Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor Fundamentals
Stator
INTRODUCTION
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are
one of the motor types rapidly gaining
popularity. BLDC motors are used in
industries such as Appliances, Automotive,
Aerospace, Consumer, Medical, Industrial
Automation Equipment and Instrumentation.
As the name implies, BLDC motors do not
use brushes for commutation; instead, they
are electronically com-mutated. BLDC motors
have many advantages over brushed DC
motors and induction motors. A few of these
are:
• Better speed versus torque characteristics
• High dynamic response
• High efficiency
• Long operating life
• Noiseless operation
• Higher speed ranges
In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the
size of the motor is higher, making it useful in
applications where space and weight are
critical factors.
In this application note, we will discuss in
detail the con-struction, working principle,
characteristics and typical applications of
BLDC motors. Refer to Appendix B:
“Glossary” for a glossary of terms commonly
used when describing BLDC motors.
CONSTRUCTION AND
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
BLDC motors are a type of synchronous
motor. This means the magnetic field
generated by the stator and the magnetic field
generated by the rotor rotate at the same
frequency. BLDC motors do not experience
the “slip” that is normally seen in induction
motors.
BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase
and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding to its
type, the stator has the same number of
windings. Out of these, 3-phase motors are the
most popular and widely used. This application
note focuses on 3-phase motors.
The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked
steel laminations with windings placed in the
slots that are axially cut along the inner
periphery (as shown in Figure 3). Traditionally,
the stator resembles that of an induction motor;
however, the windings are distributed in a
different manner. Most BLDC motors have three
stator windings connected in star fashion. Each
of these windings are constructed with
numerous coils interconnected to form a
winding. One or more coils are placed in the
slots and they are interconnected to make a
winding. Each of these windings are distributed
over the stator periphery to form an even
numbers of poles.
There are two types of stator windings
variants: trapezoidal and sinusoidal motors.
This differentiation is made on the basis of
the interconnection of coils in the stator
windings to give the different types of back
Electromotive Force (EMF). Refer to the
“What is Back EMF?” section for more
information.
As their names indicate, the trapezoidal motor
gives a back EMF in trapezoidal fashion and
the sinusoidal motor’s back EMF is
sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure
2. In addition to the back EMF, the phase
current also has trapezoidal and sinusoidal
variations in the respective types of motor.
This makes the torque output by a sinusoidal
motor smoother than that of a trapezoidal
motor. However, this comes with an extra
cost, as the sinusoidal motors take extra
winding interconnections because of the coils
distribution on the stator periphery, thereby
increasing the copper intake by the stator
windings.
Depending upon the control power supply
capability, the motor with the correct voltage
rating of the stator can be chosen. Forty-eight
volts, or less voltage rated motors are used in
automotive, robotics, small arm movements
and so on. Motors with 100 volts, or higher
ratings, are used in appliances, automation
and in industrial applications.
FIGURE 1: TRAPEZOIDAL BACK EMF

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 60

Phase A-B

Phase B-C

Phase C-A

FIGURE 2: SINUSOIDAL BACK EMF

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 60

Phase A-B

Phase B-C

Phase C-A
FIGURE 3: STATOR OF A BLDC MOTOR

Stamping with Slots

Stator Windings
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FIGURE 4:

ROTOR
MAGNET
CROSS
SECTIONS

N
S
N
N
N
N

S
 N
S N
S N
Circular core with magnets Circular core with rectangular
on the periphery magnets embedded in the rotor
Hall Sensors
Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a Note:
BLDC motor is controlled electronically. To rotate the
BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized
in a sequence. It is important to know the rotor position
in order to understand which winding will be energized
following the energizing sequence. Rotor position is
sensed using Hall effect sensors embedded into the
stator.
Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded
into the stator on the non-driving end of the motor.
Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall
sensors, they give a high or low signal, indicating the N
or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the
combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the
exact sequence of commutation can be determined.
Circular core with rectangular magnets
inserted into the rotor core
Hall Effect Theory: If an electric current
carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic
field, the magnetic field exerts a trans-
verse force on the moving charge carriers
which tends to push them to one side of
the conductor. This is most evident in a
thin flat conductor. A buildup of charge at
the sides of the conductors will balance
this magnetic influence, producing a
measurable voltage between the two
sides of the conductor. The presence of
this measurable transverse voltage is
called the Hall effect after E. H. Hall who
discovered it in 1879.
FIGURE 5: BLDC MOTOR TRANSVERSE SECTION

