Aerospace Engineering II

AE2111
Aircraft Performance, Propulsion and Wing
Dr Jian Wang
Drag estimation

• What do we mean by drag estimation?

• How do we estimate drag
• Drag breakdown method
• Examples
What do we mean by drag estimation?
• Drag breakdown of a body without internal flow
Total drag

Pressure drag Friction drag

Span
S loading
pan lo a d in g Volume shape
Wetted area
Induced drag P ro file d ra g
F o rm d ra g

W a ve s Waves due to volume

Boundary layer
d u e to lift
V o rtic e s d u e to lift flo w s e p a ra tio n

Vortex drag Wave drag Wake drag

Total drag
G e n e r a l a s s u m p t io n o n d r a g p o l a r

• P a r a b o lic d r a g p o la r

2
C • C • kC
D Do L

• Zero lift drag: biggest contributor friction drag

• The parasite drag
1 2
Parasite drag = C fe  ρV  S wet
2 
where S wet is the wetted area of the aircraft
C fe equivalent skin friction coefficient
ρ density
V Airspeed
The parasite drag
Swet
CD0 = C fe
S
CD0 Parasitedragcoefficient
S Wingarea
• The equivalent skin friction coefficient depends on the
aerodynamic design of the aircraft and varies between 0.003
and 0.005.
• To obtain an accurate estimate of the parasite drag, the drag
contribution of each individual component must be
considered.
• This approach is termed the drag breakdown method.
• The version given in Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach
by D.P. Raymer is followed
Therefore:

• What do we mean by drag

estimation?

The parasite drag estimation
• How do we estimate drag?

The drag breakdown method

The version given by D.P. Raymer
The drag breakdown
• For streamlined components, the skin friction drag
of a flat plate of the same wetted area is determine,
and then
• Modify/correct (Increase) the estimated drag by a
factor known as the form factor.
• This is an estimate of the effect of the variation of
pressure along the component of the skin friction
drag.
• The interaction of components also must be
accounted called interference drag.
Drag expression
C fi FFi Qi S wet i
C Do = ∑ + C Dmisc + C D L + P
S
Where
• Cfi flat plate skin friction coefficient of i-th
component
• FFi form factor of the i-th component
• Qi interference factor of the i-th component
• Swet I wetted area of the i-th component
• CDmisc miscellaneous drag
• CD L+P leakage and protuberance drag
The flat plate skin friction coefficient
• The flat plate skin friction coefficient depends
on the stream-wise length of the plate.
• It can be estimated approximately by the
following formula
0.455
Cf =
(log 10 Re ) 2.58
(1 + 0.144 M )
2 0.65

Where
• Re is the Reynolds number based on stream-wise length
• M is the Mach number
The flat plate skin friction coefficient
• The Reynolds number:
Vl
Re =
ν
Where
• V is the airspeed
• l is the stream-wise length
• ν is the kinematic viscosity
• For an axi-symmetric body, such as a fuselage or
engine nacelle, the stream-wise length is easy to
determine.
The stream-wise length
• For a lifting surface such as a wing, horizontal or
vertical tail the stream-wise length is more
difficult to determine since these surfaces are
typically tapered.
• The most appropriate length to use is the mean
aerodynamic chord of the exposed surface.
• This is defined by the expression
yt • Se is the planform area of the
1
m.a.c.e = ∫ dy
2
c exposed planform
Se ye
• c is the streamwise chord
• y is the spanwise ordinate
A linearly tapered wing
• Explicit equation

2  λe 
m.a.c.e = C re 1 + λe −
 
3  1 + λe 

where λe is the taper ratio

of the exposed surface
ct
cre
Note: In stability and control calculations we usually consider
the m.a.c. of the entire wing including the buried portion.
Comments
• The expression for skin friction coefficient shows that as
the Reynolds number increases the skin friction
coefficient decreases.
• This is valid for an ideal smooth surface, but for a rough
surface, the Reynolds number does not continue to
decrease but rather stays roughly constant at high
Reynolds number (after a limit).
• The Reynolds number above which the skin friction
coefficient no longer decreases depends on the
roughness of the surface.
• This behaviour can be modelled approximately by
defining a cut-off Reynolds number above which the skin
friction coefficient no longer decreases.
The cut-off Reynolds number

