Introduction

Telecommunication:
Telecommunications is a general term for a vast array of technologies that
send information over distances. Mobile phones, land lines, satellite phones
and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) are all telephony technologies -- just
one field of telecommunications. Radio, television and networks are a few
more examples of telecommunication.
While most people associate telecommunications with modern technologies,
the strict definition of the term encompasses primitive and even ancient forms
of telecommunication. Among these is the use of smoke signals as a kind of
visual telegraph. Puffs of smoke were time-released by smothering a fire with
a blanket, then quickly removing and replacing the blanket. Widely used by
the American Indians, smoke signals could communicate short messages
over long distances, assuming a clear line of sight.
Other forms of early telecommunications include relay fires or beacons. Used
foremostly in warfare, relay fires required a handful of men posted along a
range of hilltops, with the last man closest to the area where troop movement
was expected. When armies were spotted in the distance, he would light a
bonfire. The fire could be seen from a good distance away by the next man in
the relay, who would in turn light his own bonfire, and so the fires were lit in
succession along the range, creating an effective telecommunications signal
that traveled back over several miles in a relatively short period of time.
Finally, the last man in the relay would light a beacon to signal his army below
that the opponent was en-route.
The arrangement of a ship's flags and semaphores were other forms of
telecommunications. A semaphore was a mechanical device atop a tower with
paddle-like blades or flags. The device would be set in a specific position to
communicate information.
Throughout the 19th century, telecommunications devices became more
sophisticated with the advent of electricity, leading to the telegraph, Morse
code, and signal lamps. A signal lamp, the optical version of the telegraph, is
a powerful lamp with shutters that block the light in long or short durations to
translate to the dots and dashes of Morse code. A heliograph is another
optical telegraph -- a mirror used to reflect light to mimic a signal lamp.
In the 20th century, telecommunications reached beyond our planet. In June
1969, the world watched and listened as astronauts walked on the moon.
Twenty years later, in August 1989, we would see pictures of Neptune arrive
back from the Voyager 2 spacecraft, riding radio waves that traveled over
roughly three billion miles (4.8 billion km) to reach us in a matter of a few
hours.
Strides in telecommunications have changed the world immeasurably. While
pockets of humankind were once isolated from each other, people now have
multiple ways to see and hear what is occurring on the other side of the world
in real time. Satellite technology, television, the Internet and telephony keep
the globe connected in a humming buzz of interactive voices and pictures. In
short, telecommunications has come a long way from smoke signals.
In modern telecommunication, a communications system is a collection of
individual communications networks, transmission systems, relay stations,
tributary stations, and data terminal equipment (DTE) usually capable of
interconnection and interoperation to form an integrated whole. The
components of a communications system serve a common purpose, are
technically compatible, use common procedures, respond to controls, and
operate in unison. Telecommunications is a method of communication (e.g.,
for sports broadcasting, mass media, journalism, etc.).

Basic Telecommunication System

A communications subsystem is a functional unit or operational assembly that

is smaller than the larger assembly under consideration. Examples of
communications subsystems in the Defense Communications System (DCS)
are (a) a satellite link with one Earth terminal in CONUS and one in Europe,
(b) the interconnect facilities at each Earth terminal of the satellite link, and (c)
an optical fiber cable with its driver and receiver in either of the interconnect
facilities. Communication subsystem (b) basically consists of a receiver,
frequency translator and a transmitter. It also contains transponders and other
transponders in it and communication satellite communication system
receives signals from the antenna subsystem.

Wireless Communication:

Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without

the use of electrical conductors or "wires". The distances involved may be
short (a few meters as in television remote control) or very long (thousands or
even millions of kilometers for radio communications). When the context is
clear the term is often simply shortened to "wireless". Wireless
communications is generally considered to be a branch of
telecommunications. Wireless Communication is upgrading quite rapidly day
by day.
Wireless devices are various types of fixed, mobile, portable two way radios,
cellular telephones, wireless internet, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and
wireless networking. Other examples of wireless technology include GPS
units, garage door openers and or garage doors, wireless computer mice and
keyboards, satellite television and cordless telephones.
Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications,
that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term
is commonly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to
telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and receivers, remote
controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.) which use some form of
energy (e.g. radio frequency (RF), infrared light, laser light, visible light,
acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer information without the use of wires.
Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances.
HISTORY OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION:

Photophone: The world's first wireless telephone conversation occurred in

1880, when Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter invented
and patented the photophone, a telephone that conducted audio
conversations wirelessly over modulated light beams (which are narrow
projections of electromagnetic waves). In that distant era when utilities did not
yet exist to provide electricity, and lasers had not even been conceived of in
science fiction, there were no practical applications for their invention, which
was highly limited by the availability of both sunlight and good weather.
Similar to free space optical communication, the photophone also required a
clear line of sight between its transmitter and its receiver. It would be several
decades before the photophone's principals found their first practical
applications in military communications and later in fiber-optic
communications.
Radio: The term "wireless" came into public use to refer to a radio receiver or
transceiver (a dual purpose receiver and transmitter device), establishing its
usage in the field of wireless telegraphy early on; now the term is used to
describe modern wireless connections such as in cellular networks and
wireless broadband Internet. It is also used in a general sense to refer to any
type of operation that is implemented without the use of wires, such as
"wireless remote control" or "wireless energy transfer", regardless of the
specific technology (e.g. radio, infrared, ultrasonic) that is used to accomplish
the operation. While Guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun were
awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics for their contribution to wireless
telegraphy, it has only been of recent years that Nikola Tesla has been
formally recognized as the true father and inventor of radio.
Early wireless work:
David E. Hughes, eight years before Hertz's experiments, transmitted radio
signals over a few hundred yards by means of a clockwork keyed transmitter.
As this was before Maxwell work was understood, Hughes' contemporaries
dismissed his achievement as mere "Induction". In 1885, T. A. Edison used a
vibrator magnet for induction transmission. In 1888, Edison deploys a system
of signaling on the Lehigh Valley Railroad. In 1891, Edison obtained the
wireless patent for this method using inductance.
In the history of wireless technology, the demonstration of the theory of
electromagnetic waves by Heinrich Hertz in 1888 was important. The theory
of electromagnetic waves were predicted from the research of James Clerk
Maxwell and Michael Faraday. Hertz demonstrated that electromagnetic
waves could be transmitted and caused to travel through space at straight
lines and that they were able to be received by an experimental apparatus.
The experiments were not followed up by Hertz. Jagadish Chandra Bose of
India around this time developed an early wireless detection device and help
increase the knowledge of millimeter length electromagnetic waves. Practical
applications of wireless radio communication and radio remote control
technology were implemented by later inventors, such as Nikola Tesla.

APPLICATIONS OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY:

Security systems: Wireless technology may supplement or replace hard

wired implementations in security systems for homes or office buildings.
Television remote control: Modern televisions use wireless (generally
infrared) remote control units. Now radio waves are also used.
Cellular telephone (phones and modems): Perhaps the best known
example of wireless technology is the cellular telephone and modems. These
instruments use radio waves to enable the operator to make phone calls from
many locations worldwide. They can be used anywhere that there is a cellular
telephone site to house the equipment that is required to transmit and receive
the signal that is used to transfer both voice and data to and from these
instruments.
WiFi: Wi-Fi is a wireless LAN technology that enables laptop PCs, PDAs, and
other devices to connect easily to the internet. Technically known as IEEE
802.11 a,b,g,n, Wi-Fi is less expensive and nearing the speeds of standard
Ethernet and other common wire-based LAN technologies. Several Wi-Fi hot
spots have been popular over the past few years. Some businesses charge
customers a monthly fee for service, while others have begun offering it for
free in an effort to increase the sales of their goods.
Wireless energy transfer: Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby
electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that
does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting
wires.
Computer Interface Devices: Answering the call of customers frustrated with
cord clutter, many manufactures of computer peripherals turned to wireless
technology to satisfy their consumer base. Originally these units used bulky,
highly limited transceivers to mediate between a computer and a keyboard
and mouse, however more recent generations have used small, high quality
devices, some even incorporating Bluetooth. These systems have become so
ubiquitous that some users have begun complaining about a lack of wired
peripherals. Wireless devices tend to have a slightly slower response time
than their wired counterparts, however the gap is decreasing. Initial concerns
about the security of wireless keyboards have also been addressed with the
maturation of the technology.
Many scientists have complained that wireless technology interferes with their
experiments, forcing them to use less optimal peripherals because the
optimum one is not available in a wired version. This has become especially
prevalent among scientists who use trackballs as the number of models in
production steadily decreases.

Modulation:
Modulation is the process in which some characteristics of the high frequency
signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal. An unmodulated signal is known as a carrier. While doing modulation a
carrier signal, which is a pure sine wave and modulating signal, carrying
information is required. Out of the various types of modulation techniques, the
most common are amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.

The need for modulation aroused due to following reasons:

• Difficulty in radiating the audio signal due to antenna size.

• To give the identity i.e. to make it possible to separate out the signals
at the receiving end. Had all the audio signals been radiated in the
same frequency range, there would have been a mess at the receiving
station.
 • In digital communication different modulation techniques are used for
spectral efficiency.
• In line communication, modulation is necessary for multiplexing i.e. to
send the different signals in the same frequency band over the same
cable.

Amplitude Modulation
In amplitude modulation the amplitude of carrier wave is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
Modulation Index
The modulation index of amplitude-modulated wave is given by the ratio of
amplitudes of Modulating voltage to carrier voltage. Distortion in the
modulated signal occurs, if the amplitude of modulating voltage is greater than
that of the carrier signal. Thus in amplitude modulation, the amplitude of
carrier wave shall be less than the amplitude of modulating signal.
m = Vm / Vc

Forms of Amplitude Modulation

Double sideband full carrier: In this carrier & both sidebands are transmitted. It
is used for commercial broadcasting. The reason is if the carrier is
suppressed then it will be required at the time of demodulation in the receiver.
It is difficult for all the receivers to possess the carrier source of exactly the
same frequency.
• Single sideband full Carrier: In this one of the sideband is suppressed
thus there is saving of bandwidth & 25% power. As carrier is present
along with the transmitted signal, there is no necessity of generating a
carrier at the receiver.
• Single sideband with suppressed carrier: In this only one side band is
transmitted without carrier, which is introduced at the receiver.
• Single sideband with reduced carrier: This is used in maritime
communication. Carrier is transmitted at low level for tuning purposes.
• Two independent side bands
Vestigial Sideband: It is used for video transmission. A trace of sideband is
transmitted usually with full carrier.
Out of the above, the vestigial sideband and single sideband with full carrier is of
importance to us.
Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation is a process in which the frequency of the carrier is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
As the amplitude of the carrier remains constant it does not play any role at
the time of demodulation & any variations in the amplitude has no effect on
the original signal, after demodulation, thus it is immune to noise.
Deviation
The amount by which carrier frequency is varied from its un-modulated value
is called deviation and the rate at which this deviation takes place is equal to
the frequency of modulating signal.
Frequency deviation δ = KVmfc

Modulation Index
Modulation index = Deviation / Modulating frequency
= KVmfc / fm
From the above formula we find that modulation index is function of both
amplitude and frequency of modulating signal. If the amplitude of modulating
signal is increased modulation index also increases.

Advantages & Disadvantages of FM

The main advantages of Frequency Modulation over Amplitude Modulation
are:
Improved signal to noise ratio (about 25dB) w.r.t. to man made interference
Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations.
Less radiated power
Well defined service areas for given transmitter power
Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation:
More Bandwidth requirement
More complicated receiver and transmitter

Digital Modulation
The objective of digital modulation is to bring the base band signal
(modulating signal in digital form) onto the RF carrier using the minimum
bandwidth. Economical use of the frequency spectrum is a particular concern
of the digital modulation in view of the fact that a digital telephone channel
requires 16 times more bandwidth than its analog counterpart i.e. against
4KHz for an analog telephone channel, digital telephone channel requires
64KHz. Furthermore, the transmission capacity for digital signals has to be
accommodated in existing frequency plans that were originally defined for
analog transmission. This bandwidth economy, which is known as “spectral
efficiency”, is defined in bits/s/Hz (transmission capacity/ RF carrier
bandwidth).

PSK Modulation
Digital signals basically have two amplitude states binary 0 and 1
corresponding to phases of 00 & 1800. In the simplest digital modulation
mode, this two state condition is keyed on the RF carrier by shifting the phase
of the carrier.

It is therefore known as phase shift keying modulation.

In two state PSK or 2 PSK, shifting the carrier phase by 180 degrees requires
one hertz of the carrier frequency for each bit of the base band, so the
spectral efficiency is 1 bit/ s /Hz.
A 2 Mbps base band modulated with 2 PSK thus requires an RF carrier with a
bandwidth of 2 MHz.
A first improvement is obtained by using 4PSK or quaternary PSK also
known as QPSK modulation. In this case, the binary signal is converted into a
quaternary signal and the four possible phases of the quaternary signals are
keyed onto the RF Carrier, shifting the carrier phases in 900 steps and
resulting in a spectral efficiency of 0.5 bits/ s / Hz.
Thus a 1 MHz RF carrier is needed to transport a 2 Mbps signal.
Similarly there is 8PSK having the spectral efficiency of 3 bits/ s/Hz. Each
higher PSK modulation mode requires a better signal to noise performance,
which is difficult to achieve. Consequently, 16 PSK is no longer practical.

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

For higher spectral efficiency, quadrature amplitude modulation is used. QAM is
combination of phase shift keying and amplitude modulation of the carrier. Two
carriers 90 degrees out of phase hence quadrature are amplitude modulated by a
digital signal (base band) with a finite number m of amplitude levels, and are
subsequently added to one another. It is thus known as m-QAM. With 16 QAM, 16
different signals states are detected and amplitude & phase shift modulated on the RF
Carrier, resulting in spectral efficiency of 4. A 140Mbps base band thus requires a
bandwidth of 140/4 = 35 MHz. However 16 QAM cannot be used for the transmission
of 140Mbps in the 2, 4, 6.2 and 8GHz bands with an RF Channel spacing of 29/30
MHz. The next logical step to 64-QAM has to be made, resulting in a spectral
efficiency of 6 and enabling the transmission of a 140Mbps signal in 23 MHz
bandwidth, which fits with sufficient selectivity in the 29/30MHZ RF Channel
spacing. Implementation of 128QAM, with a spectral efficiency of 7bits/Hz and 256
QAM with a spectral efficiency of 10 have already been realized
A Quarature Amplitude Modulated signal for the values given in the table is shown in
the slide above.

GMSK
The enhancement behind increasing the data rate is the introduction of the 8-PSK
(octagonal Phase Shift Keying) modulation in addition to the existing GMSK
(Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying). An 8-PSK signal is able to carry 3 bit per
modulation symbol over the radio path, while a GMSK signal carries only 1 bit per
symbol. The carrier symbol rate (270.833 Kbps) of standard GSM is kept the same for
8-PSK and the same pulse shape as used in GMSK is applied to 8-PSK. The increase
in data throughput does not come for free, the price being paid in the decreased
sensitivity of the
This affects the radio network planning and the highest data rates can only be
provided with limited coverage. The GMSK spectrum mask was the starting point for
the spectrum mask of the 8-PSK signal but along the standardization process, the 8-
PSK spectrum mask was relaxed few dB in the 400 KHz offset from the center
frequency. This was found to be a good compromise between the linearity
requirement of the 8-PSK signal and the overall radio network performance.
By introducing the second modulation method, 8-PSK, there is a need to blindly
recognize the transmitted modulation in the mobile station receiver (DL). This is due
to the characteristics of the EDGE link quality control, where the used modulation and
coding scheme (MCS) is adjusted according to the channel condition to the most
suitable one, and in DL, no prior information is sent to the receiver but the receiver
should be able to find out the used MCS based on the blind modulation identification.
The decoding of the RLC/MAC header field, which contains indication of the coding
scheme.
The modulation identification is based on different phase rotation characteristics in
the GMSK and 8-PSK training sequence. In the GMSK training sequence, the
symbol-by-symbol phase rotation is π /2 whereas in the 8-PSK training sequence, the
rotation is 3π /8. Otherwise, the set of 8-PSK training sequence has identical
information content (the same 26 bit sequence) as the GMSK training sequence.
Multiple Access
Multiple access is the connection of a switching center to two or more users by
separate access lines using a single message routing indicator or telephone number.
Access system refers to the manner in which a number of stations may use a repeater
or may interact with a central station (or any input output device) simultaneously.
There are three different methods that permit this simultaneous multi usage.
Different Multiple Access technologies are:
• FDMA
• TDMA
• CDMA

Frequency Division Multiple Access System

• In FDMA, the allotted bandwidth is shared between different locations. Each

location interacts in the sub band within the allotted bandwidth. Each station is
assigned a segment of that usable/allotted bandwidth. Sufficient guard band is
allocated between segments to ensure that one user will not interfere with
another, by drifting into a splatter in the other user’s segment.

Time Division Multiple Access

Time division multiple access (TDMA) is digital transmission technology that allows
a number of users to access a single radio-frequency (RF) channel without
interference by allocating unique time slots to each user within each channel.Pulse
code modulation is the example of TDMA.
Let us consider the E1 frame, which consists of 32 time slots from 0 to 31. The
duration of each slot is 3.906 ms. Each such slot carries the digital data of one
channel. In another slot digital data from other stations can be accommodated. All the
32 slots are combined & transmitted in 125 ms. 8000 such frames are transmitted in
one sec. From the above explanation we find that single frequency is used to transmit
the entire frame& within the frame different slots are allotted to different users at
various stations.

Code Division Multiple Access

In Code division multiple access, the user is neither allotted a dedicated frequency in
the frequency spectrum, nor a slot of time to send and receive messages. In Code
division multiplex access, all the users uses same frequency and are free to send at
any instant of time. Since all the users uses same frequency band so the signals of one
user may interfere the other users and acts as noise According to Shanon” and Hartley
law, explains that ‘if a constant signal to noise ratio is to be maintained for a given
data rate, bandwidth of the channel has to be increased.

Therefore in CDMA, the signal of one user is encoded by a separate code, which only
the receiver knows, and the band width is spread. The advantage of CDMA is that the
signal can be propagated and received in noisy environment.
Spread Spectrum Technique
In spread spectrum technique, just the opposite of what we try to accomplish to
conserve the bandwidth by packing as many bits as possible in 1 Hz of bandwidth by
using different type of digital modulation schemes occurs. With spread spectrum we
do the reverse by spreading the information (data) signal over a very wide bandwidth.
If we are spreading a voice channel over a very wide frequency band, it would seem
that we are defeating the purpose of frequency conservation.
With spread spectrum, multi-users can transmit on the same frequency with minimal
interference between any two users. In order to identify or separate the signal of each
user, a different key variable (Code) is used. At the receiver, the CDMA signals are
separated using a correlate that accepts only signals from the selected key variable or
binary sequence code used at the transmitter, & then dispreads its spectrum. CDMA
signals with unmatched codes are not de-spread and only contribute to noise. CDMA
provides an increase in capacity 15 times that of its analog counterpart & can handle
digital formats at the specified input bit rate such as facsimile, data and paging. In
addition to power required to overcome interference is comparatively low.

