Objective:

To determine the wavelength of yellow light emitting from the Na-lamp.

Apparatus:
Spectrometer, Na-lamp, power supply, diffraction grating plate.

Electromagnetic waves:-
Electromagnetic waves are those waves
which do not need any medium at all to propagate from one place to
another. They are capable of transmitting energy through vacuum.

Examples:
Examples of such waves are light waves. These waves require no
medium to pass away. Light waves are electromagnetic fields which
alternately change and gives rise to one another in such a way that
wave propagates in forward direction.
Dual Nature of Light:-

Wave Nature:
A particle on the classical view is a concentration of energy and
other properties in space and time, whereas a wave is spread out over a
larger region of space and time. The question whether light are streams of
particles (corpuscles) or waves is a very old one. This "either - or"
formulation was classically natural and alien to the advanced "both - and"
even the "neither - nor" solution of today. Early in the nineteenth century
experiments were suggested and made to show that light is a wave motion.
A key figure in this was Thomas Young, one of the most intelligent and
clever scientists ever to live, who studied diffraction and interference of
light already in 1803 with results that gave strong support to the wave
theory of Christian Huygens as opposed to the particle or corpuscular
theory of Isaac Newton. Further contributions were made by many other
researchers, among them Augustin Jean Fresnel, who showed that light is
a transverse wave.

Evidence for the Particle Nature of Light:

In physics two phenomena are usually quoted demonstrating the particle nature of light:
1) The photoelectric effect and
2) The Compton scattering of X-rays.
De Broglie's wavelength:
In 1924, Louis-Victor de Broglie formulated the de Broglie
hypothesis, claiming that all matter, not just light, has a wave-like nature; he related
wavelength (denoted as λ), and momentum (denoted as p):

This is a generalization of Einstein's equation above, since the momentum of a photon is

given by
p=
and the wavelength (in a vacuum) by
λ= ,
, where c is the speed of light in vacuum.

De Broglie's formula was confirmed three years later for electrons (which differ from
photons in having a rest mass) with the observation of electron diffraction in two
independent experiments.
De Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1929 for his hypothesis.
Thomson and Davisson shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1937 for their
experimental work.

How are frequency and wavelength

related?
Electromagnetic waves always travel at the same speed .This is one of their defining
characteristics. In the electromagnetic spectrum there are many different types of waves
with varying frequencies and wavelengths. They are all related by one important
equation: Any electromagnetic wave's frequency multiplied by its wavelength equals the
speed of light.

FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION x WAVELENGTH = SPEED OF LIGHT

We can use this relationship to figure out the wavelength or frequency of any
electromagnetic wave if we have the other measurement. Just divide the speed of light
by whichever measurement you have and then you've got the other.
Visible spectrum:
The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that
is visible to (can be detected by) the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this range
of wavelengths is called visible light or simply light. A typical human eye will respond to
wavelengths from about 390 to 750 nm.

Color Frequency Wavelength

violet 668–789 THz 380–450 nm
blue 631–668 THz 450–475 nm
cyan 606–630 THz 476–495 nm
green 526–606 THz 495–570 nm
yellow 508–526 THz 570–590 nm
orange 484–508 THz 590–620 nm
red 400–484 THz 620–750 nm

Spectrometer:
A spectrometer (spectrophotometer or spectroscope) is an instrument used
to measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum,
typically used in spectroscopic analysis to identify materials. The variable measured is
most often the light's intensity but could also, for instance, be the polarization state.
Essential components of a spectrometer are shown in Fig.
Collimator:
It consist of a fixed metallic tube with a convex lens at one end and an
adjustable slit, that can slide in and out of the tube, at the other end. When the slit is just
at the focus of the convex lens, the rays of light coming out of the lens become parallel.
For this reason it is called a collimator.

Turn Table:
A prism or a grating is placed on a turn table which is capable of rotating
about a fixed vertical axis. A circular scale, graduated in half degrees, is attached with it.

Telescope:
A telescope is attached with a vernier scale and is rotatable about the same
vertical axis as the turn table.