Stator Windings

Hall Sensors Rotor Magnet S

Accessory Shaft Rotor Magnet N

Driving End of the Shaft

Hall Sensor Magnets

Figure 5 shows a transverse section of a BLDC motor Theory of Operation

with a rotor that has alternate N and S permanent mag-
nets. Hall sensors are embedded into the stationary part
of the motor. Embedding the Hall sensors into the stator
is a complex process because any misalignment in these
Hall sensors, with respect to the rotor magnets, will
generate an error in determination of the rotor posi-tion.
To simplify the process of mounting the Hall sensors onto
the stator, some motors may have the Hall sensor
magnets on the rotor, in addition to the main rotor
magnets. These are a scaled down replica version of the
rotor. Therefore, whenever the rotor rotates, the Hall
sensor magnets give the same effect as the main mag-
nets. The Hall sensors are normally mounted on a PC
board and fixed to the enclosure cap on the non-driving
end. This enables users to adjust the complete assem-
bly of Hall sensors, to align with the rotor magnets, in
order to achieve the best performance.
Each commutation sequence has one of the windings
energized to positive power (current enters into the
winding), the second winding is negative (current exits
the winding) and the third is in a non-energized condi-
tion. Torque is produced because of the interaction
between the magnetic field generated by the stator
coils and the permanent magnets. Ideally, the peak
torque occurs when these two fields are at 90° to
each other and falls off as the fields move together. In
order to keep the motor running, the magnetic field
produced by the windings should shift position, as the
rotor moves to catch up with the stator field. What is
known as “Six-Step Commutation” defines the
sequence of energizing the windings. See the
“Commutation Sequence” section for detailed
information and an example on six-step commutation.

Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors,

there are two versions of output. The Hall sensors
may be at 60° or 120° phase shift to each other.
Based on this, the motor manufacturer defines the
commutation sequence, which should be followed
when controlling the motor.
Note: The Hall sensors require a power supply. The
voltage may range from 4 volts to 24 volts.
Required current can range from 5 to 15
mAmps. While designing the con-troller,
please refer to the respective motor
technical specification for exact voltage and
current ratings of the Hall sensors used.
The Hall sensor output is normally an open-
collector type. A pull-up resistor may be
required on the controller side.
See the “Commutation Sequence” section for an
example of Hall sensor signals and further details on
the sequence of commutation.
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FIGURE 6:

TORQUE/SPE
ED
CHARACTERI
STICS

Peak
Torqu
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T
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Tor
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Intermitte
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Zone
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us
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Maximum
Rated Speed Speed
Speed
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TABLE 1: COMPARING
Feature
Commutation Electronic co
Maintenance Less require
Life Longer.
Speed/Torque Flat – Enabl
Characteristics
Efficiency High – No vo
Output Power/ High – Redu
Frame Size characteristi
the stator, w
dissipation is
Rotor Inertia Low, becaus
This improve
Speed Range Higher – No
brushes/com
Electric Noise Low.
Generation
Cost of Building Higher – Sin
costs are hig
Control Complex an
Control Requirements A controller
running. The
speed contro

TABLE 2: COMPARING
Features
Speed/Torque Flat – Enable
Characteristics rated load.
Output Power/ High – Since
Frame Size smaller size
Rotor Inertia Low – Better
Starting Current Rated – No s

