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Country Profile of
Conventional and Renewable Energies:

Congo, Democratic Republic of the

Last updated on 13/09/06

Prepared by

Maria-Evangelia Kaninia
Intern from August to …, 2006

For the

Department of Economic and Social Affairs

Statistics Division
Energy Statistics Section
United Nations, New York
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1 Executive summary
The economy of the Democratic Republic of Congo has been crippled because of
decades of warfare. The result of this is a heavily underdeveloped energy sector. In a country of
more than 60 million people, less than 7% have access to electricity, which results in
approximately 95% of the final energy needs being covered through consumption of fuelwood or
other biomass.
The most important asset of the country in terms of energy is the hydromechanical
energy of the River Congo. The total potential of the country amounts to 100 GW. A particular
characteristic is that about half of it is concentrated at the Inga site. So far, only two generating
plants (Inga I and II) are active, but several projects are under consideration. Inga III, the first
stage of expansion, has already secured funding. The project is supposed to culminate as “Grand
Inga”, with a total capacity of about 40 GW, which, combined with an extensive interconnection
grid, will transmit energy to many African countries, promoting the industrialization of the
continent.
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2 Introduction and Overview

2.1 Brief Country Facts (source: [CIA])
2.1.1 Geographical data
- Location: Central Africa, northeast of Angola
- Surface area: 2,345,410 sq
km, approximately 8% of the
entire surface of Africa
- Terrain / topography: vast
central basin is a low-lying
plateau; mountains in east
- Climate: diverse – tropical in
equatorial river basin, cooler
in highlands, two distinct
seasons (dry and wet) in
either side of the equator

2.1.2 Population
- Total population: about 63
million (demographics
intensely distorted because of
the high AIDS-related
mortality )
- Growth rate: as of July 2006,
estimated at 3.1%

2.1.3 Political situation

(see also [STA]) Figure 1 Map of Congo (DR) [CIA]
Major political instability has
characterized the country throughout
its history since independence in 1960. A dictatorship sustained by force for 32 years was ended
in 1997 by civil war and a massive inflow of refugees from neighbouring fighting Rwanda and
Burundi (1994). The regime that was established under Laurent Kabila got challenged (1998) by
an insurrection backed by external forces (Rwanda and Uganda), while a coalition formed by
Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan and Zimbabwe intervened to support it. A cease-fire was reached
in July 1999, to be followed by the assassination of Kabila in January 2001 and his succession by
his son Joseph. The Pretoria Accord, an all-inclusive power sharing agreement, was signed in
December 2002 (and ratified by all parties in April 2003). It ended the fighting and established a
government of national unity under president Kabila with a mandate to prepare the country for
democratically held elections. Following negotiations and a successful constitutional referendum
(December 2005) a series of elections is currently being held (run-off election for the presidency
is to be held in October 2006) in order to determine political power.

2.1.4 Economical situation

The economy of the (endowed with significant still unexploited wealth) country - has
declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The civil war, which began in August 1998, dramatically
worsened the situation. Namely, it decreased national output and government revenue, increased
external debt, and resulted in the deaths of perhaps 3.5 million people from violence, famine, and
disease. Foreign investment was curtailed, as well as already operating businesses. Conditions
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improved in late 2002 as the pacification process led to the Pretoria Accord and reforms backed
by international agents have begun being implemented (credit was approved by the World Bank
and the IMF, and the country was judged eligible for the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
Initiative (HIPC); see [IMFa]). Economic stability improved in 2003-05, although currently an
amount of economic activity lies outside the GDP data and there is corruption and no certain legal
framework. In 2005 renewed activity in the mining sector boosted Kinshasa's fiscal position and
GDP growth, while business and economic prospects are expected to improve once the current
elections produce a stable government.