Gain and Loss

In telecommunication the signal strength is commonly judged by its power at any
point. Parameters like the Gain of an amplifier, Insertion Loss offered by an
attenuator, is described in decibel (dB) units.

The gain of this black box is given by the ratio of Output power P2 to Input power
P1 and is denoted by ‘G’. Since gain is a ratio, it does not have any unit.

dB Calculation – Thumb Rules

We find that when the power is doubled, dB power gain is 3 dB. For other values, we
can find out the corresponding value of dB by the following thumb rules:
Gain or Power ratio dB
1 0dB
2 3dB
THUMB RULE:
(A) If the power ratio value is doubled then dB value is incremented by 3. For
example:
4 6dB
4X2 = 8 6dB+3dB=9dB
(B) If the Power ratio is multiplied by 10 then the dB value is incremented by 10. For
example:
2X10 =20dB 3dB + 10 = 13dB
To identify whether a particular dB value is Gain (increase in Power) or a Loss
(reduction in Power), +ve and –ve sign is prefixed to the dB value to denote Gain or
Loss respectively.

dBm
We have seen the units Bel (B) and Decibels (dB). If you noticed, these units are only
ratios or relative units. These units do not define absolute power. For example: we
cannot say that the output of an amplifier is 33dB - we can only say that amplifier has
gain of 33dB. These units do not give any idea of the absolute power levels i.e. the
actual power output of an amplifier etc.
To express absolute power levels, we use a unit called dBm. This unit is used to
describe power level relative to 1 mW (m in dBm stands for 1milli watt).
dBm = 10 Log P2 (Power in milli watts)
1milliwatt
To understand better, let us consider an amplifier whose output is 20 watts. We can
calculate its power output (Po), in dBm, as:
Po = 10 Log 20 X103 1mW
3
= 10 Log 20 X 10
= +43dBm
Let us try another example, where the input to a network is 0.0004W. We can
calculate its Power Input (Pi), in dBm as:
Pi = 10 Log10 0.0004 X 103
1mW
= -4dBm (Approximately)
The minus sign indicates that the value is less than the reference value of 0dBm or
1mW.

dBW
The unit dBW is used where very high power is to be represented such as for radio
broadcasting and satellite transmitters. It is an absolute decibel unit and may be
defined as decibel referred to 1Watt (Instead of 1 mW in dBm).
Here , P1 = 1W
Power level in dBW = 10 Log P2
P1
dBi is a unit used to denote the gain of a directional antenna.
To understand the term better, let us briefly look at some antenna types:
Antennae can be broadly classified into two major types
• Omni directional or isotropic antenna
• Directional antenna.
In order to compare the performance of different types of directional antennae, a term
Antenna gain or Directional Gain is used. In order to measure the antenna gain, it is
compared with respect to isotropic antenna gain

dBi = 10 Log P2
P1
Here P2 is the power at any point ‘I’ in the direction of radiation, due to directional
antenna, and P1 is the power at the same point, (with same transmitter power), due to
isotropic antenna.

Thus an Isotropic antenna will give gain of 0dBi. The “i” in the term dBi denotes that
the antenna gain is as compared to isotropic antenna.

Telecom Basics

What is Antenna?
Radiate and receive radio wave ,convert high frequency current to
electromagnetic wave when transmitting, and convert electromagnetic wave
to high frequency current when receiving
Functions of the antenna
Convert high frequency current to electromagnetic wave when transmitting
Convert electromagnetic wave to high frequency current when receiving
Antenna can not amplify the transmission power, just concentrate RF power
to one direction

Types of Antenna
Resonant antennas
Non-resonant antennas
Omni-directional antennas
Directional antennas

Resonant Antennas
 Resonant antenna lengths are multiples of half wavelength
 Length of resonant antenna and the number of side lobes in its
radiation pattern are directly proportional to each other
Non-Resonant Antennas
 The radiation pattern of a non-resonant antenna is unidirectional
Omni-directional Antennas
The omni-directional antenna radiates and receives equally well in all
horizontal directions. The gain of an omni-directional antenna can be
increased by narrowing the beamwidth in the vertical or elevation plane. The
net effect is to focus the antenna’s energy toward the horizon.

Directional Antennas
Directional antennas focus energy in a particular direction. Directional
antennas are used in some base station applications where coverage over a
sector by separate antennas is desired.
Point to point links also benefit from directional antennas. Yagi and panel
antennas are directional antennas.

Antenna Parameters
 Gain and Directivity
 Antenna Efficiency
 Beamwidth
 Bandwidth
 Polarization
 Radiation Pattern Envelope

Antenna gain: The maximum gain of an antenna is simply defined as the

product of the directivity by efficiency. If the efficiency is not 100 percent, the
gain is less than the directivity. When the reference is a loss less isotropic
antenna, the gain is expressed in dBi. When the reference is a half wave
dipole antenna, the gain is expressed in dBd (1 dBd = 2.15 dBi ).

Antenna directivity: The directivity of an antenna is given by the ratio of the maximum
radiation intensity (power per unit solid angle) to the average radiation intensity (averaged
over a sphere). The directivity of any source, other than isotropic, is always greater than unity.

Antenna efficiency: The total antenna efficiency accounts for the following losses: (1)
reflection because of mismatch between the feeding transmission line and the antenna and
(2) the conductor and dielectric losses

Bandwidth requirements

The carrier wave is a sine wave for almost any communication system. A sine wave
exists at only one frequency and therefore occupies zero bandwidth. As soon as the
signal is modulated to transmit information, however, the bandwidth increases.
Bandwidth in radio systems is always a scarce resource. Not all frequencies are useful
for a given communication system, and there is often competition among users for the
same part of the spectrum. In addition, as we have seen, the degrading effect of noise
on signals increase with bandwidth. Therefore, in most communication systems it is
important to conserve bandwidth to the extent possible.

Beam Width:
Antenna gain is defined by the horizontal and vertical beamwidth along the efficiency
of the antenna and in general lesser the beam width higher the gain will be.

The beamwidth is defined the appending angle b/w the two pints on each side of the
main lob direction where the radiated power is 3 dB lower than in the main direction.
Both the horizontal and vertical beam width are of prime importance in selecting an
antenna system.

By using the 650 or 900 antenna excessive overlap is avoided as excessive overlap
can cause higher bit error rate and can degrade quality because of lot of hand over b/w
adjacent sectors. Please note that a better gain will also be achieved for a reduced
beam width.

Besidetal beamwidth, vertical beamwidth is of great importance to RF Engineers as in

combination will knowledge of both, overall gain of an antenna can be defined if
antenna efficiency is known.

Radiation Pattern

The relative distribution of radiated power as a function of direction space is the

radiation pattern of an antenna.

Front to Back Ratio :

The Front to Back Ratio is an important aspect of horizontal beamwidth. The F/B
typically varies 20dB and 45dB, which is very useful for rejecting c0-channel and
adjacent channel interference as signal coming from the back of antenna may cause
multipath interference which will increase bit error rate.
Front to Back Ratio = Back lobe level / Front lobe level.

Polarization
Radio waves are built by two fields, one electric and one magnetic. These two field
are perpendicular to each other. The sum of the fields is the electromagnetic field.
Energy flows back and forth from one field to the other - This is what is known as
"oscillation".

The position and direction of the electric field with reference to the earth’s surface
(the ground) determines wave polarization. In general, the electric field is the same
plane as the antenna's radiator.
Horizontal polarization —— the electric field is parallel to the ground.
Vertical polarization -- the electric field is perpendicular to the ground.

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

VSWR is a measure of impedance mismatch between the transmission line and its
load. The higher the VSWR, the greater the mismatch. The minimum VSWR, i.e., that
which corresponds to a perfect impedance match, is unity.
VSWR can also be taken as measure of return loss of the antenna.
VSWR = Reflected power / Transmitted power
Return loss : 20 log (VSWR+1) /(VSWR –1)

In base station antenna it is desirable to have low value of VSWR, normally upto 1.3,
as low VSWR means high quality.

Radio Propagation Model:

Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
Since the radio waves are influenced by the earth’s atmosphere, an understanding of
the earth’s atmospheric structure is necessary. The Earth's atmosphere is divided into
three separate layers – the Troposphere, the Stratosphere, and the Ionosphere.
The Troposphere is the portion of the Earth's atmosphere that extends from the
surface of the Earth to a height of about 3.7 miles (6 km) at the North Pole or the
South Pole and 11.2 miles (18 km) at the equator. Virtually all weather phenomena
take place in the troposphere. The temperature in this region decreases rapidly with
altitude. Space wave communication takes place in this layer.
The Stratosphere is located between the troposphere and the ionosphere. The
temperature throughout this region is considered to be almost constant and there is
little water vapour present.
The Ionosphere extends upward from about 31.1 miles (50 km) to a height of about
250 miles (402 km). It contains four cloud-like layers of electrically charged ions, the
existence and heights of these layers vary from time to time in a day. Some of these
layers disappear in the night. This is the most important region of the atmosphere for
long distance, HF communication.

Types of Propagation
Electromagnetic (radio) energy travels from a transmitting antenna to a
receiving antenna, in three principal ways:
1. Ground wave

2. Space wave

3. Sky wave

Ground waves are radio waves that travel near the surface of the Earth (surface and
space waves).
Sky waves are radio waves that are reflected back to Earth from the ionosphere.
Space waves are radio waves that travel in straight lines.

Cellular Mobile Communication

Cellular Concept

Frequency Re-use

This principle of reusing a set of frequencies in different cells of the coverage area is
the main concept of Cellular Technology.

While Planning for frequency reuse, the network planner has to define at what
distance the frequency can be reused again and how much should be the radius of the
cell. There are various other considerations, such as adjacent channel interference, to
decide the size of the cells and also where which frequency set is to be used. We will
go into this in detail in some of our advanced courses.

Generally speaking:

 Divide the available service area (where all coverage is required) into small
areas.
 Allot the different set of frequencies to all the adjacent channels of the
center cell.

Use the same set of frequencies for cells at the specified distance with
specified radius.

Advantages over wire line Telephony.

· Mobility
· Convenience
· Flexibility

In cellular telephone system, Calls can be originated from a mobile station

subscriber for any other subscriber of the network (Also those of PSTN
network). Calls can be terminated on a Mobile station, irrespective of the
location of the Mobile station in the coverage area.
Unlike conventional systems, cellular mobile system, may use a large number
of small power transmitters, each covering a small area. Because of the short
distance covered by each transceiver, the particular channel frequency can be
used over and over in multiple non-adjacent cells.

Cellular Radio Principles

Some major Cellular principles, like Registration, Call originations and
terminations and Hand-Offs are below
Registration and Location
A unique identity is given for each MS that is registered in a network. The
MSC holds information on the location of the active mobiles. The network will
check the unique identity number that is transmitted by the Mobile station. As
the Mobile subscriber moves form one cell to another, the strength of the
signal between the base station and the mobile will weaken and the level of
the noise will increase. The system detects this and instructs the neighboring
cells to listen out for the signal and transfers the phone into the appropriate
cell. In this way the network can keep a record of the current location area of
each cell phone. And, when there is an incoming call, the network only needs
to page the MS in that particular area.
A MS that is not in use, but switched ON, will be tracked continuously by the
signaling messages in the control channel. Control channel information
contains information about Network identities, frequencies, notification for a
mobile about incoming call, channel assignment messages.
Call Initiation
Mobile originated call
Once a number is dialed, upon detecting the idle control channel, MS
transmits its identity and the telephone number to the MSC. The MSC, after
receiving the call request, validates the status and commences to route the
call. The MS retunes to the frequency assigned on receipt of the message
from MSC. The MSC connects the voice channel to the required route
enabling the caller to monitor the ringing tone and commence conversation.

Mobile terminated call

The PSTN recognizes the dialed number as a mobile and forwards the same
to the MTSO. The MTSO, in turn, sends a paging message to certain cell
sites. Each cell site transmits the page on its own setup channel. The mobile
unit recognizes its own identification on a strong set up channel, locks onto it ,
and responds to page. The mobile unit also follows the instruction to tune to
an assigned channel and initiates user alert.
Call Termination
As soon as the mobile user transmitter is turned OFF, cell site receives a
signal and it frees the voice channel on both sides.
Handoff
This is a process of automatically changing the frequencies as the mobile unit
moves into a different frequency zone so that the conversation can be
continued in the new frequency zone without redialing.
The system continuously monitors the signals received from the MS engaged
in the calls, checks the signal strength, and quality of the signal. When the
signal falls below a preset threshold, the system will check whether any base
station can receive the MS with stronger signal. If there is, the system will
allocate a radio channel for the call on the new base station and cell phone
will be asked by a signaling message to switch to the new frequency. The
whole process takes a few seconds to complete and a break in conversation
is for hardly 200- 300ms.

Cell Splitting
System blockage
As the traffic within a cell increases towards the point where service quality is
affected, the cell can be split into smaller cells. If this is not done, “blockage”
will increase. Blockage occurs when a user attempts to make a call and the
system is so loaded that the call cannot be completed. A measure of
telephone system performance is the amount of blockage that occurs within
the system. To prevent the blockage of the system cell splitting is used. As
traffic grows within a cell a condition is reached where it is desirable to revise
the cell boundaries in order to handle more traffic. So, a single cell is now
divided into a number of cells, but all within the original cell boundary.
Let us assume that the cell designated as F1 in the figure has reached
capacity. To increase traffic handling capacity within the original F1 boundary,
the cell is split into four cells, H3 , I3 , B6 , and C6 . As the demand continues to
grow the original coverage area may ultimately be split into small cells.
This technique of frequency reuse and cell splitting makes the cellular system
unique and makes it possible to meet the important objectives of serving a
large number of customers in a small coverage area using a small spectrum
allocation. Additionally, cell splitting makes it possible of matching the density
of available channels to the spatial density of demand for channels.
The motive behind implementing a cellular mobile system is to improve the
utilization of efficiency. The frequency reuse scheme is one concept, and cell
splitting is another concept. When traffic density starts to build up and the
frequency channels Fi in each cell Ci cannot provide enough mobile calls, the
original cell can be split into smaller cells. Usually the new radius is one-half
the original radius. There are two ways of splitting: In fig a, the original cell site
is not used, while in fig b, it is:
New cell radius = Old cell radius/2; then based on the above equation
New cell area = Old cell area/4
Let each new cell carry the same maximum traffic load of the old cell; then:

New traffic load traffic load

--------------------- = 4 x -----------------
Unit area unit area

Spectrums:

• Understand the frequency ranges in the Radio Frequency spectrum

• Learn about the usage of the spectrum
• Review the need for frequency management
• Overview frequency management process

Radio Frequency Spectrum

• Perhaps the most familiar part of the electromagnetic spectrum is the Visible
Light Spectrum. The light with which you are reading this page is, in reality,
radiation covering part of the electromagnetic spectrum. In fact, the term
"spectrum" was originally limited to light. Physicists of the 17th through 19th
centuries were the first to realize that what we think of as white light is really a
broad range of different colors of light from the brightest red at one end to the
deepest purple at the other. Thus, white light is a spectrum of different colors.
• The electromagnetic spectrum extends in both directions from the visible
range. Shorter-wavelength, higher frequency "light" includes ultraviolet, x-
rays, and cosmic rays. Longer-wavelength, lower-frequency "light" includes
 first infrared light then, as wavelengths become longer and longer, radio
waves.

• The early physicists also found that electrons traveling through wires are
surrounded by both electric and magnetic fields, and that a wire carrying an
alternating current is surrounded by electric and magnetic fields varying in
intensity at the same frequency as the electric current. Furthermore, the wire
radiates energy that propagates just as do light waves with a frequency and
wavelength corresponding to the frequency of the alternating current in the
wire.

Usage of the Spectrum

• Broadcasting Services
• Mobile Communication Services
• AM and FM Radios
• VHF and UHF Television Stations
• Paging Systems
• Trunked Radio Systems
• Aeronautical Communications
• Satellite and Microwave Communication System
Frequency Management Process
• Policy - making in Radio Frequency Management
Making policies and criteria for appropriate radio frequency assignment.
• Preparation of Radio Frequency Plans
Preparing radio frequency plans for each band to attain most uses and avoid
interference of frequencies.

• Radio Frequency Assignment

Managing and assigning radio frequencies in accordance with the plans and
allocating
• Radio Communications Licensing
Issuing, revoking and suspending the radio communications licenses which
are the licenses to import, export, manufacture and sell radio communications
equipment or accessories, as well as the licenses to establish radio
communications stations and radio operator licenses for government
agencies, private enterprises and private individuals.
• Inspect the technical specifications of radio communications
equipment
Inspection the technical specifications of radio communications equipment
and accessories to be manufactured to ensure efficiency of communications,
and protection of national security against harmful interference.
• Radio Communications Coordination
Regional coordination committees are formed for quick processing of
frequency assignments and Licensing.
• Radio Frequency Monitoring and Direction-Finding
Inspecting the use of radio frequencies of government agencies, private
enterprises and private individuals according to laws and regulations in order
to ensure orderly and efficient uses of frequencies, prevent illegality of
utilization of frequencies and protect national security against harmful
interference.
.
Mobile Station Power Classes (GSM 900)
Class Maximum Minimum Power Steps
TX Power TX Power (*)

1 (20W) Deleted from3.2mW (5dBm)

specifications

2 8W (39dBm) 3.2mW (5dBm) 18

3 5W(37dBm) 3.2mW (5dBm) 17

4 2W (33dBm) 3.2mW (5dBm) 15

5 0.8W (29dBm) 3.2mW (5dBm) 13

Base Station Power Classes for GSM BTS

Typical maximum power out of a transceiver for most manufacture would be
40-60W. After combining losses are accounted for actual power radiated will
be much lower.
Adaptive power control is not applied to the BCCH carrier on a BTS. This
carrier is continuously transmitted at the BTSs maximum power in all
timeslots. All other carriers at the site may be subject to adaptive power control
on a timeslot basis.
In addition to these hardware limits to transmitted power, there are also
software parameter values set for both the MS and the BTS. Whenever the
lower of these two limits is reaches, on the uplink or the downlink, further
power control is inhibited in that direction, implying the probable need for
future handover.
BTS power control requirements are less rigid than for the MS. Manufacturers
can provide up to 15 steps, each giving a 2db reduction. Typically 6 steps
giving a total range of 12dB are used.
INTRODUCTION TO GSM
GSM ARCHITECTURE

2.1 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM:

GSM is divided into two separate entities the Switching System (SS)
and the Base Station System. Each of these contains a number of functional
units, where all systems functions are realised. These functional units are
implemented into various hardware components.

Figure 2.1: GSM Architecture

Functional units within the system are separated by interfaces. Such

interfaces are the Air interface (MS-BSS), the Abis interface (BTS-BSC) and
the A interface (BSC-MSC). However before undertaking to study the main
functional components a brief overview of the complete system is deemed
necessary.

The SS Includes the Following Subsystems:

 Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC)

 Visitor Location Register (VLR)

 Home Location Register (HLR)

 Authentication Centre (AUC)

 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The Base Station System (BSS) includes:

 Base Station Controller (BSC)

 Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

 Transcoder Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU).