• An approximate expression for the cut-off

Reynolds number is:

1.053
l
Re cut −off = 38.21 
ε 
l the streamwis cord length
ε the average roughness height
The roughness height

• Raymer recommends the following

values of roughness height:
Surface condition roughness height
camouflage paint 0.0100 mm
smooth paint 0.0063 mm
sheet paint 0.0040 mm
polished sheet metal 0.0015 mm
smooth moulded composite 0.0005 mm
The form factor
• The form factor is intended to reflect the effect of
the varying pressure distribution.
• For a lifting surface the following empirical
expression can be used:
 
[ ]
4
t t 
FF = 1 +
0 .6
( )
( ) + Λ
0.28
   
0.18
100 1 . 34 M cos
 
m
x  
c  
c
 c m 
(x c )
m
: the chord fraction at maximum thickness

t
 : the thickness to chord ratio
c
M: the Mach number
Λm the sweep angle of the line of maximum thickness
The form factor
• For an axisymmetric surface, the following formula
can be used for a fuselage:

 60 f 
FF = 1 + 3 + 
 f 400 

• For a nacelle or smooth store:

0.35
FF = 1 +
f

f : the length to diameter ratio

The form factor

• For a non-circular cross section, the equivalent

diameter is given by:

4
d eq = Amax
π
Amax : the maximum cross aera
The interference factor
• It is very difficult to estimate the interference factor
accurately.
• Raymer recommends that:

Wind tunnel tests can be used to determine interference
effects.

for a nacelle or store an interference factor of 1.5 is
appropriate, if it is mounted directly on a fuselage or
wing and 1.3 if it is within one diameter.

He recommends a value of 1.1-1.4 for a low mounted
wing.

These values are higher than other authors.
The miscellaneous drag coefficient
• The miscellaneous drag coefficient represents
components which have not been already been
considered.
• These may include struts or landing gear.
• Data from wind tunnel tests are useful here.
• A good source of data is the book Aerodynamic
Drag by W. Hoerner.
The miscellaneous drag coefficient
• When using tabulated data it is important to make note
of the reference area used in any quoted drag
coefficient.
• In many cases this is the frontal area of the component.
• From the data we can determine the equivalent flat plate
area f which is defined as the drag divided by the
dynamic pressure.
• The units of f are m2.
• The contribution to the miscellaneous drag coefficient is:

f
C Dmisc = S is the wing reference area
S
The leakage and protuberance drag

• The leakage and protuberance drag is usually

estimated as a fraction of the total.
• Raymer recommend 2-5% for turbofan
transports and 5-10% for propeller aircraft.
The compressibility drag

• For transonic flight there is an additional drag

component known as compressibility drag.
• It is very sensitive to the precise shape of the
aerofoil but depends on the thickness to chord
ratio and the sweepback angle.
• For supersonic aircraft there is an additional
drag contribution known as wave drag.
• It depends primarily on the length to diameter
ratio.
 This spreadsheet estimates the zero lift drag coefficient of an aircraft based on the data given by Jenkinson et al

Cruise Speed (m/s) 233 Vc

Example
Cruise Altitude (km) 11

Speed of Sound (m/s) 295

Nu 3.90E-05

M 0.789831

• This spreadsheet estimates the Manufacturer

Type
Model
AIRBUS
A320-
200

zero lift drag coefficient of an DIMENSIONS

Fuselage:
Swet (m2) 488.6427 Q 1
Length (m) 37.57

aircraft based on the data given Height (m)

Width (m)
4.14
3.95
Re
Cf
2.24E+08
0.001748
Cf.Q.FF.Swet (m2) 0.934056

Finess Ratio 9.51 FF 1.093536

by Jenkinson et al Wing:
Area (m²) 122.40 %covered 0.179562 Q 1
Span (m) 33.91 Swet 1.99E+02 Cf.Q.FF.Swet (m2) 5.91E-01
MAC (m) 4.29 Re 2.56E+07
Aspect Ratio 9.39 Cf 0.002381

• Basic Parameters Taper Ratio

Average (t/c) %
1/4 Chord Sweep (º)
0.240

25.00
FF 1.24939

High Lift Devices:

