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Many attempts have been made to produce theories weight, and stored in a conical hopper with frictional
which delrme the distribution of pressure on the walls of sliding contact on the wall. The findings of this study
conical silo hoppers. The majority of these have adopted form an important but simple result, which can be used
the assumption that the mass of material within the hop- as a reference when the predictions of more complex
per is in a plastic state of stress. This assumption is so models are being examined. It should also be noted that
regularly made that it is sometimes not even stated, but the assumption of linear elastic stress states within the
the use of failure properties, such as the angle of internal hopper has been made before 2, but additional assump-
friction, indicates that the assumption is being made. tions were always made, so that the calculations were
The fact that this plastic assumption imposes con- not rigorous.
siderable restrictions on the stress history and deforma- The present analysis is conducted using a finite ele-
tions of the mass has almost always been ignored. merit analysis which includes the effects of hopper wall
Moreover, few investigators have undertaken checks to friction and hopper wall flexibility, and these influences
verify the assumption. The properties of dry granular are investigated.
solids under stress states which do not involve failure It is claimed that the findings of the study have
have also been explored only rarely and incidentally. relevance to hopper pressures for a number of reasons.
These are poor reasons for assuming that the material Firstly, the study clarifies the pattern of pressures which
within the hopper is in a plastic state, especially for the can be expected when a very different constitutive model
initial filling condition, which has been shown to be the from the plastic assumption is used. This suggests that
critical state for the structural design of mass flow steel the major feature of known pressure distributions is not
hoppers ~. the assumption of a plastic state, but the predominance
In this study, the alternative simple assumption is of equilibrium requirements on the basic form of the
made that the material stored within the hopper is in an distribution which arises from an assuml~on of unifor-
elastic state. The study is hcm'istic in character. It is not mity for the solid.
claimed that an elastic state does exist within the hopper, Second, it is shown that if gravity is applied to the
or that the initial strains of different parts of the solid are whole elastic mass at once, the initial filling cot~tion is
unimportant. The study is undertaken to explore the far from plastic. This same conclusion could be drawn
stress states which occur in a homogeneous linear elastic from the work of Waiters 3, in which an atmrapt to use
mass of material without initial strains, subject to self a plastic assumption for the filling condition led to
0141-0296/91/01002-11
© 1991 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
2 Eng. Struct. 1991, Vol 13, January
Elastic predictions of pressures in~onical~si~t~oppers: J. Y. Ooi and J. M. Rotter
Walker theory ~
The differential slice method, originally used by
Janssen l° for .cylindrical silos, was also adopted by
Walker s, Waiters 3 and Enstad H to derive theories to (b)
describe presmte distributions in conical hoppers.
Figure I Characteristic geometry, a, hopper geometry; b, typical
Under static or initial filling conditions, Walker 5 finite element mesh
assumed that the major principal stress is vertical. This Generalized version of/Walker theory
assumption leads to a hydrostatic distribution of vertical
pressures The two above theories of Walker 5 for filling and flow
appear to be very different. It also appears that the filling
a: = 3,(H - z) + a,, (1) condition is independent of the failure properties of the
material, whilst that for flow appears to depend on the
in which az is the mean vertical stress at height z above angle of internal friction. This difference clouds the
the hopper apex, H is the hopper height and 3' is the truth that the filling theory is a limiting case of the flow
stored solid density. The mean vertical stress in the theory, and that the relation for pressures derived for
stored solid at the cylinder/hopper transition is given by flow conditions has more general application.
If it is assumed that the ratio of wall pressure p to
OZI .