2.1.2 Base Transceiver Station:

Each cell has a Base Transceiver Station (BTS) operating on a set of

radio channels. These are different from the channels used in neighbouring
cells to avoid interference. The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile
station. The BTS is the radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to
service each cell in the network.

2.1.3 Base Station Controller:

A base station controller (BSC) controls a group of BTS’. BSC controls

such information as handover and power control. BSC can be implemented as a
stand-alone node or as integrated with the MSC. The BSC provides all the
control functions and physical links between the MSC and BTS. It is a high-
capacity switch that provides functions such as handover, cell configuration
data, and control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in base transceiver
stations. A number of BSC's are served by an MSC.

2.1.4 Mobile services Switching Centre:

A number of BSC’ are served by a MSC which controls calls to and

from other telephony and data communication systems, such as the public
switched telephone network (PSTN), integrated services digital network
(ISDN), public land mobile networks (PLMN), public data networks (PDN)
and possibly, various private networks. The MSC performs the telephony
switching functions of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone
and data systems. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network
interfacing, common channel signalling, and others.

2.1.5 Databases:

The above-mentioned units are all involved in carrying out speech

connections between an MS and for example a subscriber in a PSTN. If it were
not for the possibility of making calls to an MS we would not need any further
equipment. The problem arises when we want to make an MS terminated call.
The originator hardly ever knows where the called MS is. Due to this we need a
number of databases in the network to keep track of the MS.

The most important of these databases is the Home Location Register

(HLR). When someone buys a subscription from one of the GSM operators, he
will be registered in the HLR of that operator; he will be registered in the HLR
of that operator. The HLR contains subscriber information, such as
supplementary services and authentication parameters. Furthermore, there will
be information about the location of the MS, i.e. in which MSC area the MS
resides presently. This information changes as the MS moves around. The MS
will send location information to its HLR, thus providing means to make a call.

Authentication Centre (AUC) is connected to the HLR. The function of

the AUC is provided the HLR with authentication parameters and ciphering
keys, both used for security reasons. AUC provides authentication and
encryption parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the
confidentiality of each call. The AUC protects network operators from different
types of fraud found in today's cellular world.

The Visitor Location Register is a database containing information about

all the MS’s currently located in the MSC area. As soon as an MS roams into a
new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC would request data about the
MS from the HLR. At the same time the HLR will be informed in which MSC
area the MS resides.

If, later on the MS wants to make a call, the VLR will have the
information needed for the call set-up without having to interrogate the HLR
each time. The VLR can be seen as a distributed HLR. The VLR will also
contain more exact information about the location of the MS in the MSC area.
The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers
that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is
always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC
area, the VLR connected to that MSC would request data about the mobile
station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will
have the information needed for call set-up without having to interrogate the
HLR each time.

2.1.6 Gateway:

A gateway is a node used to interconnect two networks. The gateway is

often implemented in an MSC. The MSC is then referred to as the GMSC. If
someone in a fixed network (PSTN) wants to make a call to a GSM subscribe,
the exchange in the PSTN will connect the call to a gateway. The gateway is
often realised in an MSC. It can be any one of the MSC in the GSM network.
The GMSC will have to find the location of the searched MS; interrogating the
HLR where the MS is registered can do this. The HLR will reply with the
address to the current MSC area. Now the GMSC can re-route the call of the
current MSC. When the call reaches that MSC, then the VLR will know in
more detail where the MS is. The call can then switched through.

2.1.7 Mobile Station:

 In GSM there is a difference between the physical equipment and the
subscription. The mobile station is piece of equipment, which can be vehicle
installed, portable or hand-held.

In GSM there is a small unit called the Subscriber Identity Module

(SIM), which is a separate physical entity e.g. an IC-card, also called a smart
card. SIM and the mobile equipment together make up the mobile station.
Without SIM, the MS cannot get access to the GSM network, except for
emergency traffic. While the SIM-card is connected to the subscription and not
to the MS, the subscriber can use another MS as well as his own. This then
raises the problem of stolen MS’, since it is no use barring the subscription if
the equipment is stolen.

We need a database that contains the unique hardware identity of the

equipment, the Equipment Identity Register (EIR). The EIR is connected to the
MSC over a signalling link. This enables the MSC to check the validity of the
equipment. An non-type-approved MS can also be barred in this way. The
authentication of the subscription is done by parameters from AUC.

2.1.8 Operation and Maintenance:

The Operations and Maintenance Centre is connected to all equipment

in the Switching System and to all the BSC’s. The objective of the OMC is to
offer the operator cost-effective support for the centralised regional and local
operational and maintenance activities required for a cellular network. The
main purpose of the OMC is to provide a network overview and support the
maintenance activities of different O&M organisations. The internal O&M
functions of both SS and BSS can be reached from the OSS by means of X.25
Links.
 The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator
monitors and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer
cost-effective support for centralised, regional, and local operational and
maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network. An important

function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support the maintenance

activities of different operation and maintenance organisations. The Operation
Subsystem enables the operator to monitor and control the GSM network.
According to Telecommunications Management principles, on the one hand the
OSS is linked to major network elements such as the MSC, BSC, HLR and
others (BST’s are accessed through BSC's), on the other hand it provides a
man-machine interface for the operation personnel. The network element that is
in contact with BSS and NSS machines is called Operation and Maintenance
Centre (OMC). An OMC typically consists of a database for network data and
a couple of workstations

Which are in charge of managing the OMC database and are in

connection with other network elements. A GSM network can include several
OMC’s; in such a case OMC’s are linked together.

The OSS enables the operator to continuously check the quality of the
service provided for users through measuring parameters like traffic,
congestion, handovers, dropped calls, interference, etc. This feature helps to
find the bottlenecks and problematic areas in the system.

It also provides means to modify the network once a reaction to a given

problem is decided. OMC plays an important role in the daily maintenance, too.
It collects and displays alarms from all network elements and, thus, allows the
operator to detect, locate and correct faults and breakdowns in the system.
2.1.9 Switching System:

The VLR is mostly built into the MSC. This makes signalling between
the two nodes over the GSM network unnecessary, and the internal signalling
can be used instead, decreasing the signalling load over the network.

HLR can be implemented together with the MSC/VLR or implemented

as a stand-alone node. The HLR is a database used for storage and management

of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it

stores permanent data about subscribers, including a subscriber's service
profile, location information, and activity status. When an individual buys a
subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or she is registered in the HLR
of that operator.

The AUC & EIR are either implemented as stand –alone or as a

combined AUC/EIR node. The MXE is the node handling SMS service, Cell
broadcast, Voice mail and FAX mail. These services are optional in GSM, so
the whole node is optional and does not belong to the basic system structure.
The main role of the network and switching subsystem is to manage
communications between GSM users and other telecommunications network
users. It has two functional parts: the exchange system and the subscriber and
terminal equipment databases. The exchange system comprises the Mobile
Services Switching Centre (MSC) and potentially other service centres, such as
e.g. the Short Message Service Centre (SMSC). The subscriber and terminal
equipment databases contain the Visitor Location Register (VLR), Home
Location Register (HLR), Authentication Centre (AUC) and the Equipment
Identity Register. Another functional unit of the NSS is the Voice Mail System
(VMS) that does not actually fit in either of the above functional parts and is
not defined by GSM specifications.
 The MSC performs the basic switching and routing functions within the
NSS. Its main function is to co-ordinate the setting-up of calls to and from
GSM users within its service area. The difference between the MSC and an
ordinary telephone exchange is that the MSC has additional functions to take
into account the allocation of radio resources and to cope with the mobility of
subscribers.

These functions include location registration, paging, the handover

procedure and transferring encryption parameters and dual tone multi
frequency signalling.

The MSC is also a gateway for communicating with other networks,

what needs adaptation. This is carried out by the interworking functions
(IWFs). The IWF is basically transmission protocol adaptation equipment that
adapts the GSM transmission peculiarities to those of the partner networks such
as PSTN, ISDN, PSPDN or CSPDN.

The NSS usually contains more than one MSC. In this case, one or more
MSC's are designated as gateway MSC’s, which are in charge of fetching the
location information and of routing the calls towards the MSC that, can serve
the subscriber or towards external networks such as e.g. the PSTN.

The role of the Short Message Service Centre for written messages is
identical to the role of the gateway MSC for incoming speech and data calls.
The GSM specifications do not exactly define all the protocols related to the
SMSC and, thus, leave some freedom for the manufacturer. Nevertheless, each
SMSC should include lower layer protocols which enable the delivery of short
messages between the mobile station and the SMSC as well as other protocols
which interrogate the HLR searching the address of the subscriber when
reachable, and alert the SMSC if a user becomes reachable again. It should be
emphasised that the short message service is the only service in GSM, which
does not require the end-to-end establishment of a traffic path. Short messages
make use of signalling channels (namely the SDCCH and the SACCH
channels), therefore, they can be transmitted even when the mobile is engaged
in full circuit communications.

The HLR is a database that contains subscriber-specific information

relevant to the provision of telecommunications services and the current

location. The HLR identifies whether a given teleservice or bearer service can
be provided for a subscriber. Information on supplementary services is not
necessarily stored in the HLR.

Two numbers belong to each subscriber in the home location register:

the Mobile Station International ISDN number (MSISDN) and the International
Mobile Station Identity (IMSI). The MSISDN is the directory number that is
dialled in order to contact a mobile. It defines the service of a subscriber and
not the subscriber’s telephone equipment. This means that subscribers have
different MSISDN's for different services. The IMSI is the unique
identification number of a SIM card, used within the GSM network. It is
allocated and cross referenced with MSISDN at initial subscription and stored
in the HLR, AUC and SIM.

The HLR enables to forward calls towards the MSC/VLR within the
service area of which the moving subscriber is situated by storing some
location information, including at least the address of the visited MSC/VLR
and the identification of the local MS, and by requesting the visited MSC/VLR
to provide a Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN).

Beside HLR, another database function is realised in GSM: the Visitor

Location Register (VLR). VLR's are connected to one or several MSC's, each
controlling a number of cells and being in charge of temporarily storing
subscription data for the subscribers currently situated in the service area of the
corresponding MSC(s), as well as of holding data on their location at a more
precise level than the HLR.

In GSM cells are grouped to compose location areas. Each time a mobile
crosses the boundary of two location areas or it is switched on in a different
location area than the one where it was last successfully registered, it attempts

to register the subscriber by performing a location updating procedure. The

result of the last location update attempt is stored in the SIM. During location
updating, information on the subscriber is fetched from the HLR to the VLR.
By doing so, VLR takes part in the authentication and handover procedure,
supports encryption and handles supplementary services and short messages.

The management of security data for the authentication of subscribers is

carried out in the Authentication Centre (AUC). In order to protect the network
against unauthorised use, the authentication of the GSM subscriber identity can
be applied at each registration, each call set-up attempt and before performing
activation, deactivation, registration, or erasure of supplementary services. The
principle of authentication is to compare the subscriber authentication key (the
so-called KI number) on the network side with the KI in the SIM without ever
sending it. The AUC is the network element that stores the KI number on the
network side. It contains encryption parameters and a random generator as
well. The AUC is actually a functional subdivision of the HLR but it can be a
separate network element, too.

The GSM specifications identify a network element specific to MS

management, called Equipment Identity Register. It is a database that contains
information about mobile terminals. Here their unique International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI) number refers to, MS’s. Three different lists are
used for IMEI's in the EIR. The white list includes the range of IMEI's
allocated to type approved mobile equipment, the grey list is for terminals that
need to be observed for some reason and finally the black list includes the
IMEI's of mobile stations which need to be barred, either because they have
been stolen or because of severe malfunctions.

Voice Mail
 The Voice Mail System enables to store voice messages. Incoming calls
can be forwarded into the subscriber’s voice mailbox when he is busy, is out of
the coverage, is switched off, does not answer or activates unconditional call
forwarding into his voice mailbox. Some VMS's can also provide an intelligent
alert system. Repeated delivery calls can inform the subscriber of a new
message in his voice mailbox. The timing of such calls follows a timing matrix
of which the rows correspond to the possible reasons why the call was
forwarded into the voice mailbox. When the GSM system contains an SMSC,
delivery calls can be combined with short messages: a short message is
delivered to the customer subsequent to receiving a message in his voice mail
box and delivery calls are only activated if the short message was
unsuccessfully delivered. From architectural point of view the VMS is divided
into message storage units (Winchester’s) and call message and alarm
management units.

2.1.10 TRAU:

The Trans coder rate adopter unit functionally belongs to the BTS. The
TRAU enables the use of lower rate (32, 16 or 8 kbps) over the Abis interface
instead of the 64kbps ISDN rate that the MSC is designed to handle. The
TRAU can be located at the BTS, the BSC or immediately before the MSC.

GSM Identities

In order to allow a mobile subscriber free movement in the GSM

Network and in the GSM visited networks,the GSM system requires a little
different numbering system compared to analogue mobile networks or a fixed
network.

The numbering system implemented in the GSM network also takes

security security aspects into account.These numbers are concerned with
Mobility management security management and subscriber administration
 IMEI International Mobile Equipment Identity.

IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity.

MSISDN Mobile Station International ISDN Number

TMSI Temporary Mobile Station Identity.

MSISDN

MSISDN Numbers are the directory numbers of the Mobile subscribers.

The structure of the GSM directory number, also called MSISDN because it is
part of the same numbering plan as ISDN numbers.

Subscriber may have more than one MSISDN due to the fact that the
MSISDN actually defines the service used, not the telephony equipment

For a mobile terminating call, the number dialed by the calling party is
MSISDN number, this does not refer to a telephone line or location, but points
to some HLR. For all mobile terminating calls, HLR is interrogated by the
GMSC, which tells the routing information to GMSC, thus the call is routed to
respective MSC. Within the GSM network, a mobile is identified by IMSI, the
corresponding IMSI number is produced by the HLR for MSISDN.

The maximum length of the MSISDN number can be 15 digits, prefix

not included. Example : +358 50 5009999

CC Country code 358

NDC National destination code 50

SN Subscriber Number 5009999

IMSI

Uniquely identifies subscriber in a GSM PLMN.

The International Mobile subscriber Identity is a 15 digit number(GSM

Recommendation), allotted by the network operator . The mobile subscriber is
identified by the IMSI, by its home network as well as by other networks. The
visited Network identifies the subscriber’s Network by MCC & MNC part of
the IMSI.

The network uses this number for identification and also for security
reasons.This is defined by the operator(partly) and it is stored in the
HLR,VLR ,the AUC and the SIM. HLR is the place where both IMSI and
MSISDN are tied together This number is stored in the SIM card & protected
against changes

Compared to the MSISDN,the mobile subscriber has only one IMSI but
may have many MSISDN numbers.

IMSI is exclusively for the internal business of the Network.

It is composed of 3 parameters

MCC Mobile country code 3 Digits

MNC Mobile network code 2 Digits

MSIN Mobile subscriber Identification number 10 Digits maximum

MSRN

It is composed of 3 parameters

CC Country code

NDC National destination code

SN Subscriber Number

The MSRN & MSISDN have the same format but there is a
difference.In MSRN,the subscriber Number is the address to the serving MSC.
 MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) number is important when
the Mobile station is roaming in the other network i.e. it is not located in the
home network.

Both MSISDN & MSRN are the routing numbers and part of the CCITT
E.164 numbering plan. While the MSISDN gives the routing information for
the GMSC to MS with in the same PLMN, but MSRN gives the routing
information about the second leg of the call i.e. from GMSC to the visited
MSC. MSRN is not visible to the GSM users or calling subscriber, but it is
used exclusively between the Home PLMN & visited PLMN. It is not allocated
permanently to a subscriber & its purpose is only to route the call to visited
MSC.

 When a mobile terminated call lands in the home GMSC/MSC,

respective HLR is interrogated, which contains the subscriber’s record
and location information of the subscriber (address of the visited
MSC/VLR) i.e. where the subscriber is currently located.

 The home HLR also contains the MSRN, provided by the visited
MSC/VLR at the time of location updating by the MS.

 If the MSRN number is not available in the Home HLR, then it

interrogates the visited MSC/VLR to get the routing information.

 There is pool of MSRN in the MSC/VLR; it is linked with the IMSI.

 When the call reaches the visited MSC, using the MSRN as the address,
the MSC can retrieve the IMSI from its records can go ahead with the
establishment of the call towards the mobile station.

TMSI

 The temporary Mobile Subscriber identity is an alias for the subscriber

 identity used in order to avoid sending the IMSI (International Mobile
Subscriber Identity) in clear on the radio path.

 TMSI provides the protection to the subscriber about the current

location of the MS to be monitored. TMSI increases the subscriber
confidentiality and is known only within the serving MSC/VLR area.

 TMSI is allocated by the network on the Location area basis i.e. it keep
on changing, as the MS moves from one location area to another
location area.

 Advantages

 Using TMSI, security increases as real subscriber identity is hidden.

 The short length of the TMSI allows spectrum saving on the radio path.
This is especially the case for paging messages (For mobile Terminating
calls), where more than twice as many mobile stations may be paged in
a single message, when using the TMSI. compared to paging using IMSI
(since the TMSI is shorter).

 A TMSI is first allocated to a mobile station the first time it registers in

the location area, and is released when it leaves that location area.

 The TMSI is stored in the subscriber’s record held by the MSC/VLR,

but not in the HLR.

 BCCH and other control channels are not ciphered and ciphering takes
place only when the network has identified the subscriber. When a
subscriber moves to a dedicated mode, there is some bootstrap period,
during which the network doesn’t know the identity of subscriber,
therefore cannot cipher. During this period, there is possibility of
monitoring the movement of MS. To prevent this TMSI is used and
 exchanged between the network and MS>

IMEI International Mobile Equipment identity

 By performing the IMEI check procedure the network knows what

mobile equipment use the network

 Basically an operator may have 3 lists of mobile stations hardware:

black,white and grey

 When a mobile station hardware is on the black list, it is not allowed to

be used except for emergency calls.

 The grey list contains mobile station hardware which is potentially

faulty or suspect, I.e. the mobile station hardware on the grey list is
under observation.

 The white list is composed of all number series of equipment identities

allocated in any GSM network.

 IMEI has a length of 15 digits:

 TAC Type approval code 6 digits

 FAC Final assembly code 2 digits

 SNR Manufacturer serial number 6 digits

 SP Spare for future 1 digit

The hardware of the Mobile station is called Mobile Equipment which is

allotted a unique 15 digits number, which is called IMEI (International Mobile
equipment Identity. This number does not tell the information of the subscriber.

Badly designed or damaged equipment may not only degrade the quality of
service for its user but also to other users of the network. The correct
functioning of the Mobile is the concern for the Network Operator. Such
interfering mobiles are detected by the network by its IMEI.

When maintenance activities detect a problem, which are attributed to a mobile

station, the network must determine the IMEI of this mobile station.

The procedures on the radio interface are such that the mobile station does not
send its IMEI at its own.