1. Cruise speed (m/s): 233 Trailing Edge Flaps Type
Flap Span/Wing Span
F1
0.780
2
Area (m ) 21.10

2. Cruise Altitude (m): 11 Leading Edge Flaps Type

Area (m²)
slats
12.64
Vertical Tail:

3. Speed of sound (m/s): 295 Area (m²)

Height (m)
Aspect Ratio
21.50
6.26
1.82
t/c
Swet
mac
0.12
4.38E+01
3.53E+00
Q
Cf.Q.FF.Swet (m2)
1
1.65E-01

Taper Ratio 0.303 Re 2.11E+07

4. Dynamic viscosity: 3.90E-05 1/4 Chord Sweep (º)

Tail Arm (m)
34.00
12.53
Cf
FF
0.002452
1.536335
S v /S 0.176

5. Mach number: 0.789831 S v L v /S b

Horizontal Tail:
2
0.065

Area (m ) 31.00 t/c 0.12 Q 1

Span (m) 12.45 Swet 6.32E+01 Cf.Q.FF.Swet (m2) 2.50E-01
Aspect Ratio 5.00 mac 2.86E+00

• Manufacture Airbus Taper Ratio

1/4 Chord Sweep (º)
0.256
29.00
Re
Cf
1.71E+07
0.002533
Tail Arm (m) 13.53 FF 1.559533

• Type A320- S h /S
S h L h /S c
Undercarriage:
0.253
0.799

Track (m) 7.60

• Model 200 Wheelbase (m)
Turning radius (m)
12.63
21.90
No. of wheels (nose;main) 2;4
Main Wheel diameter (m) 1.143
Main Wheel width (m) 0.406
Nacelle:
Length (m) 4.44 Swet (m2) 33.05835 Q 1.3
Max. width (m) 2.37 Re 2.65E+07 Cf.Q.FF.Swet (m2) 0.1208
Spanwise location 0.338 Cf 0.002368
FF 1.186824
Example
• Fundamental parameters of the given aircraft in groups

Fuselage:
Wing
1. Length (m) 1. Area (m2)
2. Height (m) 2. Span (m)
3. Width (m) 3. MAC (m)
4. Finesse ratio 4. Aspect ratio

High Lift Devices: 5. Taper ratio
1. Trailing Edge Flaps Type 6. Average thickness to cord ratio
2. Flap Span/Wing Span 7. ¼ cord sweep angle ( o)
i. Area (m2)
3. Leading Edge Flaps Type
i. Area

Vertical Tail:
1. Area (m2) 4. Taper Ratio 4. Sv/S
2. Height (m) 5. 1/4 Chord Sweep (º) 5. SvLv/Sb
3. Aspect Ratio 6. Tail Arm (m)
Example—continued
• Fundamental parameters of the given aircraft in groups

Horizontal Tail:
Undercarriage:
1. Area (m2) 1. Track (m)
2. Span (m) 2. Wheelbase (m)
3. Aspect Ratio 3. Turning radius (m)
4. Taper Ratio 4. No. of wheels (nose; main)
5. 1/4 Chord Sweep (º) 5. Main Wheel diameter (m)
6. Tail Arm (m) 6. Main Wheel width (m)
7. Sh/S 7. ¼ cord sweep angle ( o)
8. ShLh/Sc

Nacelle:
1. Length (m)
2. Max. width (m)
3. Spanwise location
Calculation in groups
• Fuselage:
Wetted area S wet = πHL = 488.64 m 2
VL
Re ynolds Re = = 2.24 ×108
µ
Flat plate skin friction coefficien t
0.455
Cf = = 0.001748
(log10 Re )2.58
(1 + 0.144 M )
2 0.65

 60 f 
The form factor FF = 1 + 3 +  = 1.093536
 f 400 
f : the length to diameter ratio
Fuselage:

• Interference factor: Q=1

C fi FFi Qi S wet = 0.934056 m 2
cre + cr cre − ct b 2 − ye
Wing: S shade = ye =
2 cr − ct b2

cre − ct =
(b − 2 ye )(cr − ct )
=c
(b − 2 ye )(1 − λ )
r
b b

cre = cr
(b − 2 ye )(1 − λ ) + c
t
b
Wing:

cr
(b − 2 ye )(1 − λ ) + c + cr
(b − 2 ye )(1 − λ ) + λ + 1
t
S shade = b y e = cr b ye
2 2
2 ye (1 − λ ) 2 ye (1 − λ )
1− λ − + λ +1 2−
= cr b y e = cr b ye
2 2