2.1.4.1 Vital statistics (2005 estimation, [CIA])

- GDP (PPP): $40.7 billion; [WEO] reports $46.5 billion
- GDP growth rate: 6.5%; 9.3% according to [WEO], projected to remain steady for 2006-7
- GDP (PPP) per capita: $650; $740 according to [WEO]
- Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9%
- Main exports: products of the mining industry (diamonds, copper, crude oil, cobalt ) and
coffee (recipients for which are, by order of magnitude: Belgium (37.8%), US (17.8%),
China (11.6%), Finland, France, Chile)
- Main imports: practically all commodities, including foodstuff, machinery, transport
equipment, fuels (main importers: South Africa (17.1%), Belgium (15.7%), France (9%),
Zambia (8.4%), Kenya (5.9%), Germany, US, Cote d'Ivoire)

2.2 Overview of the Energy Sector1

The abundance of forests, the fact that the vast majority of the population is not
urbanized and the precarious situation during the war mean that about 95% of the energy needs
is covered by fuelwood or charcoal (90% of the indigenous energy production and 95% of the
final energy consumption (according to [IEA]; see Table 1) is classified as “combustible
renewable and waste”). However, the country has reserves of all kinds of commercial energy
carriers (including uranium), as well as renewable energy potential (mostly hydromechanical, but
also solar and geothermal) that remain to be exploited as soon as the political situation is
stabilized.

2.2.1 Sector Organization

As mentioned in [SADC], the ministry of Energy is in charge of the entire sector (apart
from biomass, which is included in the jurisdiction of the ministry of Environment). The legal
framework is not reliable. An all-inclusive code regulating foreign investment in the country exists
since 1986, but does not address the issue of investments in the energy sector in particular.
However, [STA] reports that in 2005 “the Congolese Government approved a new investment
code and a new mining code…”

2.2.2 Production, trade and consumption of commercial energy

2004,IEA

combustible
crude oil renewable
ktoe coal oil products hydro and waste electricity
Inland Production 65 1040 587 15310
Imports 173 555 1
Exports -1040 -5 -125
TPES 238 548 587 15310 -124
Transformation Processes -37 23 -587 -702 319

1
See [SADC].
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TFC 201 571 14608 194

Industry sector 132 3087 96
Transport 285
Residential 69 7 11521 96
Other 248 2

electricity generated in
GWh 6830
Table 1 Simplified energy balance table for 2004, source: [IEA]

2.2.2.1 Oil
The output of the onshore fields (see Figure 3) acquired in 2000 and operated since then
by Perenco2 totals 25,000 bbl/d (see [IEA] and [PER]) – this output only amounts to 1.35% of the
total output of the SADC countries. The entire production is exported. The domestic demand for
oil products (less than half of the equivalent in energy content of the production) is covered
through importations because of lack of refining capacity.
As an example of further development, [TUL] details the stakes recently acquired by
TullowOil in prospective fields. A production sharing agreement was signed in July 2006 for the
exploration of blocks lying along the border to Uganda.

2.2.2.1.1 Sector Organization

In 2004, the national oil company, Société Nationale des Petroles du Congo (SNPC)3,
was reorganized to become a holding company.

2.2.2.2 Gas
No gas is currently produced, and the proved reserves are negligible.

2.2.2.3 Coal
In 2003, the country produced 88m metric tons of coal ([EIA]), which is negligible in
comparison to the country’s energy needs. The inland production is supplemented with
importations and used mainly in the industrial but also in the residential sector.

2.2.2.4 Electricity; The dominant sector

As of 2003 ([EIA]), the installed generating capacity was estimated at 2,568 MW (of
which only 600-700 MW are actually functioning)4. According to [IEA], 6830 GWh were
generated, or 110 kWh per capita. Since approximately 20% was exported, the per capita inland
consumption of electricity is just 90 kWh, which allows predicting a rise in inland demand in the
future as the economy recovers from war.