During the IMEI Check, MS send the following information to Network

Revision Level

Identifies the phase of the GSM specifications that the mobile complies with

RF Power compatibility

The maximum power that the MS is able to transmit, used for power control
and handover preparation. This information is held in mobile power class
number.

Ciphering Algorithm

Indicates which ciphering algorithm is implemented in the MS. There is only

one algorithm A% in GSM phase 1 but Phase 2 specifies 8 algorithms A5/0 to
A5/7.

Frequency Capability

Indicates the frequency bands the MS can receive and transmits.

Short Message Capability

Indicates whether the MS is able to receive short messages.

CGI Cell global Identity

CI Cell Identity

MCC Mobile country code

MNC Mobile network code

LAC Location area Code

CI identifies the cell within a location area and has a length of a maximum of
16 bits

Location Area

The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is
paged. Each LA is served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a
single MSC Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.

LAI Location Area Identity

LAI has 3 parameters

MCC Mobile country code

MNC Mobile network code

LAC Location area code

MCC is a 3 digit code

MNC is a 2 digit code ,identifies the GSM PLMN of that country

LAC identifies a Location Area within a GSM PLMN.

The maximum length of an LAC is 16 bits, enabling 65536 different location

areas to be defined in one GSM PLMN.

GSM Services

 Various types of services in GSM System.

– Teleservices

– Bearer Services

– Supplementary Services

– Short Message Services

– Broadcast Message Services

Teleservices

Major Teleservices supported by GSM network

• Speech

- Telephony

- Emergency calls

• Short Message Service

- Mobile Terminated

- Mobile Originated

- Cell broadcast

• Voice mail

• Facsimile Transmission

Telephony is the most important service provided by the GSM.

Emergency calling is a distinct service, derived from telephony.

All security functions apply to all Teleservices, i.e., if, for instance,
authentication procedure is unsuccessful, the call may be rejected.

Speech Services

Telephony

Speech, Telephony is a Teleservices offering a “normal”, traditional call. This

service enables a GSM user, establishment of bi-directional speech calls with
another GSM user or PSTN subscriber reachable through PSTN network.

Emergency call

Emergency calls is separate service because it is handled in a bit different way

in the network

It allows the user of a mobile station to reach a nearby emergency service

through a simple & unified procedure by dialing “112” through his GSM
mobile telephone. There is no need to have SIM card or registration with the
network operator to avail the emergency service.

The only exception is Speech, Emergency Calls. It is defined that a recognized

emergency call is tried to be connected through, no matter if the security
procedures are unsuccessful. The GSM network recognizes digit sequence
‘112’ as an emergency call which is handled as described.

Short Message Service (SMS), Mobile Terminated

The short Message Service is a service enabling the Mobile Subscriber to

receive and send short text format messages. From the network point of view,
this service requires a dedicated unit called Service Centre (SC) which is
located in the NSS and has a signaling connection to the MSC.

In the case of a Mobile Terminated SMS, the network sends the message stored
in SC further to the receiving Mobile subscriber. Mobile subscriber is able to
receive a short message during the call. Mobile Terminated SMS’s are point-to-
point services, i.e., from one subscriber to another.

Short Message Service (SMS), Mobile Originated

In the case of a Mobile Originated SMS, the network receives and stores the
message in the SC. Mobile Originated and Mobile Terminated SMS’s are
point-to-point services, i.e., from one subscriber to another.
Interface
The interface between MSC and MS is called A, Abis, Um interfaces. On these
interface only three layers are defined

A-interface: A interface between the BSC and the MSC. The A interface provides two
distinct types of information, signalling and traffic, between the MSC and the BSC.

Abis-Interface: The Abis interface responsible for transmitting traffic and signalling
information between the BSC and the BTS.

Um (Air) Interface: This is the interface between the mobile station and the Base
station. The Air interface uses the Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique
to transmit and receive traffic and signalling information between the BTS and MS.

The TDMA techniques used to divide each carrier into eight time slots. These time
slots are then assigned to specific users, allowing up to eight conversations to be
handled simultaneously by the same carrier.

This interface is the radio interface between the mobile station and the network and
uses layer three messages. On layer three messages we have the division of message
types into CM (Connection Management), MM (Mobility Management), RR (Radio
Resource Management).

Connection Management(CM):
1. Call Control: Which handles the procedures concerning call control? Eg.
Setup, change of bearer service.
2. Supplementary Services: Which handles such as call bearing, Call waiting,
Call forwarding etc?
3. Short Message Service : Enables the MS to handle short message transfer to
and from the network.
4.
Mobility Management(MM) :

Mobility management handles functions for authentication, location updating,

identification and others concerning the mobility of the mobile station.

Radio Resources Management :

It contains the functions concerning the radio link. Here we find the capability
to establish, maintain and release the radio connection between the network and the
mobile station, which includes the handover procedure.

GSM Channels
There are two types of channels such as Physical channel and Logical channel.
Physical channel: One timeslot on one carrier is called physical channel
Logical Channel: Information carried by physical channels is called logical channels.
Logical channels are mapped on physical channel. Logical channels again divided
into two types there are Traffic channel and Control channels

Traffic Channels: Used for speech and data, again traffic channels is divided into
two types of rate one is Full rate and Half rate.

Full rate is used for speech at 13Kbps or sending data rate at 22.8kpbs.
Half rate is used for speech at 6.5Kbps or sending data rate at 11.4kbps.

Control Channels: Control channles are used by the MS to establish communication

with the network in the idle mode and also in initiating calls to enter the dedicated
mode. The control cahnnels are grouped as Broadcast Control channels (BCCH),
Common Control Channels(CCCH) and Dedicated Control Channel(DCCH).

Broadcast Control Channels: BCCH channel is divided into three types of channel
they are 1)BCH, 2) SCH, 3)FCCH

BCH(Broadcast channel): Each cell has one carrier designated as a BCH carrier.
The BCH carrier has all 8 time slots continuously on, either with traffic or dummy
burst. Timeslot 0 of the BCH carrier contains logical control channels. Used for
sending information to the mobile like CGI (Cell Global identity), LAI (Location
Area Identity), BCCH carriers of the neighboring cells, maximum output power
allowed in the cell and other broadcast messages like barred cell. Reads only by idle
at least once every 30 secs (Downlink only)

FCCH (Frequency Correction Channel):

To tell the mobile that this is the BCCH carrier, to able the mobile synchronise to the
frequency (Doqnlink only).

SCH (Synchronisation Channel): Carries information for frame synchronisation, it

contains frame number and BSIC ( Base Station Identity Code)

CCCH (Common Control Channel) : The CCCH is subdivided into the 1) Random
Access Channel (RACH), 2) Access Grant Channel (AGCH), 3) Page Channel (PCH)

RACH (Random Access Channel) : The RACH is used to send a channel request to
the network to setup a call, location updating or make call access(originating), used
for responding the paging(terminating) by asking for a signalling channel, uplink
only.

AGCH (Access Grant Channel): This channel is giving the acknowledgement and
immediate assign a SDCCH channel, timeslot number, training sequence number,
Timing Advance, ARFCN(BCCH), BSIC, MAIO,HSN downlink only.
PCH (Paging Channel) : Used for paging the mobile, reason could be an incoming
call or an incoming short text message, it contains the MS identity number, the IMSI
or TMSI and downlink only.

DCCH (Dedicated Control Channel): The DCCH is subdivided into the 1) Standard
–alone Dedicated channel (SDCCH), 2) Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH),
3) Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

SDCCH (Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel): This channel is used to call

setup, authentication, ciphering, location update and SMS, both uplink and down link.

SACCH (Slow Associated Control Channel): This channel is used to transfer

signal while MS have ongoing conversation on traffic or while SDCCH is used. On
the forward link, SACCH is used to send slow but regularly changing control
information to each mobile on that ARFCN, such as power control instructions and
specific timing advance instructions. The reverse SACCH carries information about
the received signal strength and the quality of the TCH, as well as BCH measurement
results from neighbouring cells, this channel is for both uplink as well as downlink.

FACCH (Fast Associated Control Channel): This channel is associated with TCH
only. It is used to send fast message like hand over message. Work by stealing traffic
bursts.

Handovers:

Handover is the process in which, the service to the subscriber is transferred from the
serving cell to another cell, during the active mode of MS and the call will continue,
till the MS disconnects the call. Handover, or hanoff ass it is called in North America,
is the swicting of an on-going call to a different channel or cell. The execution and
measurement required fro handover form one of basic functions of RR management.

There are four types of handover in the GSM system, which involve transferring a call
between:

• Channels (timeslots) in the same cell

• Cells (Base Transceiver Stations) under the control of the same Base Station
Controller (BSC),
• Cells under the control of different BSCs, but belonging to the same Mobile
Services Switching Centre (MSC), and
• Cell under the control of different MSCs.
Preamble

With the current exponential growth in radio based communication throughout world,
microwave links are increasingly being employed over more difficult paths, requiring
graeter accuracy in LOS survey methods.

Line-of-sight(LOS) surveys form an important part of ther engineering considerations

for the planning of microwave radio links.
A microwave link installed over a non-viable path involves a lot of on-costs. These
on-costs include de-installation , re-engineering for alternative communications,
project delays, and damage to reputations. One mistake in a contract could cost more
than the profit margin.

A microwave radio links is usally engineered on the basis of there being a clear line-
of-sight(LOS) between the antennas at opposite ends of the link. For short paths,
particularly at the higher frequeincies, often a simple check as to whether a site can be
seen from the roof of a building, possible-using binocular is all that is needed.

Matters are not quite so simple for longers links; say those of 10kms or more between
antenna positions. It is not easy to identify a particular radio tower (or building) at
these distances, even with binoculars, unless that tower is in a landmark position and
the visibility is very clear.

Microwave engineering procedure has been to check the radio profiles, a path profile
being a cross section graph of counters between antenna positions, modified to show
the Earth’s curvature and the increase in that curvature due to refraction of the
miceowave radio wave.

To this path profile are added features such as trees and buildings, and occasionally,
man-made earth works not detaild in survey maps. It is then necessary to calculate the
diameter of the first fersenal zone (the major addative elements of the radio wave in
waveront theory) and add this to the graph to ensure there is sufficient clearance over
any potential obstructions along the path during refraction fades ( the effect of an
increase in the Earth’s curvature due to atmospheric conditions), to ensure the link
will meet its performance objectives.

Typical Microwave radio systems and network considerations

Modern digital microwave radio systems provide a feasible technical solution for
telecommunications transmission links at distances up to 80km ( much greater
distances are achievable under specila path engineering conditions) and can carry
capacities up to N x 155Mbps.

Furthermore, digital radio relay systems in the microwave and milli metric bands
provide economic transmission options, coupledn with the advantages of rapid
deployment and network control and ownership. Such systems are increasingly being
deployed in both cellular and fixed telecommunications networks, and in the latter
case, particularly in wireless based networks.

A typical microwave radio terminal consists of an indoor mounted base bend shelf, an
indoor or outdoor mounted radio frequency(RF) transceiver and a parabolic antenna.
Each terminal transmits and receives information to and from the opposite terminal
simultaneously providing full duplex operation.

The based band shelf provides the interfaces to the traffic data and thereby to outside
world. In older, lower frequency products, the baseband unit is co-located with the RF
unit typically in a 19 inch or slim rack whereas modern products allow the baseband
and RF unit to be separated by up to 300 meters of commercially available coaxial
cable.

The RF transceiver, if based outdoors, can be mounted directly behind the parabolic
antenna separated by a shot run of waveguide. Optionally, waveguide runs can be
longer allowing the RF unit to be mounted remotely from the antenna. Mounting the
RF unit outdoors allows the system to be designed with minimum use of waveguide,
which saves on costs, reduces losses, and reduce efforts in installation and
commissioning.

Microwave terminals are available in non-protected and protected configurations. A

protected terminal provides full duplication of all active elements, i.e. bothe the RF
transceiver an the base band components. A number of protection schemes are
available including frequency diversity, space diversity, and monitored hot standby
(MHSB).

Both space diversity and frequency diversity provide protection against path fading
due to multipath propogation in addition to providing protection against equipment
failure. Such techniques are typically only required in bands below 10 GHz, specially
for long paths over flat terrain or over areas subject to atmospheric inversion layers.

Space diversity requires use of additional antenna, which must be separated vertically
in line with engineering calculations. Frequency diversity can be achieved with one
antenna per terminal configured with a dual-pole feed. Frequency diversity has the
disadvantages of reqiring two frequency channels paer link, and the frequency
inefficiency of this technique is therefore a major consideration in many parts of the
world.

MHSB protection can be used at frequencies below 10 GHz if the path conditions are
suitable. It is alsi the normal protection scheme at the higher frequencies where
multipath fading is of negligible concern. MHSB systems are available using one
single-feed antenna per terminal, utilizing only one frequency channel per link.
MHSB thus seems an efficient protection scheme in relation to equipment and
frequency usage.

The transmission section of the netwok is a critical compnenet of any network and
care must be taken to plan it accordingly. There are many general principles applying
to planning a transmission network of leased lines or self-provide cable-based
systems, which also apply to microwave radio relay systems, in addition to a few
specifics for microwave systems. The following lkist can be considered as insight into
some of the planning processes required for microwave radio systems. There will
obviously be variations due to specific operating conditions and objectives of different
operators, and therefore this should not be considered a definitive list. Also, planning
is an iterative process, and the following list does not necessarily follow sequentially
in every case.

• Produce preliminary network design.

• Determine local frequency availability and regulations relating to frequency
management.
• Microwave path availabilities.
• Select sites.
• Establish line-of-sight.

The propagation characteristics of electromagnetic waves dictate that the higher the
frequency the greater the free space loss, or attenuation due to the atmosphere, i.e. the
shorter the achievable distances. However, this also means that frequency re-use
distances are shorter: essentially, the distance between links operating on the same
frequency can be shorter without fear of interference. As a result using lower
frequency bands for longer paths and higher frequencies for shorter paths can make
most efficient use of the frequency spectrum.

Path availability targets should also be established and the user should calculate its
taret availability, taking into account overall network availability required and
network integrity as a function of the topology chosen. Preliminary path budgets are
normally calculated either in the form of a spreadsheet, or using software tools
available from equipment manufacturers.

Path availability of a specific microwave link is a factor of a number of components in

relation to the path budget which will take into account net output power expressed as
an equivalent isotropic ally radiated power (EIRP) figure at the antenna, free-space
attenuation in the frequency management authorities will very likely regulate the
EIRP, as this has an effect on frequency reuse and management.
Microwave Radio Propagation

(Radio awe propagation is a vast topic, and we’ve only scratched the surface here)

Line of sight propagation

It is fundamental to the correct performance of a microwave radio link that line-of

sight is available, i.e. there is a clear transmission path between the two nodes of the
link.

The term Line of Sight (LOS) as applied to radio links has a pretty obvious meaning:
the antennas at the ends of the link can see each other, at least in a radio sense. In
many cases, radio LOS equate to optical LOS: you’re at the location of the antenna at
one end of the link, and with the unaided eye or binoculars, you can see the antenna
(or its future site) at the other end of the link. In other cased, we may still have an
LOS path even though we can’t see the other end visually.
This is because the radio horizon extends beyond the optical horizon. Radio waves
follow slightly curved paths in the atmosphere, but if there is a direct path between the
antennas, which doesn’t pass through ay obstacles, then we still have radio LOS.

Does having LOS mean that the path loss will be equal to the free space case, which
we have just considered? In some cases, the answer is yes, but it is definitely not a
sure thing.

There are two ways of establishing line-of-sight; namely by creating a path profile, or
by surveying the actual path. A path profile is established from topographical maps.
There are other factors too, which are to be considered in establishing LOS path.

Impediments to Microwave LOS propagation

The limitations imposed by terrestrial radio wave propagation (as opposed to free
space propagation) are as follows:

1. Earth Curvature (Earth Bulge”)

2. Refractivity effects of the atmosphere
3. Proximity of obstructions
4. Reflections
5. Absorption and scattering of the atmosphere
6. Noise and Interference from other systems

Earth Curvature and LOS Range

Curvature of the earth limits how far we can see an object on the earth (i.e. to the
horizon), or how above the earth an object beyond the horizon must be if it is be seen.

The surface of the earth varies in height above sea level (mountains, valleys etc) and
the coverage of the earth (trees, buildings, transmission wires etc.) all form obstacles
to LOS transmission.
These have to be added to the curved earth to determine the necessary height of
antennas to ensure microwaves LOS.

Radio Refractive Index

Variations in the atmosphere density cause the radio waves to refract in the
atmosphere.

The troposphere refractive index “n” varies only slightly with temperature “T”,
pressure “P”and water vapor partial pressure ”e”, hence the refractive index is
characterized by a related quantity refractivity, The ITU model for refractivity N is
given.

This gradient causes microwaves to propagate, not straight lines but in circular arcs,
with a radius “r”. With respect to the grazing angle of the ray to the local horizontal.

For a standard atmosphere the value of r is =25,000 km the microwaves bend towards
the earth but with a radius greater than that of the earth i.e. earth radius 6371 km

Rather than deal with curved radio rays it is convenient to subtract the curvature of the
ray from both ray and the earth to deal with an effective earth curvature” and straight
rays.

The effective radius of the earth is increased from ‘ruby a factor k to ----
“re”= k*r

In an ITU-R standard atmosphere k=4/3 but atmospheric conditions vary such that k
may typically vary say from k=2/3 (sub refraction where rays bend upwards) to k for
super refraction where the ray has the same curvature as the earth and could
theoretically propagate right around the world). The value of k=infinitive, relates to
Flat earth case.
When designing a microwave radio link one must plan for LOS clearance of ground
obstructions using the effective e earth radius “re”=kr, for expected values of “k”the
earth bulge is then calculated as
h at (d1,d2) point ={0.078 (d1* d2)} /k meters where d1 is the distance of point from
one end and d2 is the distance of same point from other end of path.
There is a convenient artifice, which is used to account for this phenomenon: when
the path profile is plotted, we reduce the curvature of the earth’s surface. If we choose
the curvature properly, the paths of the radio waves can be plotted as straight lines.
Under normal conditions, the gradient in refractivity index is such that real world
propogation isequivalent to straight-line propogation over an earth whose radius is
greater than the real one by a factor of 4/3- thus the often-heard term “4/3 earth
radius” in discussions of terrestrial propogation.
However, this is just an approximation that applies under typical conditions-as
VHF/UHF experimenters well know, unusual weather conditions can change the
refractivity profile dramatically. This can lead to several different conditions.
In super refraction, the ray bend more then normal and the horizon is extended : in
extreme cases, it leads to the phenomenon known as ducting, where the signal can
propagate over enormous distances beyond the normal horizon. Hence there may not
be signal to antenna and link suffers from receive signal fading.
A more serious concern is sub refraction, in which the bending of the rays is less than
normal, thus shortening the radio horizon and reducing the clearance over obstacles
along the path. This may lead to increased path loss, and possibly even an outage due
to deep fading signal beyond the fade margin provided at designating stage.

