Exploring Secrets of Math Formulae

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MATHEMATICS
FORMULAE EXPLORER
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Mathematics Formulae Explorer www.MathsHomeWork123.com
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MATHEMATICS FORMULAE EXPLORER

CONTENTS
S. No. Topics Page

No.
1. Algebra 004
2. Analytical Geometry 007
3. 3D- Analytical Geometry 020
4. Boundary Value Problems 023
5. Coordinate Geometry 028
6. Commercial Arithmetic 031
7. Complex Numbers 035
8. Data Analysis 040
9. Determinants 044
10. Differential Calculus 048
11. Differential Equations 051
12. Discrete Mathematics 057
13. Fourier Series 062
14. Fourier Transform 068
15. Graphs 070
16. Integral Calculus 071
17. Laplace Transform 074
18. Matrices 076
19. Measurement 079
20. Mensuration 087
21. Multiple Integrals 092
22. Number Work 093
23. Numbers and Operations 094
24. Ordinary Differential Equations 099
25. Partial Differential Equations 102
26. Probability 108
27. Pure Arithmetics 117
28. Sets 118
29. Statistics 120
30. Tables 122
31. Theoretical Geometry 123
32. Trignometry 131
33. Vector Algebra 139
34. Z-Transform 143

1. Algebra
Expansion and Factorisation

H.C.F x L.C.M of two expression =Product of the two expressions
Equation
Two expression connected by a sign of equality is
is consistent equation, if the equality holds for some value of the

variable/unknown
an inconsistent equation, if the equality holds for no value of the

variable/unknown
an identical equation, if the equality holds for any value of the

variable/unknown

Simultaneous Equation
Simultaneous Equation of the type

is consistent and has only one set of solution if

is consistent and has no solution if

have infinite number of solutions if
Laws of Indices
• … . ! "!#, %# &#%!%'( %!()(
•
• *
•
•
•

•
√

•
• , ( '-.( "
• , ,

Logarithms
• / -) 0 0, 0 0 & 3, 4
• -) / !%-) 0 0, 0 0 & 3, 4
• -) -) -)
-) -)
-)

•
• -) -)
• -)
• -)
• -) -)
-) -)
-)
•

• -)
[ in all cases from third formulae, a > 0, b > 0 & a, b , 0 0, 5 0 0 ]
Some standard forms of the Binomial Expansion

….
! !

….
! !

….
! !

….
! !

….

….

….

….

.
. .
… .

2. Analytical Geometry
Introduction
‘Geometry’ is the study of Points, Lines, Curves, Surfaces, etc and their
properties. In the 17th century AD, the methods of Algebra were applied in the
study of Geometry and thereby ‘Analytical Geometry’ emerged out. The
renowned French philosopher and Mathematician Rane Descartes (1596-1650)
showed how the methods of Algebra could be applied to the study of
Geometry.
Locus
The path traced by a point when it moves according to specified geometrical

conditions is called the Locus of the point.
Straight Lines
A straight line is the simplest geometrical curve. Every straight line is

associated with an equation.
• Slope-Intercept Form : y = mx + c
• Point –Slope Form : y-y1 = m(x – x1)

• Two Point Form :
Intercept Form : , where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are x and y intercepts.

•
• Normal Form : # 7 #% 7 &
• General Form : ax + by + c = 0
Length of the Perpendicular
ax+by+c=0 is 8 8
•

The length of the perpendicular from the point (x1, y1) to the line
9
•
8 8

The length of the perpendicular from the Origin to the line ax+by+c=0 is
9

Slope of an equation ax + by + c = 0
:(""%%(! "
:(""%%(! "
For ax + by + c = 0, Slope m =
Angle between two straight line
If ; is the angle between the two straight lines, then ; ! < <

Condition for Parallel and Perpendicular
• If the two straight lines are Parallel, then their slopes are equal. i.e.,
m1=m2
• If the two straight lines are Perpendicular, then the product of their
slopes is -1. i.e., m1 x m2= -1

Condition for Concurrent
The condition for three straight lines to be concurrent is = = ,

if

Equation of the Straight line passing through the intersection of the two lines
>
line passing through the intersection of the straight lines
• represents a straight
and .
Pair of Straight Lines
• Combined equation of the pair of straight lines is

ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0, where a, b, c, f, g, h are constants.
2 2
• Pair of straight lines passing through the origin is ax +2hxy+by =0
• The Straight line is ( i ) Real and Distinct if h2 > ab

( ii ) Coincident if h2 = ab
( iii ) Imaginary if h2 < ab

Slopes of pair of straight line
?