2
Perenco is also the holder of the offshore concession and the terminal and is bound to
undertake further exploration (see [PER]).
3
The website for SNPC describes its mission as “…representing the state in contractual
relationships with foreign partners…” and “controlling the entire chain of oil activities”.
4
MagIndustries of Canada (see [MAG]) has undertaken - through its subsidiary
MagEnergy and in cooperation with SNEL - the rehabilitation of Inga I and II, with a view to
exporting electricity to neighbouring Republic of Congo where the industrial demand is high. In
May 2005 an agreement was signed under the auspices of the international financial community
for the rehabilitation of the turbines at Inga II. The state-run Industrial Development Corporation of
South Africa will also partake in the project, as is detailed in [MAG]. It is clear that South Africa
has interest in the completion of a project that enhances its own supply of electricity through the
SAPP grid.
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Except for a very small thermal capacity (in the range of perhaps 50MW), the rest of the
generating plants are hydroelectric. With a nominal installed capacity of approximately 1700 MW
(67% of the total nominal capacity as of 2003) and huge further potential, the Inga site (located in
the western part of the country in Bas-Congo) has a preeminent role. The plants already built at
Inga are briefly presented in Table 2. Their technical characteristics are detailed in [INGA00].
SNEL, the national electrical utility, has two main networks, the Western network in the
south west of the country (which also supplies the capital) and the Southern network in the south
east, both supplied with power from hydropower sources. Most of the Western network
hydropower stations are located at the Inga site. However, the grid only serves a small
percentage of the terrain and population; therefore leaving 93% of the population without access
to electricity (see 2.2.3).
nominal actual
number of capacity per commissioned
capacity capacity
turbines turbine in
(MW) (MW)
Inga I 312 6 52 na 1972
Inga II 1424 8 178 na (<720) 1982
Table 2 Existing generating plants at Inga site

The generating facilities at the Inga site (a conveniently arrayed series of waterfalls
located approximately 250 km downstream from the capital and 150 km upstream from the mouth
of the river), namely Inga I and Inga II, provide, although malfunctioning, electricity for domestic
consumption and exportation. [UNa] reports that the electricity generated by the hydro plants in
2003 was about 6200 million KWh, which means that the rate of utilization for the hydro plants is
less than 30%. Taking into consideration that the flow of the Congo River is steady year-round
(main distinguishing feature), this is an important index of underexploited resources and capacity.
The interconnections linking Congo DR to the recipients of its electricity (Figure 4) are
detailed in [EIAa]5. Specifically, Congo DR supplies power to:
o the neighbouring Republic of Congo through a 220KV connection,
o Zimbabwe and South Africa, through a composite network: A 500kV DC6 line
transmits energy from Inga to Kolwezi, close to the northern border of Zambia.
From this point energy is relayed to a 220kV AC line into northern Zambia. This
interconnection is operated by Copperbelt Energy of Zambia (whose focus is on
providing electricity to the energy-intensive copper industry), in cooperation with
the state-run SNEL of Congo, DR. The company site mentions that construction
of a second line parallel to this one was about to begin in 2005 in order to
increase the total line capacity to 500MW (from 210MW).
Other possible expansions are mentioned in [EIAa]7, including a connection to Angola as
part of the WESTCOR project (see 3.1.1.3). With the country being in a transition phase,
practically all possible expansions are being considered, including several large-scale projects,
such as the Grand Inga, conceptualized at 40,000 MW together with a pan-African electricity grid
(see 3.1.1.3).

2.2.2.4.1 Sector Organization

5
This source is however outdated; it mentions that Siemens of Germany is going to
rehabilitate the two Inga plants, while the project is now undertaken by MagIndustries of Canada.
6
For long distances DC lines reduce the incurring losses.
7
The [EIA] report is not, however, up-to-date. Specifically, it mentions that the
rehabilitation of Inga I was to be assigned to Siemens of Germany, while it is known that this deal
is not valid any more.
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SNEL, the state electricity company, is responsible for managing the generation of
electricity and the transmission network and for representing the country’s interests within
international projects. Its greatest asset is the ownership of the Inga hydroelectric facility and site.
On the international level: Congo DR is (through the national electricity utility - SNEL) a
member of the -founded in 1995- Southern African Power Pool (SAPP). The aim of the
community is to work in solidarity in order to provide “reliable and economical electricity” ([SAPP])
to the consumers in each member country. This translates to equitably sharing the hydro potential
of the region, with a focus on the outstanding exploitable capacity of Congo DR.
Maps of the international interconnections of the area and their capacity limits are
available at [SAPP].
A subset of the member countries of the SAPP has formed the WESTCOR (see 3.1.1.3).
According to this project, the Inga III plant will join forces with a plant in Angola in order to provide
electrical power to Angola, Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. An important incentive towards
the extension of the electricity generating capacity and network is to attract foreign investment in
energy-intensive industries, namely mining. Maps and information about the financing for the
project can be found in [SAPPb].