• Half wing area is

cr + ct b cr (1 + λ )b
S 2= =
2 2 2× 2
Wing:
• The ratio of covered area to wing area by fuselage is
S shade
λsn = =
S 2
 2 ye (1 − λ ) 
 2− b 
cr ye  W  W fuselage 
2 − b (1 − λ )
 2 
fuselage

=   =
b   = 0.179562
cr (1 + λ ) 1+ λ
b
2× 2

 t
Wetted area S wet = S (1 − λsn )1.977 + 0.52 ×  = 1.99 ×10 2 m 2
 c
Wing:
V (MAC )
Re ynolds Re = = 2.56 ×10 7
µ
Flat plate skin friction coefficien t
0.455
Cf = = 0.002381
(log 10 Re ) 2.58
(1 + 0.144 M ) 2 0.65

 
[ ]
4
t t 
  + 100   1.34 M (cos Λ m )
 0 .6
FF = 1 +
( ) = 1.252389
0.18 0.28

 x c c 
 c m 
where x( )
cm
= 0.33

• Interference factor: Q=1

C fi FFi Qi S wet = 5.92 ×10 −1 m 2
Vertical Tail:
t
Thickness to cord ratio = 0.12
c
 t
The wetted area S wet = SV × 1.997 + 0.52 ×  = 4.38 ×10
 c
4 SV 1 + AV + AV2
Mean Aerodynamic Cord MAC = = 3.53 m
3 H V 1 + 2 AV + AV
2

V (MAC )
Re ynolds Re = = 2.11×10 7
µ
Flat plate skin friction coefficien t
0.455
Cf = = 0.002542
(log 10 Re ) 2.58
(1 + 0.144 M ) 2 0.65
Vertical Tail:
 
[ ]
4
t t 
  + 100   1.34 M (cos Λ m )
 0 .6
FF = 1 +
( ) = 1.252389
0.18 0.28

 x c c 
 c m 

where (x c )m
= 0.33

• Interference factor: Q=1

C fi FFi Qi S wet = 1.65 × 10 −1 m 2

Horizontal Tail:
t
Thickness to cord ratio = 0.12
c
 t
The wetted area S wet = S H × 1.997 + 0.52 ×  = 6.32 × 10
 c
4 SV 1 + AV + AV2
Mean Aerodynamic Cord MAC = = 2.86 m
3 H V 1 + 2 AV + AV
2

V (MAC )
Re ynolds Re = = 1.71×10 7
µ
Flat plate skin friction coefficien t
0.455
Cf = = 0.002533
(log 10 Re ) 2.58
(1 + 0.144 M ) 2 0.65
Horizontal Tail:
 
[ ]
4
t t 
  + 100   1.34 M (cos Λ m )
 0 .6
FF = 1 +
( ) = 1.559533
0.18 0.28

 x c c 
 c m 

where (x c )
m
= 0.33

• Interference factor: Q=1

C fi FFi Qi S wet = 2.50 × 10 −1 m 2

Nacelle:
Wetted area S wet = πWn Ln = 33.05835 m 2

VLn
Re ynolds Re = = 1.71×10 7
µ
Flat plate skin friction coefficien t
0.455
Cf = = 0.002368
(log10 Re ) (1 + 0.144 M )
2.58 2 0.65

 60 f 
The form factor FF = 1 + 3 +
  = 1.186824
 f 400 
f : the length to diameter ratio
Nacelle:
• Interference factor: Q=1.3
C fi FFi Qi S wet = 0.1208 m 2
Total drag estimation
Total wetted area S wet = S wet
F
+ S wet
W
+ S wet
VT
+ S wet
HT
+ S wet
n
= 8.27 × 10 2 m 2

C f FF Q S wet = 2.06 m 2

C f FF Q S wet
CD0 = = 1.68 × 10 −2
S

Swet C f FF Q Swet
CD0 = C fe =
S S

C f FF Q Swet
C fe = = 2.49×10−3
Swet
Assignment
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