• Sum of the slopes of pair of straight lines, m1+m2 =

• Product of the slopes of pair of straight lines, m1m2 =
Angle between the pair of Straight line
• Angle between the pair of straight lines passing through the origin is
; ! 8 8
9?

• If the straight lines are parallel, then h2 = ab
c(""%%(! " (""%%(! "

• If the straight lines are perpendicular, then
Condition to represent a pair of straight line
• The condition for

general asecond degree equation
2 2
ax +2hxy+by +2gx+2fy+c= 0 represent a pair of straight lines is
abc+2fgh-af2-bg2-ch2 = 0.
Circle
Definition
A circle is the locus of a point which moves in such a way that its distance
from a fixed point is always constant. The fixed point is called the Centre of the
Circle and the constant distance is called the Radius of the circle.
• The equation of circle when the centre is (h, k) and radius ‘r’ is
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
• If the centre is origin, equation of circle is x2+y2 = r2
• The equation of circle, if the end points of a diameter are given by

(x – x1) (x – x2) + (y – y1) ( y – y2) = 0
centre is (-g, -f) and radius is 9) "

• The General equation of the circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 with

Tangent to the Circle
• Equation of the tangent to a circle at a point (x1, y1) is

xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0
• Length of the tangent to the circle from a point (x1, y1) is

@A B ) "
• If PT2 = 0, then the point is on the Circle.
• If PT2 > 0, then the point is outside the Circle.
• If PT2 < 0, then the point is inside the Circle.
• Condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = a2

is c2 = a2 (1 + m2)
x2 + y2 = a2 is C , D

• Point of contact of the tangent y = mx + c to be a tangent to the circle
9 9
• Equation of any tangent to a circle if of the form E √
• Two tangent can be drawn from a point to a circle is

m2(x2 – a2) – 2mxy +(y2 – a2) = 0.
This is a Quadratic equation in ‘m’. Thus ‘m’ has two values. But ‘m’ is
the slope of the tangent. Thus, two tangents can be drawn from a point
to a circle.

Family of Circles
Concentric Circles
Two (or) more circles having the same centre are called Concentric Circle.
Circles Touching Internally or Externally
Two circles may touch each other either internally or externally. Let C1, C2 be
the centres of the circles and r1, r2 be their radii and P, the point of contact.
• Two circle touch externally, if C1C2 = r1 + r2
• Two circle touch internally, if C1C2 = r1 - r2
Orthogonal Circles
Two circles are said to be Orthogonal if the tangent at their point of

intersection are at right angles.
Condition for Orthogonal
• Condition for two circles to cut orthogonal is 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 = c1+c2
Conic
Definition
A conic is the locus of a point which moves in a plane, so that its distance
from a fixed point bears a constant ratio to its distance from a fixed straight
line. The fixed point is called focus, the fixed straight line is called directrix
and the constant ratio is called eccentricity, which is denoted by ‘e’.
Classification with respect to the General Equation of a Conic
The equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 represents either a (non-

degenerate) conic or a degenerate conic. If it is a conic, then it is
• a Parabola if B2- 4AC = 0
• an Ellipse if B2- 4AC < 0
• a Parabola if B2- 4AC > 0

Parabola ( y2 = 4ax )
Definition
The locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point is equal to the distance
from a fixed line is called a Parabola. i.e., Parabola is a conic whose eccentricity
is 1.
Definitions
• The fixed point used to draw the parabola is called the Focus F. Here,
the focus is F(a,o).
• The fixed line used to draw a parabola is called the Directrix of the
parabola. Here, the equation of the directrix is x = - a
• The axis of the parabola is the axis of symmetry. The curve y2 = 4ax is
symmetrical about x-axis and hence x-axis or y = 0 is the axis of the
parabola y2 = 4ax. Note that the axis of the parabola passes through the
focus and perpendicular to the directrix.
• The point of intersection of the parabola and its axis is called its Vertex.
Here, the vertex is V(0,0).
• The Focal Distance is the distance between a point on the parabola and
its focus.
• A chord which passes through the focus of the parabola is called the
Focal Chord of the parabola
• Latus Rectum is a focal chord perpendicular to the axis of the parabola.