Assuming that the wall friction is fully mobilized, the mean vertical stress az is constant at a single value of
normal wall pressure distribution is given by FD throughout the hopper, then equilibrium of the
material in the hopper leads to equation (4). If the total
equilibrium of the hopper is also considered, then it is
Pi =Fioz (2)
found that the pressures on the hopper wall must satisfy
in which the condition
n = 2 { FDI~otB + FD - I } (lO)
F,- (3)
1 + #cotB Equations (5) and (6) are then no longer needed, and the
only assumptions are equilibrium and the value of the
Here, /z is the coefficient of wall friction and/3 is the wall pressure ratio, FD. The latter may be derived as by
hopper half angle (i.e. the angle between the hopper wall Walker's flow theory (equations (7) and (9)) for the
and the vertical). This stress distribution in the solid is material in a state of plastic failure (thus involving the
often referred to as a 'peaked' stress field. angle of internal friction), or by assuming that no shear
Under flow conditions, Walker 5 examined a cylin- occurs on vertical planes within the solid, which leads to
drical horizontal elemental slice and adopted the equation (3), which in turn gives n = 0 through equation
assumption that material adjacent to the hopper wall is (10), leading to the Walker filling solution of equa-
at passive failure. This leads to tions (1) and (2). Other means may be employed to
obtain relations for FD, so these are described here as
modifications of Walker's theory.
a. - - + azt (4)
" n-1 Waiters theory and other modifications o f Walker's
treatment
in which
Waiters 3 extended Walker's analysis to allow for the
non,uniformity of the vertical stresses on a horizontal
2BD slice of the stored solid, assuming that the entire mass
n = - - (5)
tan B is in a state of plastic failure. He assumed that an active
stress state pertains on initial filling and a passive stress
state during flow. To simplify the equations, it was also
B= sin ~ sin(2B + 2ey) (6) necessary to assume that the vertical shear varies
1 - sin ~ cos(2B + 2~/) linearly with radius. These assumptions lead to the
Walker equations (4), (9) and (t0) but With D given by
in which
~7=tan_t[ sin(2e+2B)sin~ ] (14)
F: = 1 + sin ~ cos 2~: (9) 1 + cos(2e + 2fl) sin ,p
1 - sin ~ cos(2B + 2e/)
The positive signs above refer to the initial , ~ g ~ s u r e s m hoppers by considering the equilibrium of a
(active) condition and the negative sign~ to the fl~W fall[tufa Of the hopper bounded by two non-concentric
(passive) state. The angle e for the passive condition is circular arcs. The stresses within the arch are assumed
the same as ~( in Walker theory. to vary only in direction, not in magnitude. Expressed
If Waiters Itheory is expressed instead in terms of the in terms of the mean stress in the arch a, Enstad's solu-
parameter B, then it should be noted that equation (5) tion for pressures during flow is given by
must be adjusted to
"rYs + a, - (20)
2( BD ) (16) ° = X- - 1 I X-1
n= ~tan/3 + D - 1
in which s is the meridional distance up the cone from
It has been noted 4 that Waiters' solution yields the apex, s, is the meridional distance measured to the
unrealistically high stresses for the initial filling condi- top of the hopper and at is the mean vertical arch stress
tion unless the hopper half angle is very small: that is, acting at the transition due to cylindrical surcharge. The
unless terms X and Y are given by
1
/3 < -=- (T - 12e;) (17) 2 sin ~ 1 + sin(2ef +/3) ] (21)
2 X = 1 - sin ~0 sinB
3,R
Pp = (24)
(1 + z/H)(tan/3 +/~)
0.8
J: 0 6 -
"E
==
02
X
,I t , t
0.6 O.B 1.0 1.2 1/, 1.6
Latera( Pressure Ratio (p/o=)
1.0
Es=SOMPavs=0.3 0.8
Ew=2xlOSMPa vw=0.3
R/t=IO0 o Normal WaU Pressures '~
~=0.3 £ O.6
~ a
in Eontact Etement
U Pressures deduced ~o
=20 °
c5
0.2
I I
0.2 O~ 0.6 0,8
Dimensionless Normal Wall Pressure (P/1R)
hopper. The result is presented in Figure 4. Near the The pressure distributions predicted by the present finite
bottom, the value of FD is as low as 0.87. It then rises element formulation appear to be less susceptible to
steadily for much of the hopper, reaching 1.0 at mid- spurious variations within each element than those of
height, but increasing rapidly towards the top, where similar studies (Compare, for example pressure distribu-
1.6 is achieved. This variation compares with the tions calculated by Mahmoud and Abdel Sayed 27, and
constant values adopted in applications of Waiker Link and Elwi22).