Control Requirements A controller i

running. The
speed contro
Slip No slip is exp
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bot ava
h ilab
spe le
ed wit
and h
dire diff
ctio ere
n of nt
rota cho
tion ice
can s of
be Pul
det se
erm Per
ine Re
d. vol
Als utio
o, n
mo (PP
st R),
of ran
the gin
enc g
ode fro
rs m
giv hun
e a dre
thir ds
d to
ind tho
ex usa
sig nds
nal, .
whi
ch
FIGURE 7: HALL SENSOR SIGNAL, BACK EMF, OUTPUT TORQUE AND PHASE CURRENT

1 Electrical Cycle 1 Electrical Cycle

0 180 360 540 720
1
A
0
Hall 1
Sensor B
0
Output
1
C
0
+
A+
B- 0

–
+
B+
C-
0
Back
EMF
–

C+ +
A-
0

+
Output
Torque
0

+
A 0
–
+

B 0
Phase
–
Current
+
C 0
–

Sequence (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Number
1 Mechanical Revolution
FIGURE 8: WINDING ENERGIZING SEQUENCE WITH RESPECT TO THE HALL SENSOR

A A

C B C B
(1) (2)

A A

C B C B
(3) (4)

A A

C B C B
(5) (6)
FIGURE
9: CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

REF DC+
PWM5 Q1 Q3 Q5
PWM1 A
RUN/ PWM4
STOP PWM3
PWM3 PWM5
PIC18FXX31 IGBT

PWM2 Driver PWM4

FWD/REV
PWM2
PWM1
PWM0
PWM0
C B
Q
0 Q2 Q4
DC-
N S
Hall A
S N
Hall B
Hall C

TABLE 3:SEQUENCE FOR ROTATING THE MOTOR IN CLOCKWISE DIRECTION WHEN

VIEWED FROM NON-DRIVING END
Sequence Hall Sensor Input Phase Current
Active PWMs
# A B C A B C
1 0 0 1 PWM1(Q1) PWM4(Q4) DC+ Off DC-
2 0 0 0 PWM1(Q1) PWM2(Q2) DC+ DC- Off
3 1 0 0 PWM5(Q5) PWM2(Q2) Off DC- DC+
4 1 1 0 PWM5(Q5) PWM0(Q0) DC- Off DC+
5 1 1 1 PWM3(Q3) PWM0(Q0) DC- DC+ Off
6 0 1 1 PWM3(Q3) PWM4(Q4) Off DC+ DC-

TABLE 4:SEQUENCE FOR ROTATING THE MOTOR IN COUNTER-CLOCKWISE DIRECTION

WHEN VIEWED FROM NON-DRIVING
END
Sequence Hall Sensor Input Phase Current
Active PWMs
# A B C A B C
1 0 1 1 PWM5(Q5) PWM2(Q2) Off DC- DC+
2 1 1 1 PWM1(Q1) PWM2(Q2) DC+ DC- Off
3 1 1 0 PWM1(Q1) PWM4(Q4) DC+ Off DC-
4 1 0 0 PWM3(Q3) PWM4(Q4) Off DC+ DC-
5 0 0 0 PWM3(Q3) PWM0(Q0) DC- DC+ Off
6 0 0 1 PWM5(Q5) PWM0(Q0) DC- Off DC+
 d to
the
win
W din
H gs
A acc
T ordi
ng
IS to
B Len
A z’s
C La
w.
K The
E pol
M arit
F? y of
this
Wh bac
en k
a EM
BL F is
DC in
mot opp
or osit
rota e
tes, dire
eac ctio
h n of
win the
din ene
g rgiz
gen ed
erat volt
es age
a .
volt Bac
age k
kno EM
wn F
as dep
bac end
k s
Ele mai
ctro nly
mot on
ive thre
For e
ce fact
or ors:
bac • A
k n
EM g
F, u
whi l
ch a
opp r
ose v
s e
the l
mai o
n ci
volt t
age y
sup o
plie f
 t n
h g
e s
r
o EQ
t UA
o
r
TI
ON
• M
1:
a
g Back EMF
n = (E)
e NlrBω
ti
c
fi w
e h
l e
d r
g e
e :
n N
e
r
i
a
s
t
e
d t
b h
y e
r
o n
t u
o m
r b
m e
a r
g
n o
e f
t
s
w
• T i
h n
e d
n i
u
n
m
b g
e
r t
o u
f r
t n
u s
r
n p
s e
i r
n
t p
h h
e a
s
s
t
e
a
t ,
o
r l
w
i i
n s
d
i
t o
h t
e o
r
l
e m
n a
g g
t
n
h
e
t
o
f i
c
t
h f
e i
e
r l
o d
t
o d
r e
, n
r s
i
i t
s y
t
h a
e n
d
i
n ω
t
e i
r s
n
a
t
l
h
r e
a
d m
i o
u t
s o
r
o
’
f
s
t
h a
e n
g
r u
o l
t a
o
r
r
,
B v
e
i l
s o
c
t i
h t
e y