2.2.3 Household/Commercial Access to Electricity

According to [WRI], as of 2000, only 6.7% of the population had access to electricity,
which is low even by African standards (the percentage for the entire Sub-Saharan Africa was
24.2%).
A map detailing the transmission and distribution network of the country can be seen in
[SAPPa].

2.3 Overview of Renewable Energy Sector

2.3.1 Situation of Renewable Energy
So far, the only RE resource that has been exploited (apart from biomass, which is a
“staple” for African countries) is the hydromechanical energy accounting for 95% ([EIA]) of the
electricity generated, or for 4% of the total inland primary resources. Taking into consideration the
abundance of this form of energy, alternative renewable sources are only going to play a
complementary role, focusing on areas difficult to incorporate in the (still underdeveloped)
electricity grid.
Biomass accounts for the vast majority of energy used in the country: 94% of the final
energy consumption (as of 2004, [IEA]) is accounted for by biomass (including charcoal) use.

2.3.2 Legislative and institutional structure

In the international context, Congo DR is a member of the SADC, which has declared
([SADCb]) its intention to use energy (of which the community it is a net exporter) as a means
towards growth and development in the region.
The Grand Inga project and specifically the WESTCOR partnership (see 3.1.1.3) is also
officially endorsed by the UN as a “Partnership for Sustainable Development” (see [UNpsd]).

2.3.3 RE targets and commitments

No official commitment declaration has been found. However, the country has ratified8
the Kyoto Protocol. Although present emissions of greenhouse effect gases are low, and in any
case not a primary concern for underdeveloped countries, the Kyoto associated mechanisms
(and specifically the Clean Development Mechanism) are a potential way of financing sustainable
energy related projects.

8
As can be seen in the Status of Ratification as published on http://unfccc.int.
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3 Analysis of Renewable Energy Sector9

3.1 Analysis of Different Types of Renewable Energy
3.1.1 Hydro
3.1.1.1 Resource potential
The hydroelectric potential of the entire country is estimated ([EIA]) at 100,000 MW.
However the General Director of SNEL is quoted in [MAG] providing an estimation of 50,000 MW
just for the Inga site; other estimates scale the grandiose and still uncertain Grand Inga project
down to 40,000MW; see [MAGrep]. The huge amount or hydromechanical energy available in
Congo is differentiated in that it transcends national borders and would, when harnessed, suffice
to cover the needs in electricity of a great part of the continent. Furthermore the river has a
constant flow, due to crossing the Equator twice, ensuring a reliable power source. Because of
the common stakes related to this project, the –few, because of the political and military instability
of the country- extension projects are commonly a joint enterprise involving the state-run SNEL,
the partner countries of the SAPP and third parties.
The hydro potential of Congo DR is not restricted to the Inga site. A report ([SAPPa]) by
an officer of the state-run electricity utility indicates six further sites (see Table 3).
site MW
Kamanyola 400
Wanie-Rukula 700
Wagenia 460
Busanga 240
Nzilo 2 120
Zongo 2 100
Table 3 Secondary sites with hydro-potential

The report [SAPPa] also provides an estimate of the energy cost that will result from the
expansion of Inga: $339-671/kW and $0.00108-0.00144/kWh. Based on these estimations and a
reasonable prediction of electricity demand along the potential interconnections (see Figure 3),
the report generates a series of expected revenues, assuming that the project is gradually
realized.

3.1.1.2 Achievements
The needs of the country in electricity are so far covered through the under functioning
hydro plants. Also, Congo DR is a net exporter of electricity.

3.1.1.3 Current projects / dynamics of development

The SAPP plays an important role in hydro projects within Congo DR, whose role within
the community is critical. With a view to exploiting the hydroelectric potential of Congo DR to
obtain common benefit, five of the countries of the community10, the present and planned
interconnections of which are depicted in Figure 4, formed the Western Corridor Power Project
(WESTCOR) in 2003 – launched officially in 2005. The first phase of the project11 includes the
construction of a 3,500MW hydro plant at the site Inga III and the corresponding transmission