theory: FD ffi 0.55 for Walker filling theory, 1.29 for The wall pressure distribution obtained from the pre-
Walker flow theory, 2.07 for Waiters flow theory, and sent analysis is compared in Figure 6 with several pre-
1.0 for McLean's proposai. vious solutions, assuming the effective angle of internal
friction ~, is 30 °. The present predictions lie near
Pressure distributions McLean's theory near the hopper bottom, but closer to
Walker's flow theory towards the hopper top. None of
In Figure 5 normal wail pressures deduced from the wail the existing analytical solutions provides a really close
membrane stresses using the membrane theory of shells fit to the elastic prediction, but the distributions are very
are compared with the normal wail pressures in the con- similar in form. This same pattern can be observed for
tact elements. The two pre~*.,lre distributions should be a wide range of hopper angles, wail frictions and hopper
shr,ilar except aear the top boundary where shell bend- flexibilities.
ing phemmmm affect the wall deformations and wall Towards the hopper top (zlH > 0.9), the present
s~, which in turn affect the derived wall pressures. results are quite close to the Walker and Waiters flow
The close match between the two pressure distributions theories. This should be expected, as the stress field in
indicates that equilibrium is being satisfied properly. the stored solid is not far from the 'arched' form
I0
'l ~ -----7-"~--'--~, '
~ ,_~ - ¢:30 o
I
,¢"~ I I i 1 I
02 0/, 06 08 10 12 14 01 0.2 0.3 04 05 06
Olmens=onless Normal Wall Pressure (p/yR) Dlmensionless Ctrcumferentla[ Stress (NB/IcR2)
Figure 6 Wall pressures for a typical rigid hopper Figure 7 Circumferential wall stresses in a typical rigid hopper
10
throughout much of the hopper (Figure 3), though it is I
=06
perties of the stored solid. The locus of peak pressures
is marked in Figure 6 to indicate the range of possible
distributions. Two alternative values of Jenike and
o O~
Johanson's parameter k are used here to indicate alter-
native distributions which might be deduced from their
analysis based on values they propose. It is interesting to
note that the radial stress field elastic solution using 02
and Johanson's solution matches Walker theory exactly Figure 8 Meridional wall stresses in a typical rigid hopper
for initial filling conditions.
Waiters' solution for the initial filling condition is not
included here because the hopper half angle B exceeds
the limiting value give by equation (17), with the im-
plication that the vertical stresses in the solid exceed brane stress signifmantly. This effect is seen in the pre-
hydrostatic values, which seems unlikely. Enstad's solu- sent analysis, but cannot be modelled by classical lmoper
tion predicts slightly larger wall pressures because it pressure theories. Shell bending effects on the meri-
assumes a spherical top surface, dional stress are minimal, as expected 2s.
The meridional stress depends on both the normal
Wall stress distributions pressures and the frictional tractions. At the top of the
hopper all theories must give the same value for the
The normal pressure and the frictional shear exerted by meridional stress, as it is governed by the static global
the stored solid on the wall generate a meridional stress equilibrium of the hopper and its contents. The bopper
and a circumferential stress in the hopper wall. Indeed, top meridional stress is given by
the purpose of predicting hopper pressures is primarily
to predict hopper wall stresses for structural design. It ,yR2
is therefore useful to examine the wall stresses, and to N., - - - (25)
compare the stresses predicted by different theories. 6 sin B
The wall stresses are shown in Figures 7 and 8. Results
are shown for two different effective angles of internal Also shown in Figures 7 and 8 are the corresponding
friction @ (30 ° and 40°). A= _;~expected from the mem- wall str~s predictions of t h e Walker, WaRers and
brane theory of shells, the hopper circumferential stress McLean theories coupled with the ~ theory of
distribmion peaks further from the apex than the n o ~ shells. It should be noted that shell membrane theory
wall pressure distribution (Figure 6). Near the top of the accurately reflects the real ~ in the body of the
hopper, .where a structural discontinuity exists, shell hopper, but the support ~ ~ adjacent to
bending phenomena influence the circumferential mere- the hopper topL Walker s static solution does not
0.4
I lil
/ J -
':
,' _
creasing wall friction, the meridional stress (Figure 11)
is predicted to decrease throughout most of the hopper
except near the top where a slight increase occurs.