r
 es,
bac
On k
ce EM
the F
mot als
or o
is incr
des eas
ign es.
ed, The
the mot
roto or
r tec
ma hni
gne cal
tic spe
fiel cific
d atio
and n
the giv
nu es
mb a
er par
of am
turn eter
s in call
the ed,
stat bac
or k
win EM
din F
gs con
rem sta
ain nt
con (ref
sta er
nt. to
The Ap
onl pe
y ndi
fact x
or A:
that “Ty
gov pic
ern al
s Mo
bac tor
k Tec
EM hni
F is cal
the Sp
ang ecif
ular icat
vel ion
ocit ”),
y or that
spe can
ed be
of use
the d to
roto esti
r mat
and e
as bac
the k
spe EM
ed F
incr for
eas a
giv nin
en g at
spe the
ed. rate
The d
pot spe
enti ed,
al the
diff pot
ere enti
nce al
acr diff
oss ere
a nce
win bet
din wee
g n
can the
be bac
calc k
ulat EM
ed F
by and
sub the
trac sup
ting ply
the volt
bac age
k will
EM be
F suffi
valu cien
e t for
fro the
m mot
the or
sup to
ply dra
volt w
age the
. rate
The d
mot curr
ors ent
are and
desi deli
gne ver
d the
with rate
a d
bac torq
k ue.
EM If
F the
con mot
sta or
nt is
in driv
suc en
h a bey
way ond
that the
whe rate
n d
the spe
mot ed,
or bac
is k
run- EM
F
ma the
y spe
incr ed
eas cur
e ve
sub wou
sta ld
ntial be
ly, whe
thu n
s the
dec sup
rea ply
sing volt
the age
pot is
enti equ
al al
diff to
ere the
nce su
acr m
oss of
the the
win bac
din k
g, EM
red F
ucin and
g the
the loss
curr es
ent in
dra the
wn mot
whi or,
ch whe
res re
ults the
in a curr
dro ent
opi and
ng torq
torq ue
ue are
cur equ
ve. al
The to
last zer
poi o.
nt
on
 of
the
Hall
Se
sen
ns sor
orl s.
es The
s rela
Co tion
ntr ship
bet
ol
wee
of n
BL the
DC Hall
Mo sen
tor sor
s s
and
Unti bac
l k
now EM
we F,
hav with
e res
see pec
n t to
co the
mm pha
utat se
ion volt
bas age
ed , is
on sho
the wn
roto in
r Fig
posi ure
tion 7.
give As
n we
by hav
the e
Hall see
sen n in
sor. earl
BL ier
DC sect
mot ions
ors ,
can eve
be ry
co co
mm mm
utat utat
ed ion
by seq
mo uen
nito ce
ring has
the one
bac of
k the
EM win
F din
sig- gs
nals ene
inst rgiz
ead ed
posi this
tive, hap
the pen
sec s
ond on
neg zer
ativ o-
e cro
and ssin
the g of
thir bac
d k
left EM
ope F,
n. but
As pra
sho ctic
wn ally,
in ther
Fig e
ure will
7, be
the a
Hall del
sen ay
sor due
sign to
al the
cha win
nge din
s g
the cha
stat r-
e act
whe eris
n tics.
the Thi
volt s
- del
age ay
pol sho
arit uld
y of be
bac co
k mp
EM ens
F ate
cro d
sse by
s the
fro mic
m a roc
posi ontr
tive olle
to r.
neg Fig
ativ ure
e or 10
fro sho
m ws
neg a
ativ bloc
e to k
posi dia
tive. gra
In m
ide for
al sen
cas sorl
es, ess
con
trol
of a An
BL oth
DC er
mot asp
or. ect
to
be
con
sid
ere
d is
ver
y
low
spe
eds
.
Bec
aus
e
bac
k
EM
F is
pro
port
ion
al
to
the
spe
ed
of
rota
-
tion
, at
a
ver
y
low
spe
ed,
the
bac
k
EM
F
wo
uld
be
at a
ver
y
low
am
plit
ude
to
det
ect
zer
o-
cro
ssi
ng.
The
mot
or sed
has is
to cal
be cul
star ate
ted d
in fro
ope m
n the
loo bac
p, k
fro EM
m F
sta con
nds sta
till nt
and of
wh the
en mot
suff or.
icie Wit
nt h
bac this
k met
EM hod
F is of
buil co
t to mm
det utat
ect ion,
the the
zer Hall
o- sen
cro sor
ss s
poi can
nt, be
the eli
con min
trol ate
sho d
uld and
be in
shif so
ted me
to mot
the ors,
bac the
k ma
EM gne
F ts
sen for
sin Hall
g. sen
The sor
min s
imu als
m o
spe can
ed be
at eli
whi min
ch ate
bac d.
k Thi
EM s
F sim
can plifi
be es
sen the
mot ani
or ng
con is
stru req
ctio uire
n d in
and ord
red er
uce for
s the
the Hall
cos sen
t as sor
well s to
. sen
Thi se
s is pro
adv perl
ant y.
age The
ous sa
if me
the thin
mot g
or app
is lies
ope if
rati the
ng mot
in or
dus is
ty mo
or unt
oily ed
env in a
iron les
me s
nts, acc
wh ess
ere ible
occ loc
asi atio
ona n.
l
cle

