multiple MME/S-
improving efficiency. Such distributed GWs, as is the case for eNodeB#2 in Fig.
control eliminates the need for a high- 11. The set of MME/S-GW nodes which
availability, processing-intensive controller, serves a common area is called an MME/S-
which in turn has the potential to reduce GW pool, and the area covered by such a
costs and avoid ‗single points of failure‘. pool of MME/S-GWs is called a pool area.
One consequence of the lack of a centralized
V. Conclusions
Table 8 below presents the key was first to market, whereas LTE has been
elements of a comparison between the only recently standardized.
Mobile WiMAX and 3GPP-LTE standards Following this observation, we may
as they converge to 4G broadband wireless conclude that due to timeline benefits new
access systems. The comparison focuses service providers as well as existing cable
mainly on the physical layer aspects of the and DSL providers wishing to offer mobile
radio access technology of these two services are likely to select Mobile WiMAX
standards. as their technology for mobile broadband
access. We may also conclude that in the
developed world major UMTS/HSPA
The parameters presented in Table 8 service providers will naturally evolve to
show that the Mobile WiMAX and 3GPP- 3GPP-LTE, whereas most CDMA2000
LTE standards are technically similar. providers, as well as GSM/EDGE providers
However, in terms of market perspective the in the developing world, will select Mobile
two standards differ in terms of expected WiMAX for mobile broadband wireless
time to market and legacy. Mobile WiMAX access while providing service continuity
over their legacy networks.
Table 8. Comparison of 3GPP LTE and IEEE 802.16e
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