By contrast with this finding, Walker flow theory
predicts that the meridional stress should increase
0.2 06 0.6 0.6 'tO 1.2 1~ throughout the hopper as the wall friction coefficient in-
Dtmensionless Norm=t Wall Pressure (p/lfRI
creases. Waiters flow theory matches the present finding
Figure 9 Normal wall pressures for varying wall friction in this matter, even though these two classical theories
coefficients only differ in the distribution factor D.
10
=06 .. ..... .
McLean z~
~Present Study \
o
~04 7~/// c
c3
02
, I I
02 Or, 06 08 02 O~ 06 08
Dimensionless Normal Wail Pressure (p/l~R) Dimensionless Normal Watl Pressure (p/l"Ri
Figure 12 N o r m a l w a l l p r e s s u r e s f o r v a r y i n g bulk s o l i d P o i s s o n ' s Figure 13 Normal wall pressures for varying bulk solid-wall
ratio stiffnesses
Ew t
varying values of the bulk solid Poisson's ratio ~,s. The
effect of Poisson's ratio is seen to be very small, but the
This has been widely verified, and is indicated in Figure
maximum normal wall pressure increases slightly as
13 by the three results shown for c~ = 0.25, which
Poisson's ratio increases, and the normal wall pressures
derive from the three combinations E, = 500 MPa,
near the top and near the bottom of the hopper decrease. E w = 2 × 1 0 s M P a , R/t=lO0; E , = 5 0 M P a , Ew=
McLean's prediction again gives a good fit to the present 2x10SMPa, RIt=lO00 and E , = 5 0 M P a , E,,=
results, giving the appearance of being valid for 1, = 0.5. 2 x 10 4 MPa, /tlt = 100. As the value of (z increases
from zero, very little change in the calculated pressures
Effect of stored solid and hopper stiffnesses occurs until ~ reaches about 0.1. Thereafter, the peak of
the distribution begins to occur at lower points in the
Jenike and Johanson 2 suggested that the stored solid hopper, and to increase very slightly. Pressures near the
compressibility should alter the pressure distribution top and bottom of the hopper (z/H < 0.4, z/H > 0.8)
significantly. McLean 6 also believed this, and added correspondingly change slightly.
that a flexible hopper wall would have the same result. These changes in the pressure distribution occur only
The effect of the relative stiffness of the stored solid and in very thin-walled hoppers containing very stiff solids.
the hopper wall were explored by varying the modular The highest practical value of o~is found for a very thin
ratio of the stored solid and the hopper wall EJE,.. steel hopper for which R/t might reach 1000. For c~ to
Both a thick-walled hopper (R/t = 100) and a thin- be as high as 0.1, the bulk solid elastic modulus must
walled hopper (R/t = 1000) were examined so that both then exceed 20 MPa. Adopting equation (26) with a
stiff and flexible hoppers could be investigated. value of ~v = 100, the vertical stress must exceed
There is little experimental data or agreement on 200 kPa for the effects of bulk solid compressibility and
appropriate precise values for the elastic modulus for hopper flexibility to make any difference to the wall
most stored solids. However, it has been suggested 23"29 pressure distribution. Such a b.igh value of the required
that the elastic modulus of the stored solid Es may be vertical stress in a stiff solid with a very light hopper in-
estimated as dicates that the effects of material compressibility and
hopper wall flexibility should be negligible in virtually
E, = Kva~ (26) all practical situations.