9
A general assessment of the RE sector in Africa can be found in [RENAFR].
10
Namely: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa and hosting Congo.
11
Grand Inga shall consist of a series of 52 turbines at 750MW, built incrementally
([IRNa]).
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lines (about 3,000 km in length). Arguments as to the definition of the stakes of the projects have
delayed the commencement of the project. However, as of January 2006, agreements concerning
the funding of the feasibility studies had been achieved ([EIA]). Inga III, preliminary scheduled to
come online by 2012 as reported in [MAG], is conceived by the joint venture of the governments
forming WESTCOR as an intermediate stage towards the Grand Inga12 (see also 5). This
internationalized project enhances the prospects of stability in the region and is an indicator of the
exceptional significance of the Inga site. The presence of reliable partners, like ESKOM of South
Africa (among the five largest energy utilities in the world), which is reported ([IRNb]) to “have
thrown its weight behind the ambitious project” enhances the prospects of the project being
realized.

3.1.1.4 Major constraints

Political concerns: The realization of the Grand Inga is transgressing into politics, as is
discussed in [IRNa], thus often environmental and social issues are overlooked. Determining the
stakes in the enterprise is already delaying the realization of the first phase of Grand Inga (Inga
III). Finding a universally acceptable formula for the involved parties (after actually determining
who these shall be) will be a major obstacle. Factoring in the estimated cost for the project at $50
billion (exceeding the individual GDP of all the countries participating in the venture except for
South Africa) and the notorious corruption and inefficiency of the public sector in the hosting
country and several of its partners (see the reports of Transparency International at [TI05]), the
difficulties are obviously augmented.
NEPAD (New Partnership for African Development) has a major stake in the success of
the project (see [NEPAD_UN]). The Partnership, often parallelized to a new “Marshall Plan” for
Africa, acknowledges the need for energy in order to advance developmental goals. Concerns
are though being expressed ([IRNa]) that industrial development will be prioritized to the
detriment of the population.
[IRNa] identifies potential dangers behind classifying the Grand Inga as a “sustainable
energy” project. The argument is that the Grand Inga is on its own, financially viable. Therefore, if
it is credited (for instance, through the Kyoto mechanisms) with any bonus credit, it will actually
divert investment from other kinds of renewable energy, such as solar or geothermal.
Geopolitically, the centralization of the electricity supply at Inga will render the entire
continent vulnerable to attacks, especially taking into consideration the instability of the region
(same source as above).

3.1.1.5 Summary

3.1.2 Solar
According to the corresponding map published at [SOL], Congo DR is less well endowed
for solar energy exploitation than its neighbouring countries. However, taking into consideration
the high cost of electricity grid extension in the country (difficult terrain, large distances); small-
scale distributed solar projects could be viable. However, no references to specific projects have
been found.

3.1.3 Wind
According to a study realized by Hélimax Énergie ([HEL]) on behalf of the African
Development Bank, Congo DR has no significant potential.

3.1.4 Geothermal
No reference to geothermal energy (projects under consideration or construction) has
been found. However, several studies indicate that neighbouring Uganda has several prospective

12
[SAPPa] contains key technical characteristics of the Grand Inga project according to a
1997 study. It also describes a potential interconnection to the north of Africa
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sites along the border to Congo DR. Since the two countries share common geological features in
the area which is not covered by the grid, geothermal energy could be a distant possibility.

3.1.5 Biomass
Figure 2 shows the evolution of biomass use since 1982. The fact that this percentage
has been growing until 2002 (when, by the way, the peace agreement was signed) is indicative in
the poor condition of the economy and, more specifically, of the insufficient reach of the electricity
grid.

Combustible renew ables and w aste (% of total energy) (source: [WDI])

96.0
94.0
92.0
90.0
88.0
86.0
84.0
82.0
80.0
78.0
76.0
74.0
82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

00

02

04
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

Figure 2 Biomass and combustible waste (% of final energy use), source [WDI] 20

Total land area thousand square km 2267.0

Forest area thousand square km 1352.0 59.6%
Fuelwood production million tonnes 36.5
Table 4 Fuelwood data, retrieved from [WEC]

[WEC] provides the following figures concerning sugar cane production and the
associated potentially exploitable bagasse (the remaining burnable material after the extraction of
sugar cane juice):
Cane sugar production 65
thousand tonnes
Bagasse potential availability 212
Table 5 Other residual biomass, retrieved from [WEC]

A conservative calculation based on an assumption of 10MJ/kg of bagasse leads to a

figure of about 50ktoe, which is not significant by itself. No indication that energy crops in general
are being promoted has been found.