FIGURE 10: BLOCK DIA

REF

RUN/
STOP

PIC18FXX31
FWD/REV
 I
C
S A
E T
L I
E O
C N
T
Sel
I ecti
N ng
G the
righ
t
A typ
e of
mot
S or
U for
the
I
giv
T en
A app
lica
B tion
L is
E ver
y
imp
M orta
O nt.
Bas
T ed
O on
R the
loa
d
R cha
r-
A act
T eris
I tics
,
N the
G mot
or
mu
F st
O be
R sel
ect
ed
T wit
h
H the
E pro
per
rati
A ng.
P Thr
P ee
par
L am
eter o
s p
gov e
ern r
the a
mot ti
or n
sel g
s
ecti
p
on
e
for e
the d
giv r
en a
app n
lica g
tion e
.
The Pe
y ak
are:
To
• P rq
e
a ue
k (T
t P)
o Re
r
q
qu
u ire
e me
r nt
e
q The
u pea
ir k,
e or
d ma
f xim
o um
r torq
t ue
h
req
e
uire
a
p d
p for
li the
c app
a lica
ti -
o tion
n ,
• R can
M be
S cal
t cul
o ate
r d
q by
u su
e mm
r ing
e the
q
loa
u
d
ir
e torq
d ue
(TL)
• T
,
h
torq
e
ue the
due air
to in
iner the
tia air
(TJ) gap
and .
the The
torq se
ue fact
req ors
uire are
d to co
ove m-
rco plic
me ate
the d to
frict acc
ion oun
(TF) t
. for.
The The
re refo
are re,
oth a
er 20
fact %
ors saf
whi ety
ch mar
will gin
con is
trib give
ute n
to as
the a
ove rule
rall of
pea thu
k mb
torq whe
ue n
req calc
uire ulati
me ng
nts. the
For torq
exa ue.
mpl
e, EQ
the UA
win TI
dag ON
e 2:
loss
whi TP = (TL + TJ
ch + TF) * 1.2
is
con The
trib torq
ute ue
d due
by to
the iner
resi tia
sta (TJ)
nce is
offe the
red torq
by
ue h
req e
uire r
d to e
acc :
eler J
ate L
the
loa +
d
fro M
m
sta i
nds s
till
or
t
fro
h
ma
low e
er
spe s
ed u
to a m
hig
her o
spe f
ed.
Thi t
s h
can e
be
cal l
cul o
ate a
d d
by
tak-
a
ing
n
the
d
pro
duc
t of r
loa o
d t
iner o
tia, r
incl
udi i
ng n
the e
roto r
r t
iner i
tia a
and
loa a
d n
acc d
eler
atio
α
n.
i
EQ s
UA
TI t
ON h
3: e
TJ = J
w r
 e
q
u R
i M
r
S
e
d
To
rq
a ue
c Re
c qu
e ire
l me
e nt
r (T
a RM
t S)
i
o The
n Ro
ot
The Me