Result from some LOS surveys, using recently developed and more powerful
surveying tools, suggest a value of K=4/3 (instead of K=7/6) might be more
appropriate figure to use for optical LOS surveys. If K=4/3 is the appropriate value to
use, then there will be a number of operational links that do not meet their
performance objectives during refractional links that do not meet their performance
objectives during refraction fades to K=2/3. This will generally go unnoticed; as such
fades are usually quick and fast.
3.1.3 Proximity of Obstructions
In order to establish LOS it is not sufficient to provide grazing clearance of the earth
bulge and any obstructions on the earth surface only. The reason is diffraction off the
surface or any obstructions can lead to destructive interference, which decreases the
received signal. So, it is essential to provide sufficient clearences over the
obstructions all along the path as well the proximity of the beam propagating.

It has been shown (theoretically and experimentally) that if a clearance measured in

Fresnel Zones ( usually one zone clearance is sufficient) is maintained over the whole
of the path then diffractive effects are minimised

Fresnel zones are defined as Ellipsoids of revolution about LOS path.Keep in mind
that this is only a two-dimensional representation, but Fresnel zones are three-
dimensional.The same considerations apply when the objects limiting path clearance
are to the side or even above the radio path. Since we are considering LOS paths in
this section, we are dealing only with the “negative height”.

At a position which is level with the top of the obstacle, zero clearance (grazing) case,
the signal power density is down by some 6 dB, despite

The face that this point is in “line of sight” of the source assuming as “knife edge”
diffraction.
Basically, this means that the top of the obstacle is small in terms of wavelengths.
This is sometimes a reasonable approximation of an object in the real world, but more
often than not, the obstacle will be rounded (such as a hilltop)or have a large flat
surface (like the top of a building), or otherwise depart from the knife-edge
assumption. In such cases, the path loss for the grazing case can be considerably more
than 6 dB- in facts, 20 dB would be a better estimate in many cases. So, Fresnel zone
clearance can be pretty important on real-world paths.

For most practical purposes, only the first Fresnel zone needs to be considered. A
radio path has first Fresnel zone clearance if , no objects capable of causing
significant diffraction penetrate the corresponding ellipsoid. In fact, it is sufficient to
have 60% of the first Fresnel clearance, since this will still give a resultant, which is
very close to the free space value.
Fresnel Zone

The endpoint of a Microwave link must have unobstructed radio line-of-sight.Radio

line-of-sight is not the same as optical line-of-sight (that is, the ability to see one end
of a link from the other). Microwaves have a lower frequency than visible light and,
therefore, behave differently in response to environmental conditions. Radio line-of-
sight requires more clearance than optical lines-of-sight to accommodate the
characteristics of microwave signals.

An electromagnetic wave does not travel in a straight line: the wave spreads out as it
propagates. Also, the individual waves that make up a radio signal do not travel at the
same phase velocity. A French physicist

Augustin Fresnel, defined the propogation of a radio wave as a three-dimentional

elliptical path between the transmitter and receiver.Fresnel divided the path into
several zones based on the phase and speed of the propogating waves.

The size of each Fresnel Zone varies based on the frequency of the radio signal and
the length of the path. As frequency decreases, the size of the Fresenl Zone increases.
As the length of the path increases,the size of the Fresnel zone also increases. A
Fresnel Zone’s radius is greatest at the midpoint of the path. Therefore, the midpoint
requires the most clearance of any point in the path.

The first six-thenths of the first Frensel zone must be clear of obstructions to ensure a
strong, reliable radio link is also referred to as 0.6 F1 clearence. Objects, such as trees,
buildings, or hills, that encroach within more than four-tenths of the first Fresnel zone
will weaken a microwave signal and may prevent communication across the radio
link.
Figure below illustrates a path that does not provide adequate Fresnel zone clearance.
The path has optical line-of-sight but the treetop encroaches more than 40% into the
first Fresnel zone.

Fresenal zone calculations

For first Fresnel zone clearance, the distance h from the nearest point of the obstacle
to the direct path must be at least

FORMULA
Where d1 and d2 are the distances from the tip of the obstacle to the two ends of
the ratio circuit. For convenience, the clearance can be expressed in terms of
frequency:

FORMULA

H = 17.3 sqrt ( (d1*d2)/(f*(d1+d2)))

Where f is the frequency in GHz, d1 and d2 are in km, and h is in meters.

Effects of Atmospheric Refraction

Radio waves move slower through substances of greater densities. This causes a
wave to bend or refract as it travels through substances of different densities.

Since the density of the earth’s atmosphere decreases as altitude increases, the bottom
of a radio wave travels through a denser atmosphere and moves more slowly than the
top of the wave. This causes the radio signal to refract or bend towards to earth,s
surface following the curvature of the earth.

Refraction varies with environment conditions, such as humidity, temperature,

barometric pressure, and air density.
The refraction index, or K factor, describes how a ration wave bends in relation to the
earth’s surface. In general, a path profile will use K=4/3 to determine the effects of
refraction on a proposed ration link.

FORMULA

H = (d1*d2)/12.75k

H Effective Earth Curvature in mtr

d1,d2 Kms
K Earth Radius Factor
Effective Earth Radius/True Earth Radius

Valkues of K: 4/3, 2/3, ½, 1 Dependent on surface refractivity

Recommended Clearance Criteria

3.1.4 Reflections

Ground reflections can be a major cause of fading. An LOS may have adequate
Fresnel zone clearance, and yet still have a path loss, which differs significantly, from
free space under normal refraction conditions. If this is the case, the cause is probably
multipath propogation resulting from reflections (multipath also poses particular
problems for digital transmission systems- we’ll look at this a bit later, but here we
are only considering path loss).

One common source of reflections is the ground. It tends to be more of a factor on

paths in rural areas; in urban settings the ground reflection path will often be blocked
by the clutter of buildings, trees, etc.In paths over relatively smooth ground or bodies
of water, however, ground reflections can be a major determinant of path loss.

It should also be kept in mind that the reflection point is not as the midpoint of the
path unless the antennas are at the same height and the groung is not sloped in the
reflection region- just the remembered the old maxim from optics that the angle of
incidence equals the angel of reflection.

Reduce or even remove the effects of reflections by adjusting antenna heights to move
reflection points from areas of higher reflectivitiy to areas of lesser reflectivity
(woods, highly broken ground etc)

Notice that there is a large different in reflection amplitude between horizontal and
vertical polarization and that vertical polarization and that vertical polarization in
General gives rise to a much smaller reflected wave. However, the difference is large
only for angles of incidence greater than a few degrees(note that, unlike in optics, in
radio transmission the angle of incidence is normally measured with respect to a
tangent to that reflecting surface rather than a normal to it); in practice, these angels
will only occur on very short paths, or paths with extraordinarily high antennas.

For typical paths, the angle of incidence tends to be of the order of one degree or less-
for example, for a 10 km path over smooth earth with 10 m antenna heights, the angle
of incidence of the ground reflection would only be about T 0.11 degrees. In such a
case, both polarizations will give reflection amplitudes nearly unity (i.e., no reflection
loss).

Perhaps more surprisingly, there will also be a phase reversal in both cases.
HorIzontally polarized waves always undergo a phase reversal upon reflection, but for
vertically polarized waves, the phase change is a function of the angle of incidence
and the ground charecteristics.

The upshot of all this is that for most paths in which the ground reflection is
significant (and no other reflections are present), there will be very little difference in
performance between horizontal and vertical polarization.

For very short paths, horizontal polarization will generally give rise to a stronger
reflection. If it turns out that this causes cancellation rather than enhancement,
switching to vertical polarization may provide a solution.

In other words, for shorter paths, it is usually worthwile to try both polarizations to
see which works better (of course, other factors such as mounting constraints and
rejection of other sources of multipath and interference also enter into the choice of
polarization).

So , for longer-range paths, ground reflections are always bad news. Serious
problems with ground reflections are most commonly encountered with radio links
across bodies of water.
Spread spectrum techniques and diversity antenna arrangements usually can’t
overcome the problems- the solution lies in siting the antennas (e.g., away from the
shore of the body of water) such that the reflected path is cut off by natural obstacle,
whicle the direct path is unimpaired. In other cases, it may be possible to adjust the
antenna locations so as to move the reflection point to a rough area of land, which
scatters the signal rather than creating a strong specular reflection.

Other Source of Reflections

Much of what has been said about ground reflections applies to reflections from other
objects as well. The “ground reflection” on a particular path may be from a building
rooftop rather than the ground itself, but the effect is much the same. On long links,
reflections from objects near the line of the direct path will almost always cause
increased path loss- in essence, you have a permanent “flat fade” over a very wide
bandwidth.

Reflections from objects, which are well off to the side of the direct path, are a
different story, however. This is a frequent occurrence in urban areas, where the side
of buildings can cause strong reflections. In such cases, the angle of incidence may be
much larger than zero, unlike the ground reflection case. This means that horizontal
and vertical polarization may behave quite differently; vertically polarized signals
tend to produce lower-amplitude reflections than horizontally polarized signals when
the angle of incidence exceeds a few degrees.

When the reflecting surface is vertical, like the side of a building, a signal, which is
transmitted with horizontal polarization effectively, has vertical polarization as far as
the reflection is concerned. Therefore, horizontal polarization will generally result in
weaker reflections and less multipath than vertical polarization in these cases.

3.1.5 Absorption and scattering of the atmosphere

Atmospheric changes and multipathing can cause fades in the signal level that must be
accounted for overall link designing.
 • Background gaseous absorption that is an additional loss.
• Rain induced fading
• Multipath fading-extra power called fade margin allocated to allow for
Appropriate depth fades
• Thermal radiation from sun
• Interference caused by precipitation scatter and ducting
• Cross polarization-induced crosstalk

Rain Fading

Heavy rain falls infrequently but can have a large effect a=on a microwave link
particularly at and above 10GHz.

Attenuation from fog only becomes noticeable(i.e., attenution of the order of 1db or
more) above about 30 GHz. Snow is in this category as well. Rain attenution becomes
significant at around 10 GHz, where a heavy rainfall may cause additional path loss of
the order of 1B/km.

Attenution from Trees and Forests

Trees can be a significant source of path loss, and there are a nuber of variables
involved, sub as the specific type of tree le3aves are present or not. Isolated trees are
not usually a major problem, but a dense forest is another story.

The attenution depends on the distance the signal must penetrate through the forest ,
and it increases with frequency. According to a CCIR repot, the attenuation is of the
order of 0.05dB/m at 200 MHz, 0.1dB/m at 500 MHz, 0.2 dB/m at 1GHz, 0.3 dB/m at
2 GHz and 0.4 dB/m at 3 GHz. At lower frequencies, the attenution is somewhat
lower for horizontal polarization than for vertical, but the difference disappears above
about 1GHz.
This adds up to a lot of excess path loss if the signal must penetrate several hundred
meters of forest. Fortunately, there is also significant propagation by diffraction over
the treetops, especially if antenna is up near treetop level or keep them a good distane
from the edge of the forest.

In commercial radio link planning, the statistical probability of all above events are
calculated and allowed for in the link design (distance, path clearance, fading margin,
etc.).

Multipath Fading

As described earlier in the discussion of Fresnel Zone, a radio signal is composed of

individual waves that travel in different directions as the signal propagates. When a
radio wave hits a physical object, it may penetrate the object, be reflected by the
object, or absorbed by the object.

A reflected wave causes a phenomenon known as multipath. Multipath means that the
radio signal can travel multiple paths to reach the receiver. Typically, multipath
occurs when a reflected wave reaches the receiver at the same as the direct wave that
travels in straight line from the transmitter. If the two signals reach the receiver in-
phase (that is, both signals are at the same point in the wave cycle when they reach the
receiver) then the signal is amplified. This is known as an üpfade”.

If the two waves reach the receiver out-of-phase (that is, the two signals are at
opposite points in the wave cycle when they reach the receiver), they weaken the
overall received signal. If the two waves are 180 degree apart when they reach the
receiver, they can completely cancel each other out so that at radio does not receive a
signal at all. SA location where a signal is canceled out bu multipath is called a “null”
or “downfade”.

Smooth surfaces, such as a body of water, a flat stretch of earth, or a metal roof,
reflect radio signls.
To avoid system failures, you shoulkd design a path so that the reflected signal is
dispersed by an uneven surface before it reaches the receiver and cancels out the
direct wave. In other words, you should design the path so its reflection point does not
fall on a refletive surface. Global Mapper software helps to identify the location of a
paths reflection point.

If necessary, you can adjust the height or change the position of one or both antennas
to move the reflection point so that it is blocked by an obstruction or strikes an uneven
surface. In adjacent Figure, the height of the transmitting antenna has been reduced so
that the reflected signal is dispersed by rocky terrain.

Types of Antennas
Types of Antenna

We have already seen the different types of antennas (for microwave and land mobile
applications) in our fundamentals. Here, in this unit, we will talk about antennas that
are specifically utilized in communications.

According to their function, antennas can be broadly classified into Transmitting and
Receiving antennas. A single antenna is also frequently used for transmitting and
receiving signals simultaneously (duplex antenna). Many of the properties of antennas
apply equally to both transmit and receive modes of operation.

Communications antennas can be specifically categorized into Earth Station antennas

and Spacecraft or antennas. Certain forms of interference present specific problems
for systems which are not encountered in other radio systems. We will discuss these
interferences later in the section. What we need to understand at this point of time is
that due to these specific interferences, features of antenna design that control
interference have to be specially designed.

We will not cover the basic antennas and concepts in detail here. However, to
maintain continuity, some topics may be repeated form the fundamentals.

Before we start talking about antennas, specifically those used in communications, let
us take a re-look at some basic antenna parameters that we learnt in our fundamentals.
Antenna parameters like gain, beam-width and sidelobes are revisited in the
following.

Antenna Gain

The gain of the antenna depends upon the size of the antenna, the radio frequency at
which it operates and the efficiency with which it focuses the radio waves.

The antenna gain is proportional to the aperture area. For example, the gain of a 1 m
antenna is about 16,000 (42.04 dbi) at its typical operating frequency (14 GHz). A 2
m antenna at the same frequency would have a gain of 64,000 (48.04 dbi).
Antenna Beamwidth

• As the antenna gain increases, its beamwidth decreases.

• It is usually expressed as the angle between the direction of radiation at which
the beam strength falls to half of its maximum value.
• When transmitting with a 6 m antenna, for example, the beamwidth is
approximately 0.25 degrees at the typical transmit frequency (14 GHz)
Antenna Sidelobes

ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERN

MAINLOBE
0
-5 SIDELOBES
-10
-15
-20
ANGLE

-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
1 13 25 37 49 61 73 85 97 109 121 133 145 157 169

RELATIVE RADIATED POWER

Sidelobes spill energy while transmitting, pick up noise while receiving.

The Isotropic Radiator

Isotropic, generally speaking, means equally in all directions. Isotropic radiator is one
that transmits equally in all directions. No practical antenna is capable of achieving
this feat, i.e. transmit equally in all directions. An Isotropic antenna is only
hypothetical and its main use is as a standard for comparing practical antennas.

Effective Aperture

A receiving antennas also has directional properties described by the radiation patters,
but refer to the ratio of received power normalized to the maximum value.

An important concept used to describe the reception properties of an antenna is that of

effective aperture. For antennas which have easily identified physical apertures, the
effective aperture is related in a direct way to the physical aperture. If the wave
could uniformly illuminate the physical aperture, then it would equal the effective
aperture. However, uniform illumination does not happen because the presence of the
antenna in the wave path alters the field distribution. The effective aperture is smaller
than the physical aperture by a factor called illumination efficiency. It ranges between
0.5 to 0.8 and a conservative value used for calculations is 0.55.

Half-wave Dipole Antenna

It is a basic antenna type and finds limited but essential use in satellite
telecommunications.

The near omni-directional property of the dipole (radiates in all directions except
along the dipole axis itself) finds use in telemetry and command signals to and from
the satellite. This communication is essential during the launch phase, when highly
directional antennas cannot be deployed. It is during this time that half-wave dipole
antennas, or one of its variants, are used to maintain communications.

TYPES OF TOWERS:
There are three types of towers which are commonly refereed as GSM standard
towers. They are:

1. Ground Base Towers

2. Roof Top Towers
3. Roof Top Poles

Ground Base Towers:

GBT height ranges from 30 meters to 60 meters and above
BSNL towers are up to 80 to 90meters.

Roof Top Tower:

RTT height ranges from 12meter to maximum 27 meters
There is a GSM standard that the towers cannot be out of this range on the roof.
ROOF TOP POLE:
RTP are used when the height of the site over the roof is required from 3 to 9 meters.
Poles are placed at the corners of the Roof so that the antennas can serve in the
desired cluster.

There is staderded way representing the height of the tower when we reach on the site
The standered is:
For GBT
 1) Note down the type of tower i.e .GBT
2) Note down the height of the Total tower.
3) Note down the heath of 3 GSM antennas.
4) Note down the AGL(Average ground level) which define the height of GSM
antenna from ground level.
For RTT
1) Note down the type of tower i.e .RTT
Note down the building height.
2) Note down the height of the Total tower.
3) Note down the heath of 3 GSM antennas.
4) Note down the AGL (Average ground level) = Building height + GSM Antenna
height
For RTP
1) Note down the type of tower i.e .RTP
2) Note down the building height.
3) Note down the height of the Total tower.
4) Note down the heath of 3 GSM antennas.
5) Note down the AGL(Average ground level) = Building height + GSM Antenna
height or Pole height.

TYPES OF Sites:
Macro Site
Micro Site
IBS(In Build Systems)
MCL(Mini Cell Layer)
Wall Mount
Macro Site:
Macro Site is commonly refered as Full site i.e. it consists of 3 sectors which cover in
360 direction. These sites are established when the coverage is required in all 3
directions’

Limitations of Macro-cellular
In the initial steps of a conventional cellular network, deployments are
implemented to provide coverage over a wide geographical area. It is advantageous
for the operator to make these cells as large as possible in order to keep infrastructure
costs to a minimum. As the mobile usage increase, operators look to provide more
specific coverage and capacity focused on subscriber requirements.
The density of subscribers supported is a function of frequency allocation,
frequency re-use patterns and propagation distances. As the number of subscribers,
and subsequently the traffic requirements increase, operators are required to reduce
cell size to increase capacity. This is a typical situation in a large urban area. Initially
the capacity increase is achieved through sectorisation and then through 'cell splitting'
(sites with reduced coverage). This restriction of propagation is achieved using
'downtilted' antenna systems. These methods still require the use of expensive rooftop
locations and suffer from interference problems as a consequence of the difficulties to
predict the propagation patterns. Macrocells cannot provide the coverage and capacity
performance required by the future cellular networks.
As capacity requirements increase within digital cellular networks, cell sizes
are reduced at a rapid rate. The number of cells required increases until a saturation
point is reached when the available frequency resource and the physical location of
equipment limits what can be achieved with traditional cell planning techniques.