Before using a spectrometer, one should be sure that the collimator is so adjusted that
parallel rays of light emerge out of its convex lens. The telescope is adjusted in such a
way that the rays of light entering it are focused at the cross wires near the eye-piece.
Finally, the refracting edge of the prism must be parallel to the axis of rotation of the
telescope so that the turn table is leveled. This can be done by using the leveling screws.

Diffraction:
The process by which a beam of light or other system of waves is spread out
as a result of passing through a narrow aperture or across an edge, typically accompanied
by interference between the wave forms produced.
Single-slit diffraction:
A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated
by light diffracts the light into a series of circular waves and the wavefront which
emerges from the slit is a cylindrical wave of uniform intensity.

A slit which is wider than a wavelength produces interference effects in the space
downstream of the slit. These can be explained by assuming that the slit behaves as
though it has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across the width of the slit.
The analysis of this system is simplified if we consider light of a single wavelength. If the
incident light is monochromatic, these sources all have the same phase. Light incident at
a given point in the space downstream of the slit is made up of contributions from each of
these point sources and if the relative phases of these contributions vary by 2π or more,
we may expect to find minima and maxima in the diffracted light. Such phase differences
are caused by differences in the path lengths over which contributing rays reach the point
from the slit.

We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light by the
following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge of the slit interferes
destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit, when the path difference
between them is equal to λ/2. Similarly, the source just below the top of the slit will
interfere destructively with the source located just below the middle of the slit at the same
angle. We can continue this reasoning along the entire height of the slit to conclude that
the condition for destructive interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for
destructive interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of
the slit. The path difference is given by so that the minimum intensity occurs at
an angle θmin given by

where d is the width of the slit.

A similar argument can be used to show that if we imagine the slit to be divided into four,
six, eight parts, etc., minima are obtained at angles θn given by

where n is an integer other than zero.

Diffraction Grating Plate:

A usually glass or polished metal surface having a large
number of very fine parallel grooves or slits and used to produce optical spectra by
diffraction of reflected or transmitted light.

Lens:
A piece of glass or other transparent substance with curved sides for
concentrating or dispersing light rays.
A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which
transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam. A simple lens
consists of a single optical element. A compound lens is an array of simple lenses
(elements) with a common axis.

Convex Lens:
converging lens: lens such that a beam of light passing through it is
brought to a point or focus.

Concave Lens:
diverging lens: a lens such that a parallel beam of light passing through it
is caused to diverge or spread out.

Sodium- lamp:
A sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp that uses sodium in an
excited state to produce light. There are two varieties of such lamps: low pressure and
high pressure. Because sodium vapor lamps cause less light pollution than mercury-vapor
lamps, many cities that have large astronomical observatories employ them.

Construction:
Since its commercial introduction in 1932, the Low Pressure Sodium lamp
has consistently maintained its enviable position as the most efficient light source
available Present-style LPS lamps are known as the SOX type, and the entire global
supply of approximately four million pieces per year is made exclusively in the UK by
Philips at Hamilton, and by GE at Leicester Until June 2000, Osram also manufactured
this light source at its Shaw factory near Manchester, UK An ancillary factory in India
used to assemble lamps from British-made discharge tubes until recently Despite
increasing competition from High Pressure Sodium and Metal Halide lamps, the market
for this light source remains quite stable and it continues to be specified for new
installations The construction of a typical SOX lamp is illustrated in Figure below.
The principal reason for the high efficacy is because the colour of the light is close to the
maximum sensitivity of the human eye in normal viewing conditions.
Working:
An amalgam of metallic sodium and mercury lies at the coolest part of the lamp
and provides the sodium and mercury vapor that is needed to draw an arc. The
temperature of the amalgam is determined to a great extent by lamp power. The higher
the lamp power, the higher will be the amalgam temperature. The higher the temperature
of the amalgam, the higher will be the mercury and sodium vapor pressures in the lamp.
An increase in these metal pressures will cause an increase in the electrical resistance of
the lamp. As the temperature rises, the flow of current being maintained constant results
in an increase in power until the nominal power is reached. For a given voltage, there are
generally three modes of operation:
• The lamp is extinguished and no current flows.
• The lamp is operating with liquid amalgam in the tube.
• The lamp is operating with all amalgam evaporated.