Another conclusion may also be drawn from the insen-
in which Kv is termed the modulus contiguity sitivity of the pressures to the assumed stored solid
coefficient 29, and is a constant varying between about modulus. It indicates that equilibrium (and not kine-
70 for dry grains and about 100 for loose dry sand but matic) considerations probably dornirmte the pattern of
up to 200 for dense-packed hard granules. Here the initial fitlmg hopper pressures. The use of a nonlinear
practical range of the bulk solid modulus Es is taken as constitutive model for the bulk solid may therefore make
5 MPa to 500 MPa. little diffea-ence to the calculated hopper pressures.
The dimensionless normal wall pressure distributions
are shown in Figure 13. As would be expected from the Effect of hopper half angle
theory of elasticity, it was found that the wall pressure
distributions are almost identical for fixed values o f the Dimensionless normal wall pressure distributions for a
Notation
range of hopper half angles # are shown in Figure 14. B ratio of vertical shear stress to vertical direct
In these calculations, the radius at the top of the hopper stress at the wall
has been kept constant, so that the hopper becomes D ratio of vertical stress at the wall to the mean
shallower as the hopper half angle increases. This results vertical stress in the solid
in a smaller total load in the hopper, and consequently Young's modulus of stored solid, hopper wall
reduced hopper pressures. F ratio of normal pressure to vertical stress at the
The present elastic predictions are remarkably similar wall
in form to those of the Walker flow and McLean theories k Jenike radial stress field parameter
for a wide range of hopper half angles. This indicates n pressure relation exponent
again that equilibrium considerations dominate the pat- N,,N circumferential, meridional membrane stress
tern of hopper pressures. resultant
P normal wall pressure
Conclusions R radius of hopper at the top surface (transition)
S meridional distance up the inclined wall
Theoretical predictions for the pressures on the walls of (origin at apex)
conical hoppers have been presented. These were t thickness of the hopper wall
obtained using a finite element analysis in which the X,Y terms used in Enstad's theory (equation (20))
stored solid was treated as a homogeneous linear elastic z vertical coordinate (origin at apex)
body with frictional sliding against the hopper wall. This
heuristic analysis was undertaken to explore the nature ot hopper-bulk solid relative stiffness parameter
of the pressure distributions arising from an elastic (equation (27))
assumption, but it has been shown to be able to give hopper half angle
many satisfactory predictions of wall pressures for the -y unit weight of stored solid
initial filling state. The initial filling state has previously Kv modulus contiguity coefficient (equation (26))
been shown to be the critical loading case for mass flow ~t wall friction coefficient
steel binsL Poisson's ratio for bulk solid, hopper wall
vs, Vw
Elastic pressure distributions were obtained which oz mean vertical stress in stored solid
relate closely to the modification of Walker theory by 0 mean stress in arch (Enstad's analysis)
McLean s, and slightly less closely to the flow theories effective angle of internal friction
of Walked and Waiters 3, although all these theories
have a very different basis from the present analysis. Subscripts
The pressure distributions were shown to be quite insen-
sitive to the assumed elastic properties of the solid, so f during flow
that uncertainty about the proper value for these i after initial filling or storing
parameters is seen to be unimportant. These considera- t at the cylinder/hopper transition
tions suggest that the form of hopper pressure distribu-
tions is dominated by equilibrium and the assumption of References
homogeneity, and that const;tutive laws may play a
lesser role. 1 Rotter, J. M. "On the significance of switch pressures at the transition
It was found that stress states in most of the stored in elevated steel bins', Prec. 2rid Int. Conf. on BJdk Marls Storage,
bulk solid are not near the Mohr-Coulomb failure sur- Ham~li~g and 7hmsportation, Inst. Eng. Aust. Woliongong, July
1986, lip 8 2 - 8 8
face. Although much of the literature suggests that 2 Jenike, A. W. and Johanson, J. R. 'Bins loads', J. Stract. Div., ASCE
material failure properties determine wall pressures in 1968, 94 (ST4) 1011-41