Additional cells are also deployed to meet increased coverage needs,

particularly as the use of handportables increases the expectation of the subscriber and
extends the areas of cellular operations to within buildings. Although macrocells can
be used to provide in-building coverage, the quality of coverage achieved does not
meet subscribers expectations.
Smaller cells also begin to stretch frequency re-use rules and the ability of
locating carriers in close proximity to each other. Adjacent channel and co-channel
criteria are stretched in the small cell environment, the ability to meet GSM specified
levels are severely tested and restrict what can be achieved without significant
degradation of network performance.
These operational limitations restrict the minimum radius of a macrocell to
about 500m, which is not small enough to meet the capacity and coverage
requirements of dense urban networks.
Micro-cells

A “micro-cells' is defined as “a cell in which the base station antenna is

generally mounted below rooftop level. Radio wave propagation is determined by
diffraction and scattering around buildings, the main rays propagating within street
canyons.”

RF Signal

Figure 1: Street Canyon propagation effect

Micro-cells typically have a radius of 150-300 metres and exhibit transmission

behaviour, which differs from conventional large or small cells. Propagation is
primarily “line of sight” and radio path loss increases sharply as the receiver moves
out of sight of the transmitter (i.e. as you turn a street corner).

Micro-cells differ greatly from the conventional macrocell, which provides

'umbrella' coverage over a wide area, by providing focused coverage and capacity
over all or part of the macrocell coverage area. Micro-cells offer improved
propagation properties, experience less severe fading and effectively provide
increased logical bandwidth resulting in a lower level of error transmission at high bit
rates. Micro-cells also require lower transmision powers than conventional
macrocells.

In the Vendor A multi-layer network approach, a complete micro-cellular

network is deployed under the existing macro cell network. Cells of different sizes are
overlaid, and base stations with different transmit power levels co-exist in close
proximity.

The wide coverage area with high powered macro cells is considered as the
Overlay network. The macro cells will provide wide coverage and act as a "safety
net" for mobiles moving between micro-cellular areas. The low powered micro-cells
which are installed within the high traffic areas of the network can be considered as
the Underlay network.
Through the right choice of the micro-cells site locations, an improved and
flexible coverage may be provided, increasing the capacity through tighter frequency
re-use and smaller cell sizes. This is possible due to the street canyon effect
dominating the RF propagation. With a proper location of the antennae (6 metres to
2/3 the height of the building) the coverage provided is constrained by the
surrounding buildings and the re-use pattern can be much tighter as the inter-micro
interference can be controlled.

Re-use patterns of 3 x 1 (three frequency sets for the whole two carriers
system) have been implemented in some systems over the entire micro-cellular
portion of the network, by making use of the flexibility VendorA’s software provides.
Capacity figures over 300 erlangs/km2 have been achieved without any degradation in
the quality of service offered.

Vendor A Micro-cellular System : Benefits

The main goal of a Layered System is to solve the capacity problems of a

network through a much more flexible and tighter re-use of the available frequencies
in the lower layers. The location of the low-level (underlay) sites will be determined
by the capacity and traffic requirements, providing the capacity where it is needed.
The way Vendor A has implemented its Layered System is extremely flexible as
multiple layers can be defined in the system such as umbrella, macrocell, micro-cells,
minicell, concentric cell or picocell layers.
 The main reason operators have decided to implement a Micro-cellular
Layered System is to solve their capacity requirements, thereby increasing the quality
of service offered to their customers. In addition, there are other benefits gained with
the deployment of a Micro-cellular Network:

• Controlled Coverage

Controlled coverage is inherent to a micro-cellular system, therefore the

interference generated is also controlled. Further, the flexibility of locating micro-
cells in areas of high traffic permits capacity to be tailored to non-homogenous traffic
distributions.

• In-building coverage

Improved in-building coverage is provided even if the antennas are externally

located. Apart from the high signal levels provided outdoors, the penetration loss to
in-building areas will be less when the incidence angle is close to perpendicular. The
smaller the coverage area of the micro-cells, the more perpendicular the incidence
angles will be and, therefore, the smaller the penetration loss.

• Immunity to fading

In a micro-cellular system the subscribers located in the streets will be in the

line-of-sight (LOS) from the antenna. In this scenario, the fading experienced in the
received signal will approximate a Rician distribution. This is much smoother than the
Rayleigh distribution which governs the fading in a standard Macro-cellular System.
Further, when the incidence angle of a micro-cells in an in-building area is close to
perpendicular, the fading will be also be smoother.

• Reduction in mobile tx power

As the received signal levels will typically be high in a micro-cellular network,

the mobile will be transmitting with low power values. This has two immediate
effects: less interference radiated in the uplink and extended battery life of the
subscriber’s mobiles.

• Introduction of Picocellular concept

If total in-building coverage is essential (e.g. strategic buildings), internal

antennas may be located within the building itself. These ‘picocells’ may use the same
micro-cellular software as it has been designed to facilitate this scenario.

Deciding Antenna height

Antenna-Tower height

In order to arrived at tower height for the given sites to estabilish LOS radio
link, following steps will be followed:

• From survey maps or digital terrain files/data bases determine and plot
the path profile

• Add to this profile the terrain cover i.e. all details of trees, tall
buildings ,hills, towers and metallic structures, lake/river/water path
etc.

• Calculate the earth bulge (modified for worst case refraction) and add
this to the profile. So now elevations of all the points have been
increased by the earth bulge factor.

• Calculate the required Fresnel zone clearance along the path. Add this
to the profile. Normally, FZ clarance required will be maximum at the
center of path. However, it is essential to apply it all along the path.
The first Fresnel zone is defined as thelocus of points where
d3 – (d1 + d2) = λ / 2 . This equation describes an ellipse, but for practical
applications the radius F1 may be approximated by the formula

Earth bulge

• Select antenna heights to ensure LOS clearance along the path. Here, after
calculating height of tower, draw the beam connecting two antennas, and again
chack for the clearance criteria.
• Examine path for possible reflection points (check for all possible values of
‘k’. It is advisable to select the path without reflection point present.
• Examine the path for severe value of K also. This will give the worst
probability of outage due to change in atmosphere and there byreducing
clearnces.
 • Adjust antenna heights to optimally position the reflections points (if possible)
or consider diversity

Typical

Typical Path Profile

A path survey can be undertaken by visiting sites and observing that the path is clear
of obstruction. It is imporatnat to make note of potential future interruptions to the
path such as tree or foliage growth, future building plans, nearby airports and
subsequent flight-path traffice, and any other transient traffic considerations. Many
operators now specialized video products to assist in path surveys.

The line of sight from the antenna at A to the antenna at B must clear each point on
this raised ground profile by atleast the reuired fraction of a Fresnel zone (Often 0.6
F1). TO achieve free space propagation conditions at the median value of K. and to
control the additional which can occur at the lowest expected value of K.

For heavy route, clearance criteria is 100% F1 @ K=4/3 and 30% F1 @ K=2/3. In this
case, 100% F1 criteria control the clearance at the end of the path. Where as, 30% F1
@ K=2/3, criteria controls the clearance in the central region. However is maximum
should be considerd.

Some of the clearance criteria as used in many telecom systems are:

• The maximum First Fresnel Zone Clearance for K=1.33 shall be 100% for
main antennas.
• The maximum First Fresnel Zone Clearance for K=0.67 shall be 60% for main
antennas
• The maximum First Fresnel Zone Clearance for K=1.33 shall be 60% for
diversity antennas
• The maximum First Fresnel Zone Clearance for K=0.67 shall be 60% for
diversity antennas

Take a minimum of 15 m as the minimum obstruction on the entire path.

This is to be applied over all physical objects all along the path. It is not possible to
specify a rigid set of clearance criteria, which will work under all conditions on all
path. The minimum clearance criteria would be 60 F1 at K=4/3 and all other values of
K should be checked on path for losses with the thermal fade margin.
The excessive tower heights on the path may lead to multipath propagation and in turn
behavior of link.
The reliability of radio link will tend to be higher if you back off the deistance from
the maximum which is dictated by the normal radio horizon. Not that you shouldn’t
try and stretch the limits when the need arises, but a link, which has optical clearance,
is preferable to one which doesn’t. It’s also a good idea to build in some margin to
allow for fading due to unusal propagation situations, and allow as much clearance
from obstacles along the path as possible., For short-range links, the effects of
reraction can usually be ignored.

Software Tools for Propagation Prediction

Although there isd no substitute for experience and acquiring a “feel”for radio
propagation, computer programs can make the job of predicting radio link
performance a lot easier. They are particularly handy for exploring “what it
“scenarios with different paths, antenna heights,m etc.

Gloabal Mapper 10 is one of the software tools being used widely in MW radio
propagation analysis.

Line of Sight survey process

It is essential to know the constraint associated with the LOS survey scope that can be
categorize as time consuming factors, in descending order, as :

Site survey considerations

Site survey may seem to be an ordinary and routinary task as part of the
implementation process of a cellular network. Simple it may seem, but the whole
story will be as complicated as one can think of in the long run. There is a lot of
considerations in conducting site surveys and these require a lot of knowledge and
understanding to successfully conduct one.

Someone who wish to conduct site survey must have a thorough understanding of the
system to be implemented and how the system will work. This draws particular
attention on the aspects of radio wave propagation, air interface, equipment
configurations and functionalities, antenna systems and structural regulations just to
name a few.

Other considerations may include aspects such as knowledge in the use of the
planning tool (EET), familiarity of the place, multi-lingual - which is a good
advantage and some coordination skills.

Not just anybody can jump in to perform site survey especially when the project is a
fast track and meeting a tough deadline. The job requires some of the most
experienced surveyors to make sure the sites to be installed are on their right places
doing the right things. The surveying stage must be done exactly right for the first
time. Otherwise, it will incur delays and entails more cost on the project.

Instruments for site surveys

Actual site surveys may require only a few pieces of instruments, but anything may
happen while the surveyor is on the site. This will leave the surveyor little or no
option to get the things needed. As much as possible, all needed instruments must
always be ready for site survey activities. This may imply packing everything in a
very appropriate manner so as not to hamper the surveyor’s mobility while on the
field. Checklist of survey equipment is as follows:

Checklist:
 • Digital Camera min 2Mpixel (extra memory card min
128Mb and extra batteries) or a Video camera
• GPS (with correct map datum setting)
• Maps
• Compass
• Inclinometer
• 10 or 50 meter tape measure
• Site survey document
• Computer
• Binoculars
• Office materials
• Safety equipment - Mast climbing equipment
• Gloves
• EET prediction plots (if available)

A complete site survey checklist can be found

COMPASS

This is the most common and most used tool of the surveyor. When it is not available,
the surveyor may not be able to perform a complete site survey. The compass
indicates the bearing of a certain direction referred from a particular point. Normally,
the tip of the pointer is directed to the magnetic north. As the compass is moved, the
compass scale will rotate around the fix reference marker to indicate the bearing.

Steel case
W
Scale

Eye-piece S N
 E
Lace
Hook

Figure 1. A typical handy and sturdy compass used for site surveys.

Use of this tool is very easy and straight forward. However, care must be taken when
using the compass in order to accurately define a direction. The pointer of the
compass is a magnetic material, it must be kept away from metallic structures (i.e.
towers, metal water tanks, and others) within the immediate vicinity when taking a
direction or bearing.

Methods of taking antenna direction

Back azimuth

If clearance from metallic structures is not possible, back azimuth technique could be
applied. First, determine the opposite or counter bearings of the antenna bearings
using equations 1 or 2. Move the compass around the proposed site to a clear area,
approximately 50 m away from the site, until the counter bearings are found. Take
note of the clear areas as reference points and mark them on the map or sketch. Please
see Figure 2.

Example, if the antenna bearing is 0 or 360 degrees, the counter bearing should be 180
degrees. It is simply done by adding or subtracting the antenna bearing by 180
degrees.

Counter bearing = antenna bearing (value is ≤ 180 deg.) + 180 Equation 1

Counter bearing = antenna bearing (value is ≥ 180 deg.) - 180 Equation 2
 Compass is here Reference point (clear area)
approx. 50 m away

Antenna bearing
(0 degree) Counter bearing
(180 degrees)

Road

0 degree antenna
location

Proposed site location

(building with metallic obstructions on top)

Figure 2. Method of taking bearing by back azimuth technique.

Using this technique may require two people, one on the site and one moving around
with the compass and taking the readings.

Using landmarks

One of the most accurate methods to determine antenna directions is by the use of
appropriate location map showing roads and buildings as it is independent of
magnetic deviation. The antenna directions could be laid on the map using an angle
measuring tool such as a protractor to help determine landmarks (buildings, towers,
roads, open fields, etc.) to be used as references. When on site, it will be easier to
locate where antennas must be directed through the help of the reference landmarks.
The compass could be used to further check on the antenna directions.

90° technique

From the figure below, take the reading of direction X by sighting through the back of
the antennas using the compass. Assuming all the antennas are oriented in the same
direction, add or subtract the reading of direction X by 90°. The result would
eventually be the direction of the antennas.

Antenna direction

Antennas

Direction X

Figure 3. Bearing measurement using 90 degree technique.

This technique is usually applied to check on the direction of installed antennas. As a

practice, the acceptable error for antenna direction must be within ± 5°.

POSITIONING

Map datum

Map datum is a mathematical description of the earth or part of the earth that is
necessary to correctly assign real-world coordinates to points on a map or chart. Since
each datum is based on different assumptions and measurements, a position calculated
in one datum can differ by 600 meters or more from the same position calculated in
another datum.

Therefore, it is very important to set the GPS equipment to the correct map datum.
The map datum used should be the same as the one used for the digitized map in EET.
Also, if in case the paper map has a different map datum, it should be noted as well.

GPS instrument

GPS stands for Global Positioning System. The GPS instrument receives information
from signals sent from the satellites. In order to derive accurate coordinates of a
location (usually termed as position fix or waypoint), the GPS must be placed in
unobstructed location to sight as many satellites as possible. At least four satellites
must be obtained to get accurate readings assuming correct map datum is set properly
into the GPS. Aside from a fix, the GPS usually provides other information used for
navigating depending on the type of GPS being used. An example of good GPS type
is shown below.

GPS receiving antenna

Figure 4. A GPS receiver unit with multi-function feature (Courtesy of Magellan

Systems Corporation).
GPS features differ from one type to the other and it might be good to have one with
required functionalities for site survey. Full-featured GPS is not necessarily the best
unit for site survey. Features such as battery saver, very user-friendly, route tracking
capability, large waypoint log, vast map datum database, multiple coordinate system
and time-and-date stamp are some of the basic functionalities needed. Such things are
usually defined in the GPS manual. The manual also describes detailed operation of
the GPS.

In wide-scale surveying where more than one team will perform surveys, it is a good
practice to have only one type of GPS equipment for each team. Site hunters must
also have the same GPS type as the survey teams. This will set standard results and
avoid confusions in later site verifications.

GPS procedures

Waypoint list

Before going out for site surveys, make sure that all the nominal coordinates of the
sites to be visited for the day are logged in to the waypoint list with corresponding site
names or IDs. It would be quicker, once on site, to determine if the site is off grid or
not by simply comparing the logged nominal coordinates with the actual coordinates
read on site. Likewise, take readings of site coordinates even if the site seems to be
rejected on the first visit. The saved coordinates will be used for future site
verifications.

Waypoint tracking - nominal

In some GPS, it is possible to track down the location of the nominal site. This
function is recommended for site hunters to get as close as possible to the nominal
site. It is simply done by logging in the nominal coordinates of a site into the
waypoint list and the actual waypoint will automatically be set as the moving
waypoint. The two waypoints (nominal and moving) must be displayed on the
appropriate page or screen. Some GPS, however, may not have the said screen. Track
back by moving the GPS around until the moving waypoint is very close to the
nominal waypoint, as will be shown on the screen. Scale on the screen can be changed
to zoom in or zoom out to see the distance between the waypoints. Other techniques
can also be done for tracking.

GPS antenna

Nominal waypoint 1404

Moving waypoint WPT1

Figure 5. Example of tracking for the nominal site using the GPS.

Similarly, getting as close to the nominal site could be achieved by using an

appropriate map. The nominal site can be marked on the map then find a building
structure nearest to the nominal location.

Batteries

If a number of sites are to be visited in a day, be sure to activate the battery saver
function of the GPS or even better to bring extra batteries. Normally, battery level is
indicated on the GPS display to know if the batteries are weak or not. Make sure that
battery level is always high. Weak batteries tend to cause inaccurate reading of
coordinates from the satellites or it will take longer period to obtain a waypoint.

DIGITALCAMERA

The camera will be used to take photos of the sites to be surveyed. The photos will
show surroundings of the site, exact locations of the antennas and BTS cabinets,
immediate obstructions, site ID and outlook of the building.

When conducting site surveys, always keep sufficient supply of memory cards and
rechargeable batteries. A handy, quality and auto-focus camera is preferable for site
surveys because it will not require complex operation and focusing. Canon provides
compact user-friendly cameras that have built in functions for panoramic photos. The
camera should have a minimum 2 Mpixel raw resolution and a 128 Mb memory card
to support 4 to 5 sites and minimum one extra rechargeable battery.

The availability of a digital camera would be a good advantage because pictures taken
on site can be interfaced directly into the computer as files. The picture files can also
be easily included as attachments to the reports and can be sent through e-mail to the
main office. This is especially convenient if the surveyor is far from the main office.

Panoramic view

In site surveys, it is a must to take the panoramic view around the site. The panoramic
view will show the type of clutter on the surrounding environment including existing
and upcoming obstructions. This will also picture the actual situation of the site for
the benefit of other planners and decision makers who have not been to the site.
Similarly, it will show the directions where the antennas will be pointing. This can be
done by inserting corresponding markings such as sticking fingers out or pointing the
compass as superimposed in the photos.

It is always a practice to identify the north direction in the panoramic view. This is
usually done by tilting the camera vertically when taking the north direction and
tilting it back horizontally for the rest of the view, see Figure 6a. Another method is to
point a compass towards north and take the picture which includes the compass,
Figure 6b.

Normally, it only takes 9 to 10 shots for a complete panoramic view. See Appendix 2.
Which means that an auto-focus camera has a normal capture angle of 36 to 40
degrees. However, there are cases where taking a panoramic view at a single point is
not possible. This makes taking photos very irregular and may take more shots to
complete a panoramic view.

When taking photos, the camera eye window must be positioned approximately side
by side as shown in Figure 6. This will make post processing of photos easier.

Camera eye window

 positions

North South North

(a) Panoramic view with only 5 shots represented.

Compass (picture-imposed)

North South North

(b) Panoramic view with only 3 shots represented.

Figure 6. Methods of taking the north direction in a panoramic view.

VIDEO CAMERA

A video camera is an excellent tool to be used in site surveys. The video camera can
provide better and more accurate information about a site since the surveyor can
orally describe the site while taking and recording the surrounding environment,
location of antennas, location of RBS’s, building description, and others.
RANGE FINDER

A range finder (distance meter) is very useful to get precise distance to obstacles to
get reliable measurements the range should be minimum 200m with a resolution of
1m. A range finder with built in In-clinometer is preferable because exact height of
obstacles is possible to measure from the preferred antenna position.

MEASURING TAPE

This tool is used to measure distances or heights. It can be used independently or

along with the clinometer for height measurements. When used independently, height
measurements can be performed by stretching out the tape from the top of the
building to down below the ground. This is possible if the tape is longer than the
building height. If not, use it together with the clinometer.