The first and last states are stable, because the lamp resistance is weakly related to the
voltage, but the second state is unstable. Any anomalous increase in current will cause
an increase in power, causing an increase in amalgam temperature, which will cause a
decrease in resistance, which will cause a further increase in current
Procedure:
 First of all I excite the sodium lamp by connecting it to power
supply for 10 minutes.
 Then I adjusted the spectrometer such that the light from Na-lamp
enters in the collimator.
 I place a diffraction grating plate on the turn table b/w telescope
and collimator.
 Adjusted the telescope to such a position that it shows a yellow thin
line in middle of the screen.
 I noted this angle from scale on the turn table.
 Then I move the telescope to right, to such a position which shows
the same thin yellow line.
 Noted the angle and subtract it from the first angle.
 Then I move the telescope to the left and noted the angle where the
thin yellow line shows up.
 Then I calculated the Wavelength.

Conclusion:

Precautions:
→ Check the power supply is properly connected.
→ Light should enter the collimator.
→ Check for any error in the measuring scale.

1. Detection of Contaminants on Poultry Processing Equipment Surfaces by

Visible and NIR Reflectance spectroscopy:

Visible and near infrared (NIR) spectra and samples for laboratory microbial
analysis were acquired of fecal
contaminants, ingesta contaminants, and bare processing equipment surfaces
(rubber and stainless steel) in a commercial
poultry processing plant. Spectra were analyzed in the visible region of 450 to 748
nm and the NIR region of 920 to 1680 nm and microbial sampling for
 Enterobacteriaceae counts (EBC) was conducted for 82 fecal contaminant
samples, 59 ingesta contaminant samples, 40 bare rubber belt areas, and 40 bare
stainless steel areas. Two wavelength band ratios in the visible and NIR regions
were selected for separating contaminants from equipment areas.
2. USE OF GROUND-BASED CANOPY REFLECTANCE TO DETERMINE
RADIATION CAPTURE, NITROGEN AND WATER STATUS, AND
FINAL YIELD IN WHEAT:

We quantified the spectral reflectance characteristics of hard red spring wheat in

research plots subjected to either nitrogen or water stress in a two year study.
Both types of stress reduced ground cover, which was evaluated by digital
photography and compared with ten spectral reflectance indices. On plots with a
similar soil background, simple indices such as the normalized difference
vegetation index, ratio vegetation index, and difference vegetation index were
equal to or superior to more complex vegetation indices for predicting ground
cover.

3. Non-destructive measurement of moisture and soluble solids content of

Mazafati date fruit by NIR spectroscopy:
The potential of Near-Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy technique was assessed to
predict moisture and soluble solids content of
Mazafati date fruit. Spectral acquisitions were carried out during four main
ripening stages (Kimri, Khalal, Rutab and Tamr)
using a fast, non-scanning spectrometer in the interactance mode. Two different
preprocessing methods; vector normalization
and multiplicative scatter correction, and wavelength regions (900- 1700 nm and
1332- 1641 nm) were used to build partial
least squares (PLS) regression models.

4. Accurate color predictability based on a spectral retardance model of a

twisted-nematic liquid-crystal display:
In this work we present the application of a simple physical model to
accurately predict the broadband spectral transmittance and
colorimetric properties of a twisted-nematic liquid crystal display
(TNLCD). We spectroscopically calibrate the retardance parameters to
evaluate the spectrum of the light transmitted by a TNLCD sandwiched
between two linear polarizers.
 5. Comparison of visible and infrared spectrum of light
sources:

We compared the visible and the infrared spectrum of cesium and the
sodium high pressure discharge light sources of 70 W power, run at
different voltages from 180 to 240 V. Although the cesium discharge
lamp exhibits remarkable white light in the visible spectrum, it suffers
from the large infrared radiation intensity.

6. To find out wavelength.

 http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/ekspong/
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave-particle_duality
 http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/communications/2-how-are-
frequency-and-wavelength-related.html
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrum
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction#Diffraction_grating
 http://www.lamptech.co.uk/Documents/SO1%2520Introduction.htm
 http://www.stellarnet-inc.com/Applications.htm
 Images.google.com
 FSC Physics part I and part 2.