Key Concepts

• Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

• General formula of carbohydrates is Cx(H2O)y, or, CxH2yOy.
• Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
• The most common simple carbohydrates have either:
5 carbon atoms (pentoses)
or 6 carbon atoms (hexoses).
• A monosaccharide is made up of one sugar
(mono means 1).
• A disaccharide is made up of two simple sugars chemically joined together
(di means 2).
• A polysaccharide is made up of many simple sugars chemically joined together
(poly means many).
• Monosaccharides contain the hydroxy (alcohol, OH) functional group.
• Disaccharides and polysaccharides contain both the hydroxy (alcohol, OH) functional
group and an ether or glycosidic link (R-O-R') between 2 simple sugar molecules.
• 2 monosaccharides react in a condensation reaction producing a disaccharide and water.

Examples of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Name Formula Source
glucose C6H12O6 fruits
Monosaccharides
fructose C6H12O6 fruits, honey
(simple sugars)
galactose C6H12O6 not naturally occurring
sucrose (glucose + fructose) C12H22O11 sugar cane, sugar beet
Disaccharides
lactose (glucose + galactose) C12H22O11 milk
(double sugars)
maltose (glucose + glucose) C12H22O11 germinating grain
starch -(C6H10O5)-n energy store in plants
energy store in animals
Polysaccharides glycogen -(C6H10O5)-n
(liver and muscles)
cellulose -(C6H10O5)-n plant fibre

Structure of Monosaccharides
Glucose, fructose and galactose are isomers, they have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6) but
different structures.

Glucose, fructose and galactose are all examples of hexoses, simple sugars containing 6 carbon
atoms.

Name glucose galactose fructose

Formula C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12O6
 Structure

Structure of Disaccharides
Sucrose, lactose and maltose are isomers, they have the same chemical formula, C12H22O11, but
different structures.

An ether, or glycosidic, link joins 2 monosaccharides to form a disaccharide.

When two monosaccharides react in a condensation reaction the products are a disaccharide and
a molecule of water.

Name Formula Formed from Structure

glucose + fructose ---> sucrose + H2O

sucrose C12H22O11
+

glucose + galactose ---> lactose + H2O

lactose C12H22O11
+

glucose + glucose ---> maltose + H2O

maltose C12H22O11
+
Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars

Key Concepts
• Sugars exist in solution as an equilibrium mixture of open-chain and closed-
ring (or cyclic) structures.
• In the open-chain form, the carbon atom that contains the C=O bond is called
the carbonyl carbon.
• In the closed-ring (cyclic) structure, the carbonyl carbon is the one which is
attached to the O of the ring and an OH group.
• Sugars that can be oxidised by mild oxidising agents are called reducing
sugars because the oxidising agent is reduced in the reaction.
• A non-reducing sugar is not oxidised by mild oxidising agents.
• All common monosaccharides are reducing sugars.
• The disaccharides maltose and lactose are reducing sugars.
• The disaccharide sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
• Common oxidising agents used to test for the presence of a reducing sugar
are:

a. Benedict's Solution
b. Fehling's Solution
c. Tollen's Reagent

Sugar or more specifically sucrose is a carbohydrate that occurs naturally in every fruit and
vegetable. It is the major product of photosynthesis, the process by which plants transform the
sun's energy into food. Sugar occurs in greatest quantities in sugar cane and sugar beets from
which it is separated for commercial use.

Tooth decay

Sugar, saliva, and bacteria lead to a formidable combination that may lead to tooth decay. After
eating sugar, particularly sucrose, and even within minutes of brushing your teeth, sticky
glycoproteins (combination of carbohydrate and protein molecule) adhere to the teeth to start the
formation of plaque. At the same time millions of bacteria known as Streptococcus mutans also
adhere to the glycoprotein. Although, many oral bacteria also adhere, only the S. mutans is able
to cause cavities

In the next stage, the bacteria use the fructose in a metabolism process of glycolysis to get
energy. The end product of glycolysis under anaerobic conditions is lactic acid. The lactic acid
creates extra acidity to decrease the pH to the extent of dissolving the calcium phosphate in the
tooth enamel leading to the start of a cavity.
Preventative measures include frequent brushing and flossing to prevent plaque build up. A diet
rich in calcium and fluoride in the water lead to stronger tooth enamel. A diet of more complex
carbon hydrates that are low in sugar and no sucrose snacks between meals is also a good
preventative measure.