CLINOMETER

A clinometer is a more convenient tool for measuring heights. Measurements can be

done on the ground or near the base of a structure. Height measurements can be
performed by combination of distance and angle measurements coupled with
trigonometric calculation. Methods are discussed as follows:

• Establish an exact distance; say 20 meters, from the

base of the structure or building outwards to a clear
space using a measuring tape. Make sure that the space
selected have no passing vehicles.

• Stand at the end of the tape - 20 meters from the base of

the building.

• Hold the clinometer on the right eye. With both eyes

opened, project the view upwards at the topmost or
apex of the building. Take the reading of the angle on
the eye-piece of the clinometers.
 • Calculate the building height using formula and by
referring to Figure 7.

Buildings

h1

d = 20 m h2

Figure 7. Height measurement using clinometer.

Calculations:

Building height = h2 + d tan ∝

Equation 3

where: h2 = height of surveyor’s eye level, in meters

∝ = angle read from the clinometer, in degrees
d = established distance using measuring tape, in meters

LOS Process

It is essential to know the constraint associated with the LOS survey scope:

1. Travel between sites

2. Contingency
3. Access
4. Survey
5. Weather

Travel

Travel is time consuming in any field works. Travel can be very time consuming
when in some strange city, unfamiliar to both the office-based planner, and the field
surveyor. Often this will result in requests for short LOS surveys, great distances
apart. And key surveys will often be prioritized at short notice, resulting in much of
the day spent in traveling.

Contingency

Los Survey plans go out the window the moment something goes wrong. This could
be as simple as a pucture, a traffic hold-up, stopped by the police, a punctured ballon,
a vehicle breakdown, or someone sick. In every case, there is little chance-up with the
original plan unless this was planned for at the start.
The solution is to try and have spare equipment capacity, and people, available. In
very large projects it may be down to the field survey manager to replan on reduced
number of crews for the day after the contingency occurs. Our problem is that we
seldom have the luxury of bidding competitively with any spare capacity built-in our
price. We are seeing increased expamles of people bidding at silly prices where we
know it will not be possible to complete the task in a time scale which known but not
specified in the tender documents. Our attitude is tender at the price for the job which
ahs to be done in the time scale.

Access

The time-to-access a site is the product of local culture. It is vital to make an

appointmen t for a specific time. A few minutes late and the access provider will have
left site, conmplained to management, and you have to leave the pre-arranged surveys
for another day. Try and fix a time for a site visit. The time taken to survey is more
dependent on th fortuitous Travel and Contingency factors( above) than anything else.

Survey

Most LOS survey only take a few minutes to complete when everyone is a site, and
when there is clear LOS between ends. Where there is no LOS, it can be very time
consuming to prove no LOS, particularly for shot links in unfamiliar cities.

Good, experienced, surveyors will know there is no LOS in a very short time in
minutes perhaps. They then have to spend the next hour or so justifying their
conclusion that there is no LOS. They might have to drive the path to find the
obstruction.

It is waste of survey time to get surveyors to prove no LOS; it does not add to the
completion of the whole project. Proving no LOS is usually done because
Transmission Planning do not want to hear there is no LOS over particular key routes.
A lack of trust between the office and the field results in a massive waste of valuable
time.
Weather

Weather will only affect LOS returs when there is no flexibility built into survey
plans. With even the very quickest of survey turn-round requirements, it should be
possible with good planning to build in enough slack so than in periods of poor
visiability it is possible to undertake only very short surveys.

Survey Report:

Check at site visit

The purpose of the site visit is to collect and record(on the spot) all data that may have
an influence on the installation engineering and the site preparation and to make a
report that will be the basis for an agreement on the confirmed Sysytem Design. The
following actions should be taken on site:

• Fill in the address/location in the checklist

• Locate the site on the map
• Check that the allocated space is sufficient
• Make a sketch of the premises/rooftop including existing structures, and take
measurements
• Indicate the north direction on the sketch
• Select a location for the RBS equipment
• If the RBS is to be located indoors, make a floor plan sketch and indicate north
on the sketch.
• Note heights of buildings
• Make a sketch of any exisiting tower
• Take measurements of tower legs, distance between legs, and height. Try to
establish a suitable antenna location and note measurements of the tower at the
location.
• Measure location of exisiting antennas
• Find cable paths and check cable ladders, ducts, and trays
 • Measure the length of the cable way for antennas cables
• Find out fro where tha mains power can be supplied and if it has capacity for
the increased load
• Investigate from where the transport network can be brought into the site
• Make a sketch of the layout of the earthing system and lightning protection
system.
• Take photographes to back up the notes.

The survey shall determine exact site coordinates, ground elevations, site layouts,
terrain elevations and terrain obstructions for each of the microwave paths. A
complete microwave path survey report shall be prepare based upon the data collected
concerning eachj of the microwave paths. The survey report shall conisit of several
sections,which detail the findings of the microwave field survey.

The first section shall consists of an introduction defining the basic purpose of the
survey and any design considerations, which were taken into account at the time of
the physical survey.

The second section of the report shall consists of a system description, which will
detail th microwave system configuration. Included will be a path-by-path listing of
the site coordinates, frequency bands to be used, required antenna centerlines, antenna
sized, nominal receive levels, fade margins and multipath availability. Each of the
microwave paths will be discussed as to the terrain features along the path and the
clearance criteria used for the path.

The third section of the report shall include all site information collected in the field.
The data provided will consists of Topographic map details, site layout diagrams,
floor plans and site photographs.

All microwave path profiles shall be included in the fourth section of the report. Each
of the profiles will indicate the terrain data from the Topographic maps, obstructions
measured in the field, antenna centerlines and signal clearances over the controlling
terrain.
The fifth section of the report shall contain all the calculations for each microwave
path. This section will detail the microwave equipment analyzed, path performance
calculations, reflection losses, diffraction losses and rainfall analysis where required.
The path performance calculations shall indicate the equipment used for the anlysis,
antenna centerlines required, transmission line and losses for each site, antenna sizes,
and nominal receive levels, fade margins and multipath availability.

The last section of the report shall provide a spreadsheet analysis of the system. This
analysis will include a listing of the recommended equipment to be sued at each site
as well as a summary of the per path performance.

In order to complete the final reportm the minimum following infroamtion is must:

• Radio Type (power output, MHBS, Forward Error Correction, Space

Diversity, Frequency Diversity, etc.)
• Frequency Band
• Antenna Size
• Cable Type
• Frequency Channel
• Final Routing Diagram
• Path calculations
• Tower profile to indicate antenna heights
• Rack Profile
• Floor Plan
• Radio installation information
• Power Consumption
• Growth Consideration

Following describes some of the survey process to establish coverage and LOS among
many other methods
A check of the path profiles, indicating information gathered by walking the path;
plus a check to ensure the available antenna positions were sufficiently high to clear
near-field obstructions, were all that was needed for confidence. Many links have
been installed on this engineering basis

If you consider that a two-storey residential house is about nine meters high, and
1:500 000 top o maps/survey of India show controls at 10m intervals, it is evident,
that for a flat path, a path profile can quickly become no more than a first-guess.

Tree are typically 10-25m tall, occasionally 30m or more, and are difficult to measure
without access to spot. For 1:25 000 topo maps, contours are at five meter intervals,
and are an improvement, although more difficult to use in the manual production of
path profiles.

Path profiles over built-up areas can be even less of a help. A seven storey office
block, typical of many centers, is 21-25m high. Futhermore, contour information can
be difficult to extract from maps for built-up areas Today, very good computer
programmes, some using topographic databases, are available to overcome many of
the foregoing problems.

A field visit is still necessary in most cases. Often this will involves only simple
checks from each end. For a relatively small number of links, more detailed surveying
is required. Increasingly, the possibility of putting in a link is being considered, where
LOS is not immediately apparent from map or computer studies.

The first lamp and Theodolite were regularly carried out. In a Lamp and Theodolite
LOS survey, a lamp is used to mark one end, with the theodolite at the other end of
the link.

This method has the advantage of eliminating most of the inaccurate path information.
Ground information of interest is now referenced to the minimum height for line-of-
sight between the ends of the link.
Points in the centre of a path can be measured by doing 2 Los surveys from different
tower heights

The development of monochrome infra-red CCTV LOS swurvey systems, mobile-

mast or existing-tower mounted, with remote control from ground level, which have
speeded up the time taken for LOS Surveys, and increased the engineering confidence
in the result.

More importantly, this can now be done in comfort from ground level, with the CCTV
camera mounted at the intended antenna position. The distant antenna position is
usually marked using an IR source, and recorded via a video recorder, making the
survey results very positive.

(A) Photogram metric survey technology that satisfies the demanding line-of-sight
(LOS) requirements of systems.

This innovative technology blends traditionally microwave path survey techniques

with photography and proprietary GIS software. The result is a Survey methodology
that provides system operators the benefits of accurate LOS determinations at
substantial cost savings. The process is flexible, and can be adapted to meet the
specific requirements of the Wireless Carrier. It uses aerial photography and a high
resolution stereoscope to select candidate hub buildings.
An aerial photo site selection report is prepared for each city.
It consist of:

a) A city map showing the proposed serive areas;

b) A street map locating the primary and alternate candidate buildings;
c) An aeirial photo showing the selected building locations;
d) A summary table giving the street location, approximate number of floors and
aerial photo reference for ech candidate building.

The site selection report gives wireless carriers the information they need to
properly assess the coverage( and therefore revenue) potential of candidate sites.

Once a list of candidate buildings has been estabilished, the next step is identify
the two best candidate buildings for each node. Survey team staff is to travel to the
city, and survey the roofs of the short-listed buildings to confirm engineering
suitability and horizon photos from the proposed antenna locations. In just a few
hours, with only one trip to the roof, all the data required to undertake a complete
LOS analysis and deploy the last mile is to be gathered. A preliminary Survey
Report each surveyed building should be prepared cosisiting of:

a) Photos of buiding and rooftop details;

b) The 28mm lens horizon photos for each hub surveyed;
c) A location and preliminary shadow map for each candidate site showing
blockage sectors caused by buildings , hills, etc. The preliminary survey report
assists the wireless carrier with leasing hub buildings that offer the best LOS
visibility characteristics.

The LOS viewer software enables the user to make angular measurements on the
horizon photo images, similar to what could be achieved with a surveyor’s transit set
up at the hub. Used in conjunction with the coverage study database, the LOS viewer
allows the user to see correlating views of a building on a horizon photo and an
othophoto all via a point-and-click process
The LOS process on the roof, the field engineer takes measurements of the rooftop,
and documents its prominent features. GPS and other survey data are recorded. This
information is provided on a rooftop sketech, and includes a precise indiacation of
camera setup and proposed antenna locations. The Engineer also takes a series of
wide and narrow angle photographs of the horizon from each planned antenna
location. The camera sees what the antenna will see, and in this way LOS path
conditions are established. The photographs, in combination with the other survey
data collected, contain all of the information necessary to make complete LOS
determinations at a later date.

The preliminary survey report provides a wide-angle horizon panorama for each
prospective antenna location on the candidate hub building. The panorama include
azimuth reference points.

Typically, the wide-angle panorama is comprised of 28mm photos.

Line of sight from one end-B: Radial Distance is 11kms.

The above method provides;

Accuracy: LOS visibility from the hub antenna location to potential subscriber
buildings is estabilsed by direct observation. The methodology provides the real world
LOS data required for link implementation and is not subject to the errors and
limitations of computer analysis using 3D building database models.

Implementation Tool: LOS viewer and calinbrated phots can be directly used for
planning system design and implementation, and permit viewing of real world LOS
condition on any terrestrial path from the hub.

Large Scale Blockages: A shadow map is presented on an orthopoto showing the

areas where buildings, terrain, etc. block visibility, i.e., the map showa areas that
cannot be served from this hub location.
Scale Reference Tool: Hub visibility coverage maps are presented as a series of
othophoto grid maps showing street names and footprints of buildings with LOS
visibility. The grid maps provide a ready reference for sales staff, identifying potential
customer buildings that can be served from this hub location.

View Correlation and Proper Placement of Subsicriber Antenna:

The LOS viewer quickly shows correlation between aerial and horizon views. This
permits the easy identification of viable locations for mounting the subscriber antenna
prior to visiting the client site.

RF Interference Sources: Paths to RF interference sources can be viewed on the

horizon photos by inputting their site co-ordinate (latitude, longitude and elevation
AMSL).

Use with RF interference programs: LOS coverage study data can be used to generate
an exportable 3D database of LOS buildings fro use with RF interference programs.

RF path surveys-which is also describved the process as:

Perform RF path surveys in order to verify wireless path analyses.Information

provided in the suvey report is gathered from in-office calculations, map studies, and
field survey work in which verifies;

• Site Locations
• Existing Tower Heights
• Existing Antenna Heights
• Torque Arm Locations
• Guy wire points
• Height of path obstructions
• Location & Ground cover at
• Suspected path Reflection
Differential Global Positioning satellites (DGPS) or Post processed GPS readings
verifies tower locations. This ensures accuracies to within a couple of meters
horizontally. If precise locations are required, uses standard surveying techniques to
determine exact latitude and longitude, coordinates. Site elevations , tower heights,
appurtenances, path elevation at critical points, and path obstructions are determine
using standard leveling techniques, alser distance measuring devices and hand-held
inclination measurement equipment. Indicated as part of the report the type of terrain
over which the path traverses, vegetation and obstructions along the path, suspected
reflections points (If any) and other pertinent factors which may effect propagation or
system performance. Also provides recommendations regarding antenna placement on
tower layout drawings, detailed site information, topographical maps of the sites,
picturesd, profiles and reliabilyt calculations, terrain elevation data, and other data
that is pertinent to the system.

Typical tools being used in Survey

• Digital Transits/Theodolite
• Hankd0Held inclinometers
• Laser Distance Measurement Devices
• DGPS or Post Processing GPS receivers
• Computer Based Topographicla maps integrated with GPS unit
• Pentium Laptop Computers
• Digital Photographic Equipment
• Sceintific Calculators

Site selection and planning

There are economical and engineering benefits to be gained by maximizing sharing

infrastructure and sites between the various typoes of elements in the network,
particularly ad regards expensive civil infrastructure such as towers and equipment
housings. Therefore it si always critical when selecting sites that no specific network
element is considered in isolation. There are a number of specific items to bear in
mind in the cse of microwave radio fixed links. Good microwaves sites, particularly in
relation to hub sites, will be relatively high points to give maximum line-of-sight
availability.

If at all possible, share any towers or poles required between the wireless or cellular
equipment and the microwave fixed link outdoor equipment. Likewise, indoor
equipment can be housed in the same equipment shelters and should be planned
accordingly. Power requirements can be planned on this basis.

Required loading needs to be calculated if new tower installations are proposed, and
these must take account of antenna wind and ice loading. If a new terminal is being
added to an exisiting tower, calcuaotions are required ensures the increment loading
can be accommodated within the tower specifications.

When considering cable routing, bear in mind the separation distances between the
indoor unit and RF unit in addition to the distance between the RF unit and antenna.
Additionally, distances between the indoor unit and any other collected network
should be evaluated.

If a site is in a rural or remote area, the service access should always be considered,
particularly in times of inclement weather. Attention should be given to access to
tower mounted elements, both in relation o the weather and to the experience and
qualifications of the maintenance staff.

Attention should be given to future growth requirements in all areas, especially if the
site is likely to develop into future hub. It is good practice to inform landowners of
any potential future growth to prevent problems at a later date.

If a site is unstable, alternative sites should be located, or alternative transmission

plans made. This information should be fed back into the network plan as it can affect
microwave routing and path planning.
How to esatbilsh the quality of LOS?

The best principles of quality control, as applicable to line-of-sight surveys is to go

back and look at the originals LOS survey again, maybe years after the event, find out
where the survey was done from and to, who was present at which site, how the
survey was carried out, see what the report nsaid at this time, and what we should do
to ensure we do not make a similar mistake again. This is quality control vis
‘Traceability”.
Survey equipment to be carried by individual LOS Surveyors

Maps

Every LOS survey crew should be in possession of a set for the area in which they are
working, with the required path survey requirements marked with a permanent black
line and showing link or survey request number. Proven paths should subsequently be
marked with a green highlighter, and failed paths highlighted in red/pink. Such
marked-up maps become part of the QA records process.

Best maps for the task have been shown to be 1,50,000 topographic maps, supported
by the daily task shown on a printout in Map Grid. (Also known as ‘Spidres’). City
Maps are required in some areas, and road maps are useful for getting to site.

Compass
Any experienced and skilled LOS surveyor will treat a compass almost with
contempt. “special Awareness” is a skill gained with experience that renders a
compass superfluous. Any compass is no better than a tool to enable a quick
confirmation of what should already be known. Electricity cables, rooftop structures,
and internal building structure using steel, all affect the local magnetic variation.
Unless that variations is known, reliance on compass reading will lead to survey
results being incorrect. In certain geographical areas, the presence of iron ore in the
ground can result in the compass pointing 180 degrees the wrong way, due to residual
magnetic reversals, during the earths history. The more sophisticated the compass, the
more misleading a tool it can become. A sighting compass with marking to a fraction
of a degree, sometimes known as a marching compass, used where unknown magnetic
variation is present, can be next to useless for LOS surveying. An digital compass is
also available.

“The building we are on is on the South side of the street; the sun is over there and it
is now 10am; the site we looking for is to the NE, so the site we are looking for must
be in this direction. The guys at the other end tell me they are down in clutter but have
a clear view in my direction, so it will take me a few moments to find them bring their
light up”.

Where a building is known to be full of magnetic variation, a special tool consisting

of a square tube of brass or aluminum and fitted with a tripod mount, and aimed, by
sighting down the center of the tube, at a distant known-location, or known landmark,
will provide a reference bearing from which other bearing may be determined using
map and protractor. It is useful for such a tool to be available to a team in-territory.

Compasses get left on rooftops, get stolen or damaged, or simply get left in the car. In
such circumstances, a cheap compass along with a spare is probably the best. A
compass with a built-in protractor, known as an ‘orienteering compass’ is a superb
tool foe LOS. Expensive compasses come with a calibration certificate to one degree,
which is the same calibration stated on the packaging for a “silva” compass. Even the
cheapest compass is generally accurate to one degree.

The compass should be oil-damped and free of bubbles. It should be small enough to
be carried in the pocket without difficulty. It should never be left on top of a television
set, and should be thrown away the first time any problem is found. The SILVA
compass is the preferred tool for most LOS surveyors, but for such a personal item,
individual personal choice should come into play here. Measurement are affected by
following features.

Do not use compass near a metallic body. Level the compass properly.

Place the compass on the ground or some object to reduce the effect of hand
vibrations. Allow the Compass Needle to settle down before talking a reading.

Calculation of Local effect.

Stand at point X, away from the heavy metallic objects.

Take a bearing of an object (Say Point Y) about 100m away. Say this bearing id P.
Go to the pint Y and take a bearing of point X. say this bearing is Q.

The local effect.