4 References / Sources
- [CIA] https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ek.html, CIA World Factbook,
accessed on 01/09/06
- [WEC] World Energy Council, Survey of Energy Resources, 2001, available online at
http://www.worldenergy.org/, accessed on 19/09/06
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- World Bank
o [WDI] http://devdata.worldbank.org/dataonline/, database accessed on 19/09/06
- International Monetary Fund
o [IMFa], Republic of Congo Reaches Decision Point Under the Enhanced HIPC
Debt Relief Initiative, Press Release No. 06/46 March 9, 2006, available online at
http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2006/pr0646.htm, accessed on 16/09/06
- [EIA]: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/SADC/, Energy Information Administration,
Country Analysis Briefs, SADC, accessed on 05/09/06
o [EIAa] http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/inga.html, detailed description of the
INGA hydroelectric facility and interconnection plans, published in 11/2002,
accessed on 07/09/06
- [WRI] http://wri.org/, World Resources Information, Earthtrends, Searchable Database,
accessed on 05/09/06
- [SOL] http://www.solar4power.com/solar-power-global-maps.html, maps of solar power,
accessed on 07/09/06
- [INGA00] http://www.congo2000.net/inga.htm, description of the Inga site and installed
generators, accessed on 17/09/06
- [INGA04] “Energie hydraulique des barrages d’Inga : Grands potentiels pour le
développement de la République Démocratique du Congo et de l’Afrique”, available
online at www.suedwind-institut.de
- [UNpsd] http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/11.html, overview
of African Energy Legacy Projects, including the Grand Inga, updated in February 2006,
accessed on 11/09/06
- [IRNa], “Grand Inga, Grand Illusions?”, available at http://www.irn.org/, published in April
2005, accessed on 11/09/06
- [IRNb], “Eskom’s Expanding Empire…”, published in June 2003, available at
http://www.irn.org/, accessed on 11/09/06
- [HEL] Strategic study of Wind Energy Deployment in Africa, published in March 2004, by
Hélimax Énergie, available online at http://www.afdb.org
- [PER] http://www.perenco.com/, accessed on 07/09/06
- [TUL] http://www.tullowoil.com/operations/africa/drc.phtml, Congo (DRC) Operations and
Licences, accessed on 08/09/06
- [IEA] Energy Balances of non-OECD countries, 2003-2004
- [SAPP] http://www.sapp.co.zw/, Southern African Power Pool, accessed on 09/09/06
o [SAPPa] “The Grand Inga Power Plant Project”, by the SNEL chief executive
officer, available online at http://www.sapp.co.zw/documents/The Grand Inga
Project.pdf
o [SAPPb] “The Westcor Power Corridor Project”, available online at
http://www.sapp.co.zw/documents/The Western Power Corridor Project.pdf
- [SAPP06] SAPP Annual Report 2006, available online at [SAPP]
- [IEE] “Light from the heart of darkness”, article in “Power Engineer”, August 2006
- [NEPAD_UN] “Funding for NEPAD – Africa still waiting for…”, accessed on 11/09/06
online at http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/sgreport/partner.htm
- [UNa] Energy Statistics Yearbook 2003, UN, ST/ESA/STAT/SER.J/47
- [WEO] World Economic Outlook Database, April 2006, available online at
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/index.htm, accessed on 17/09/06
- [TI05] Corruption Perceptions index 2005, available online at
http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2005, accessed on
17/09/06
- [STA] http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2823.htm, State Department, Background,
accessed on 15/09/06
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- [MAG] http://www.magindustries.com/detail.php?id=509, MagIndustries, description of

activities in Congo DR, accessed on 09/09/06
o [MAGrep], “Kouilou to tap Inga power”, article published in “African Energy”,
available online at http://www.magindustries.com/articles/, accessed on 10/09/06
- SADC: Southern African Development Community
o [SADCa], Energy Statistical Yearbook 2003
o [SADCb], Energy Protocol

5 Annex

Figure 3 Oil fields, retrieved from [PER]

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Figure 4 The SAPP grid, map retrieved from [SAPP] (2004)

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Figure 5 Interconnections under consideration supplied from Inga site (source:

[SAPPa])