me an
cha Sq
nic uar
al e
sys (R
tem MS
cou )
ple torq
d to ue
the can
mot be
or rou
sha ghl
ft y
det tran
erm slat
ine ed
s to
the the
loa ave
d rag
torq e
ue con
and tinu
the ous
frict torq
ion ue
req
al
uire
torq
d
ue.
for
the
app
lica
tion
.
Thi
s
dep
end
s
upo
n
ma
ny
fact
ors.
The acc
pea eler
k atio
torq n
ue tim
(TP e,
), TR
loa is
d the
torq run
ue tim
(TL) e
, and
torq TD
ue is
due the
to dec
iner eler
tia atio
(TJ) n
, tim
frict
e.
ion
al
torq EQ
ue UA
(TF) TI
and ON
acc 4:
eler
atio TRMS =
n, √
dec [{TP2
eler
atio TA +
n (TL +
and TF)2
run
tim TR +
es. (TJ –
The TL –
follo TF)2
win
TD}/
g
equ (TA +
atio TR +
n TD)]
give
s
the Sp
RM ee
S d
torq
Ra
ue
req
ng
uire e
d Thi
for s is
a the
typi mot
cal or
app spe
licat ed
ion req
whe uire
re d to
TA driv
is e
the the
app as
lica in
tion the
and cas
is e of
det a
erm poi
ine nt-
d to-
by poi
the nt
typ pos
e of itio
app nin
lica g
tion sys
. -
For tem
exa ,
m- like
ple, in a
an hig
app h-
lica pre
tion cisi
like on
a con
blo vey
wer er
wh belt
ere mo
the ve
spe me
ed nt
vari or
- rob
atio otic
n is arm
not mo
ver ve
y me
freq nts,
uen this
t wo
and uld
the req
ma uire
xim a
um mot
spe or
ed wit
of h a
the rate
blo d
wer ope
can rati
be ng
the spe
ave ed
rag hig
e her
mot tha
or n
spe the
ed ave
req rag
uire e
d. mo
Wh ve-
ere me
nt idal
spe cur
ed. ve
The is
hig sho
her wn
ope in
rati Fig
ng ure
spe 11.
ed It is
can alw
be ays
acc sug
oun ges
ted ted
for to
the allo
co w a
mp saf
one ety
nts mar
of gin
the of
trap 10
ezo %,
idal as
spe a
ed rule
cur of
ve, thu
res mb,
ulti to
ng acc
in oun
an t for
ave mis
rag cell
e ane
spe ous
ed fact
equ ors
al whi
to ch
the are
mo bey
ve ond
me our
nt cal
spe cul
ed. atio
The ns.
trap
ezo
FIGURE 11: TRAPEZOIDAL SPEED CURVE