180 - |P-Q|

Correction the reading is

(180 -|P-Q|)/2

Example.
Say is P=18◦ and Q=194◦ (It should have been 198, if there is no local effect).
Correction is {180 – (194-18)}/2 =2◦ Correct Bearing of Y, P = 18-2=16◦ Correct
Bearing of X, Q = 196+2= 196◦

AL TIMETER FOR MEASURING AMSL OF SITE

Digital Altimeter can be used to measure the Elevation of a point with 1 – meter
accuracy. However this requires that there be available a reference point called
Bench Mark (BM), the elevation of which is known. These are usually obtained from
1:50,000 topo Maps.

Tools Required

Digital Altimeter Qty. 2

Watch Qty. 2
Scientific Calculator Qty. 2

Altimeter should not be used to measure substantial height differences of more than
100 meters.

The BM and the points where elevation is to be measured should not be far away than
say 5 km. This is to ensure that the rate of change of pressure, temperature and other
atmospheric parameters are identical in both the areas.
Do not keep the altimeter in direct sun light there by avoiding the unnecessary heating
of the altimeter.

Allow the Altimeter to stabilize for a minute before taking a measurement.

During the MAP study phase, co-ordinates and elevation of the BM near the places
whose site elevation are to be determined, should be recorded for ready references.

The co-ordinate helps in reaching the BM, where the field conditions have changed
drastically or it is difficult to recognize the exact place for BM.

In case there is no BM in close proximity of the place of interest, Secondary BM

should be established near the place of interest.

Procedure
This procedure requires two altimeter and two teams say team A and team B. Assume
that we want to measure the elevation of point X and elevation of the nearest available
BM is 731.12Place both the Altimeters on BM and adjust the reading the both
altimeters to show 731 m. synchronize the watch of both the teams. It is agreed that
both the teams will take measurements only when the watch is at 5-minutw points.
This ensures that both the teams are taking measurement at same point in time.

Team A should stay at BM and note the reading of altimeter at 5-minute interval.
Team B goes to the site X notes the reading at 5-minute point and comes back to BM.
The table below should be used to compute the elevation of point X.

Table A: Reading of Team A

Rows & Time Site Altimeter Temperature
column No. Description Reading e
A B C D
1 01:05 PM At Site BM 731 34
731.12
2 01:05 PM 732 34
3 01:15 PM 734 34
4 01:20 PM 732 33
5 01:25 PM 730 32

Table B: Reading of Team B

Rows & Time Site Altimeter Temperatur After After

column Description Reading e Applying Applying
No. e Correction Temperatue
e
Correction
m ◦c M m
P Q R S T U
20 01:05 At site BM 731 34 731
731.12
21 01:11 At site X
PM
22 01:15 At site X 783 32 780 782.39
PM
23 01:18 At site Y
PM
24 01:20 At site Y 685 34 684 679.95
PM
25 01:24 At site BM
PM

Lamps

In a line-of-sight survey, we want to be able to prove we can ‘see’ the distant end,
which may be many kilometers away. Often the distance site is not sufficient visibly
to be recognized even by the best of telescopes.
One way to mark the site is to fire a lamp towards the ‘seeing’ end. A powerful
searchlight/ spot lamps can also be used. Reflector diameters and design of the
reflector had a great effect on range. Hand held 6 volt 50 watt tungsten filament
spotlights resulted in the best LOS survey lamp to date. These yellow-coloured lamps,
with a black rim around a 5”dia reflector, have been proven in thousands of surveys.
one lamp per crew will last all day in a good team, although the continuous hold-up
time is only 20 mins. These lamps are cheap and easily replaced.
For longer (medium) distances, a NAVLAS lamp with an external battery is ideal.
The space for such a lamp includes the requirement to attract attention at 7 Nautical
Miles (not using binoculars) at sea, in most conditions. For long distances an 18”
Francis Searchlight has been used with some surveyors, but are more expensive and
heavier. Otherwise these lamps are very popular.

Aluminium Garden Flood Lights, obtainable from any Garden Supplier, is a very
useful product for LOS surveying. These lamps have a 500 Watt, mains powered,
strip filament. The pattern is wide angle in the horizontal, and somewhat narrower in
the vertical. With the addition of a flasher unit set to “wink-off” at present intervals,
and perhaps a timer to switch off overnight, these lamps can be left behind to save
repeat visit to site, thus freeing-up a crew.

Cameras and Lenses

Cameras are needed during LOS surveys for the following purposes:
• Record “Front Elevations from Street Level” for Reporting (24mm)
• Record potential dafety Hazards at every site (28mm)
• Panoramic photo sets ( 8 X 38/40mm )
• Record “Proof of LOS” by means of photo of a lamp at a distant site (400–600
mm )
Each of these applications, require lenses of different focal lengths, (shown in
brackets above ). Zoom lenses are often considered a cheap alternative to multiple
fixed lenses, but at the expense of quality, in the two latter applications above.
Refractive telephoto lenses always produce something called “chromatic aberration”,
due to the different refraction effect on different colours. The result, in an LOS photo
taken using refractive, or glass, lenses is always a photo, which is of an avoidable
poorer quality than, might otherwise be obtained. The solution is to use
“mirror”lenses, which internally-reflect all colours the same. The result is a better
quality photo. 500mm catadioptic (mirror) lenses are available cheaply from high-
street distributors.
It is often though Digital cameras are ideal for LOS surveying. How ever, not even the
best digital cameras can reproduce the resolution of a “stills”.
Camera. Consider 2 cameras, one digital and one stills, both using the some focal
length lenses, trying to resolve lenses, trying to resolve the same diameter lamp over
the same distance. There comes a point with increasing distance, where the digital
camera is only able to resolve the lamp on a single pixel, whilst the still camera is able
to resolve the lamp on thousands of molecules. A single pixel is generally considered
insufficient, 4 or more pixels are required (ie above noise level) For the pixel to be
resolved on a print, whilst the stills camera can resolve much smaller images.
High-resolution digital camera files, taking many MB/s, are of little use to the field
surveyor, who has report-in from the field, often at 9.6 Kb/s, over a mobile phone?
However, a digital camera does have the advantage of not needing a postal system to
get the photos back to the office. Digital cameras can be timesaving when only short
hops are involved.
Few manufacturers make cameras with electronic remote control these days, and
models change all the time. Remote controls are essential for mast and pole
applications, particularly where it is intended to utilize a rooftop-stub.
Cameras will get damaged and “lost” during surveying. The chosen stills SLR camera
kit should have motor drive with remote control, and be lightweight, cheap as
possible, and easily replaceable in the field. The Canon EOS 5000 has proven to be
ideal, but may need to be updated as models change.

The digital camera finds a use in more-general site photography, and with its ability
to store 30 images on a single floppy disc, is a very useful additional tool for field
survey use, (excluding end-to-end los).

THE ODALITE FOR MEASURING HEIGHT OF DISTANT OBJECT

Theodolite can be used to measure the height of distant object very precisely. This
requires that the distant object should be visible from a reference point whose
coordinate and elevation is known.
This comes in very handy when the critical points on the path cannot be visited as in
case of distant mountain peaks.

Or alternatively, the height of reference point can be measured if the height of the
Distant object is known. This is helpful, when there are no nearby BM’s and some
visible known height hills can be found.

Assumptions

See Fig 1 and Fig 2

Site 1 A
Site 2 B
Reference Point R
Distant Object P
Reference Known Ht Hills X, Y
Distance Between R and P D Km
Elevation of R Hr m
Elevation of P Hp m
Theodolite Height above AGL at R h1 m
P height w.r.t. R h2 m
Horizontal Angle Between RP & X Deg Min Sec

Precautions
The accuracy of the measurement depends on the accuracy of distance between R &
P, resolution of theodolite and the accuracy with which theodolite is balanced.

A theodolite with 20`` resolution is good

D can be calculated, if the coordinates of R & P are known.

When D is more than 1 Km, coordinates of distant object can be taken from SOI topo
maps and the coordinates of R can be obtained with GPS. The expected errors are
very small and can be ignored.
Measuring Ht of Critical point On a slope Of A hill.

Go to some point on LOS using cross Track function of GPS, between Site A and Site
B from where P and some other reference hill peak, say X is visible. This is our
reference point R.

Take coordinate of X from SOI Topo map.

Obtain Approximate Coordinate of p from SOI Topo Map.

Find distance and Azimuth of RX and RP.

Find α by subtracting azimuth RX and RP.

Set Theodolite at R.

Point Theodolite at X.

Zero Horizontal reading on theodolite.

Move telescope horizontally by angle α. Fix the Horizontal movement of theodolite.

Move the telescope in vertical plane so that the cross hair bisects the highest point.
This is our critical point P. Now vertical angle of theodolite is О.

The cross section RP is shown in Fig. 1

Compute Hp as shown below.

Hp=HR+h1+D*1000*tanО-0.0675*D*D

0.0675*D*D is called atmospheric correction factor.

If the height of R is not known it can be calculated using reference hill X, whose
height is known, in the following manner.

Refer to Fig 1 and replace point P by point X in the figure.

Hr=Hp-h1-D*1000*tanО+0.0675*D*D
Poles, Flags, Beacons and Power Supplies

It is often useful to be able to prove LOS only exists at some distance above a
rooftop. The easiest way to do this is for each crew to carry in their vehicle a set of
poles, on which to mount a xenon beacon such as used by the emergency services.
Powered by a motorcycle battery, carried in an ex-mil gas mask case, such
arrangements are quick and simple.Ties-downs are essential for safety. Other
alternatives include a 12m push-up telescopic mast, similarly arranged.

It has been found that the use of a survey flag can speed-up considerably, multiple
surveys to centre site. Contrasting bright colours, on a diagonal, have found to be very
easy to spot. The Union jack is an ideal flag, but can be easily mistaken for a base of
football hooligans, particularly overseas, and is therefore to be used only with care.
Such simple equipment should be carried per crew, and available in the car, at all
times.

INCLINOMETER

Inclinometer can be used to measure the height of an abstacle like Trees, Tower and
building very quickly (less than 5 minutes)

Inclinometer Qty 1.
Measuring Tape, 100 m Qty1.

How to measure:

Decide the highest point on the tree (say P). Go close to the tree and bisect P with
inclinometer. Go backward step by step so that the angel in inclinometer reads 45
Degree. Call this point where you are standing as R.
Find point Q on the ground, which is just below P.Measure distance PQ with
measuring tape. Measure the observers Eye level (where inclinometer is kept) to
ground. Call this h2.

Calculate Of Tree Height.

Tree Height (h1) is

H1-h2+D

Communications

In a cellular roll-out, LOS surveyors will often find themselves working in areas
where cellular converge has yet to be provided. PMR and CB radios are useful in such
circumstances. They can also reduce project costs considerably, when working in
areas with congested cellular coverage; and there is waiting for connection, or having
to use your roaming phone to get a connection.

Water & First Aid Kit

A bottle of boiled water, for use as an eyewash, or for washing hands, should be
carried by all who work on rooftops. Of particular concern are the small cuts to the
hands caused by new galvanized steelworks. Such cuts easily go septic and should be
treated immediately. A small towel is useful. Drinking water is also a must, ina body-
drying environment.
Each LOS surveyor should carry a small first-aid kit at all times. Safety Ropes and
associated Usage equipment.

Ladder
A ladder of at least 3 m length should be carried by each crew accessing sites. The
ideal ladder for the purpose is either of collapsible or telescopic construction, for ease
of transport, and for carrying to where required for use. Failure to carry such a ladder
should be considered an offence under Health and Safety.

Helmet

A Petzel sports helmet should be carried, by all who are likely to want to access
rooftop sites. Access is often little more than a crawl and helmets can be a must. The
addition of a helmet-lamp can be useful.

Boots and Shoes

Boots should not be used on rooftops due to the danger of damaging the surface.
Soft-soled trainers should be used instead.Safety boots should be used at all other
locations.

Clothing

LOS on rooftops can be a very dirty job, and it is not usual to see LOS personnel in
dirty, old, casual clothing, looking like someone who had a vehicle breakdown on the
way to a day out at the beach. Corporate, polo shirts, baseball hats and coveralls
attract a more professional identity.
Some “Greenfield” rooftops are fitted with safety lines at a very early stage, and each
individual should have suitable Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) available, and
with them, at all times. Likewise where existing towers, masts and other structures are
likely to be found. Climbing Certificates should also be carried at all times

Identity Cards

Every LOS Surveyor should wear an identity card at all times. The equipment being
used will at sometime be a cause for concern, and these guys will often be entering
site through premises of a 3rd party. (Would you let someone into your house without
an ID card?)

Letter of Authority

Every LOS Crew should carry a ‘Letter of Authority’, sealed A4 format, in the local
language or languages, addressed and logo from the in-country network operator (or
nearest)stating what their task is, who they are working for, and giving a phone
number for confirmation. Such a letter can save the arrest or detention of LOS staff.

Reporting
Reporting should be hand-written on a proformas s before leaving site. To this end
smiple proformas should be available to all LOS surveyors, at all times.
More detailed reporting is best undertaken on return to accommodation in the field
and after photos have been developed and printed. To this end each LOS surveyor
should have his own laptop computer, suitably loaded.
Team Equipment
It has been found that the following Team Equipment can be very useful:

• 30 m Trailer Mast, towed behind a suitable vehicle

• 15m pump Up Clarke Mast “Surveyor”, carried on car roof, with remote kit
• Generator. A “Silent-running” Generator, of 400-600 VA, with fuel container
• Large first aid kit
• Tow Ropes
 • Self Recovery equipment (Winches, ropes, slings, etc)
• Fire extinguishers
• Inverters per vehicle (Mains supply per vehicle, 100 Watt), for minor (missed)
battery charging in an emergency on route to site.
• Compulsory road safety equipment, one per vehicle, as per statutory
requirements
• Dynamic safety rope and ancillaries.
• Balloon (Blimp), gas, and a suitable trailer, and a holding rope
• Multiple outlet, mains extension leads with adaptors, for multiple battery
charging.
• Tripods

Other Points

• High visibility jackets (Saturn Yellow) are useful for road-side stops and for
rooftop surveying.
• Intrinsically safe sites may be limited to Diesel-Engine Vehicles only, no
battery or mains equipment, and no non-IS Hand-Lamps. Flags and cube-
corner reflectors (as used with laser range finders) Theodolites have proven
useful in such sites. Cameras have to be mechanical only.
• Many sites require a permit-to-work. The site copy is the responsibility of the
crew leader at site, and has to be carried at all times.
• Health and Safety policy documents of both the service provider and the site
owner, likewise have to be carried at all times, where appropriate.

Safe Harbour

Neither the information nor any opinion expressed in this presentation constitutes an
offer, or invitation to make an offer, or to buy any security issued by the company.
This presentation contains predictions, estimates or other information regarding the
company’s operations which are forward looking in nature. While these forward
looking statements represent our best current judgment on what the future holds, they
are subject to risks and uncertainities that could cause actual results to differ
materially and may involve risk and uncertainty. This presentation is prepared for
general purposes only and does not have any regard to the specific investment
objectives, financial situation and particular needs of any specific person. No liability
for any loss will arise with the company as a result of the action taken on the basis of
information contained herein.

Int
Software Tools
1)SRTM file : This file consists of Nominal Value i.e. latitude and
longitude values of geographical location.
2) Global Mapper software.
3)You will be provided with 3 to 4 nominal values of existing
sites(old site) and nominal value of new site
We have to make LOS from one old site to new site

Hardware Tools
1) Magnetic Compass : This compass is used to find the azimuth
of microwave antenna

2) GPS(Global Positioning System): GPS is used to know the

distance from old to the new site.

How to use Global Mapper Software to find LOS

First open Global Mapper software a window will open as shown
Click on open your own data files

Here select the SRTM file

In this select the give nominal value Example N017E78 for Hyderabad Location
By doing this you will find the location area of N017E78 on you Map as shown below
Now select the view shed tool in order to place the site on the give nominal value.
Click at any point on the map a window with name View Shed Setup will open

Here enter the name of the site i.e. New Site , select Transmitter elevation 0 meters
and View radius as 0.25 then click on Transmitter Location as shown below.
Here select Geographical location icon and type the give nominal value of new site as
shown below

Then click on OK button.

You can see the site on your map at the nominal you have entered as shown.
Repeat the same steps for old site or exiting site.
Now select the distance icon in order to check the distance from old site to the new
site as shown below.

Note down the distance.

Then select the 3D path profile/ Line of site Tool
Click on the old site and drag till the new site and right click a window with name
Path profile/Line of sight will open as shown.
Here click on Line of Sight button a window with name Setup Line of Sight/ Earth
Curvature as shown
Here enter the height of microwave antenna of old site in the “ from sight elevation”
and enter the predicted height of the new sight in the “To Sight Elevation” .
If the distance between the two site is less than 10km then the frequency should be
15GHz. And if the distance is grater than 10km then the frequency should be 7GHz,
as shown below.

Click on ok.
You will see
Here you have to get the minimum clearance should be 16Meters. If not cliclk on line
of sight button and increase the “To Sight Elevation” by 3 Meters.

Repeat this step until you see minimum clearance as 16Meters.

After doing this if you don’t find minimum clearance 16meters leave the site and
move to the next Old site, and repeat the same steps.
Conclusion
Always strive for LOS conditions. Even with LOS, you must pay attention to details
regarding variability of refractivity, Fresnel zone clearance and avoiding reflections
from the ground and other surfaces.
Use as much antenna gain as is practical. It is always worthwhile to rty both
polarizations, but horizontal polarization will often be superior to vertical. It will
generally provide fewer multipath in urban areas, and may provide lower path loss in
some non-LOS situations (e.g., attenuation from trees at VHF and lower UHF). Also,
interfering signals from pagers and the like tend to be vertically polarized, so using
the opposite polarization can often provide some protection from them.

There are advantage to going higher in frequency , into the microwave bands, due to
the higher antenna gains, which can be achieved. The tighter focusing of energy,
which can be achieved , may result in lower overall path loss on LOS paths (providing
that you can keep the fed line losses under control), and less multipath . Higher
frequencies also have smaller Fresnel zones, and thus require less clearance over
obstacles to avoid diffraction losses. And, of course, the higher bands have more
bandwidth available for high-speed data, and less probability of interference.
However, the advantage may be lost in non-LOS situations, since diffraction losses,
and attenuation from natural objects such as trees, increase with frequency.

Radio propagation is seldom 100% predictable, and one should never hesitat to
experiment. It’s very useful, though, to be equipped with enough knowledge to know
what techniques to try, and when there is little probability of success.
The application of radio frequency and microwave energy are numerous and there is
an increasing deman for these technologies.

Equipment utilizing this form of energy is using in telecommunications, commerce,

industry, medicine, radio, and astronomy, research and at home ( for example:
microwave oven, television, radio, hand wireless etc.).
As it is known, radio-frequency(RF) and microwave(MW) energy play very
important role in our daily life. Many people do not take care about the hazards of
microwave and radio frequency radiation. It has been reported that, electromagnetic
radiation such as radio frequency and microwave, alters some functions of biological
systems. We believe that people occupationally exposed to RF and./or microwave
should be more careful about the hazards of this radiation than ordinary people.

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