Maximum
Speed

Average Motor Speed

Speed

TA TR TD

Time
 avi
atio
n
TY and
PI so
C on,
A hav
e
L app
B lica
L tion
D s
for
C BL
M DC
O mot
T ors.
Out
O of
R the
A se,
P we
can
PL cat
IC ego
A rize
TI the
typ
O e of
N BL
S DC
mot
BL or
DC con
mot trol
ors into
find thre
app e
lica maj
tion or
s in typ
eve es:
ry
• C
seg
o
me
n
nt s
of t
the a
mar n
ket. t
Aut l
om o
otiv a
e, d
app • V
lian a
ce, r
ind yi
ustr n
ial g
con l
trol o
s, a
aut d
s
om
atio • P
n, o
si
 ti ed
o at a
n set
i spe
n ed.
g In
a add
p itio
p
n,
li
the
c
a acc
ti eler
o atio
n n
s and
dec
Ap eler
atio
pli n
cat rate
io s
ns are
Wi not
th dyn
ami
Co
call
ns y
ta cha
nt ngi
Lo ng.
ad In
s the
se
The typ
se es
are of
the app
typ lica
es tion
of s,
app the
lica loa
tion d is
s dire
wh ctly
ere cou
a ple
vari d to
abl the
e mot
spe or
ed sha
is ft.
mor For
e exa
imp mpl
orta e,
nt fan
tha s,
n pu
kee mp
pin s
g and
the blo
acc wer
ura s
cy co
of me
the und
spe er
the mot
se or
typ vari
es es
of ove
app r a
lica spe
tion ed
s. ran
The ge.
se The
app se
lica app
tion lica
s -
de tion
ma s
nd ma
low y
- de
cos ma
t nd
con a
troll hig
ers, h-
mo spe
stly ed
ope con
rati trol
ng acc
in ura
ope cy
n- and
loo goo
p. d
dyn
Ap ami
pli c
res
cat pon
io ses
ns . In
Wi ho
th me
Va app
lian
ryi
ces
ng ,
Lo wa
ad sh-
s ers,
dry
The ers
se and
are co
the mpr
typ ess
es ors
of are
app goo
lica d
tion exa
s mpl
wh es.
ere In
the aut
loa om
d otiv
on e,
the fuel
pu s
mp and
con so
trol, on.
ele The
ctro se
nic app
ste lica
erin tion
g s
con ma
- y
trol, use
eng spe
ine ed
con fee
trol dba
and ck
ele dev
ctri ice
c s
veh and
icle ma
con y
trol run
are in
goo se
d mi-
exa clo
mpl sed
es loo
of p or
the in
se. tota
In l
aer clo
osp sed
ace loo
, p.
ther The
e se
are app
a lica
nu tion
mb s
er use
of adv
app anc
lica ed
tion con
s, trol
like alg
cen orit
trifu hm
ges s,
, thu
pu s
mp co
s, mpl
rob icat
otic ing
arm the
con con
trol troll
s, er.
gyr Als
osc o,
ope this
con incr
trol eas
es
the
pric Po
e of
the
siti
co on
mpl in
ete g
sys Ap
tem pli
.
cat
io
ns
Mo
st
of
the
ind
ustr
ial
and
aut
om
atio
n
typ
es
of
app
lica
-
tion
co
me
und
er
this
cat
ego
ry.
The
app
lica
tion
s in
this
cat
ego
ry
hav
e
so
me
kin
d of
po
wer
tran
smi
ssi
on,
whi
ch
cou
ld
be
me
cha
nic
al will
gea hav
rs e
or an
tim acc
er eler
belt atin
s, g
or a pha
sim se,
ple a
belt con
driv sta
en nt
sys spe
tem ed
. In pha
the se
se and
app a
lica dec
tion eler
s, atio
the n
dyn and
ami pos
c itio
res nin
pon g
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orta The
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Pro mot
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s The
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y ed
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her
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,
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in con
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ions ,
whe me
re dica
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and rum
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are n
criti and
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Wit n
h ind
the ustr
se ies.
adv