Here, the equation of the latus rectum is x = a.
• End points of Latus Rectum is L (a, 2a) and L/(a, -2a)
• Length of Latus Rectum = 4a. Length of Semi-Latus Rectum is 2a.
General form of the standard equation of a Parabola
•
F
? (open rightwards)
The General form of the standard equation of the parabola is
•
F

? ( open leftwards)
•
?
F (open upwards )
•
?

F (open downwads)

Ellipse

Definition
The locus of a point in a plane whose distance from a fixed point bears a
constant ratio, less than one to its distance from a fixed line is called Ellipse.
Definitions
Focus : The fixed point is called focus, denoted as F(ae,0)
is

Directrix : The fixed line is called directrix l of the ellipse and its equation
Major axis : The line segment AA/ is called the major axis and the length of the
major axis is 2a. The equation of the major axis is y = 0.
Minor axis : The line segment BB/ is called the minor axis and the length of the
minor axis is 2b. The equation of the minor axis is x = 0.
Centre : The point of intersection of the major axis and minor axis of the
ellipse is called the Centre of the Ellipse.
Vertices : The points of intersection of the ellipse and its major axis are called
its vertices.
Focal Distance : The focal distance with respect to any point P on the ellise is
the distance of P from the referred focus.
Focal Chord : A chord which passes through the focus of the ellipse is called
the focal chord of the ellipse.
Latus Rectum : It is the focal distance perpendicular to the major axis of the
Ellipse. The equation of the latus rectum are x = + ae, x = - ae.
Eccentricity : ( B

End Points of Latus Rectum are G(, E and other latus rectum are

G
(, E .

Length of the Latus Rectum are

Special Property : Thanks to the symmetry about the origin, it permits the
(
second Focus F2(-ae,0) and the second directrix x = -
General forms of Standard Ellipses
The General forms of Standard Equation of Ellipses, if the centre C(h,k) is

?
F

? F

a>b
Focal Property of an Ellipse
The sum of the focal distances of any point on an ellipse is constant and is
equal to the length of the major axis.

Hyperbola
Definition
The locus of a point in a plane whose distance from a fixed point bears a
constant ratio, greater than one to its distance from a fixed line is called
Hyperbola.
Definitions
Focus : The fixed point is called focus, denoted as F(ae,0)
is

Directrix : The fixed line is called directrix l of the hyperbola and its equation
Transverse axis : The line segment AA/ joining the vertices is called the
transverse axis and the length of the transverse axis is 2a. The equation of the
transverse axis is y = 0.
Conjugate axis : The line segment joining the points B(0, b) and B/ (0, -b) is
called the conjugate axis and the length of the conjugate axis is 2b. The
equation of the conjugate axis is x = 0.

Centre : The point of intersection of the transverse and conjugate axes of the
hyperbola is called the Centre of the Hyperbola.
Vertices : The points of intersection of the hyperbola and its transverse axis
are called its vertices.
Latus Rectum : It is the focal chord perpendicular to the transverse axis of the
Hyperbola. The equation of the latus rectum are x = + ae, x = - ae.
Eccentricity : ( B

End Points of Latus Rectum are G(, E and other latus rectum are

G
(, E .

Length of the Latus Rectum are
The other form of the Hyperbola
then the equation of the hyperbola is of the form

If the transverse axis is along y-axis and the conjugate axis is along x-axis,

For this type of hyperbola, we have the following points.
• Center is C(0,0)
• Vertices A(0, a) and A/(0, -a)
• Foci are F(0, ae) and F(0, -ae)
• Equation of transverse axis is x = 0
• Equation of conjugate axis is y = 0
•
Equations of Latus rectum is E(
End points of conjugate axis is (b, 0) and (-b, 0)
•
Equations of directrices is E

(
•
End points of Latus rectum is E , ( , E ,

(

•

Parametric form of Conics
Conic Parametric Parameter Range of Any point on

equations parameter the conic
Parabola x = at2 t
∞ I J I ∞ ‘t’ or
y = 2at (at2, 2at)
x = a cos ;, ; I ; I 2L M;M or
y = b sin ; (acos ;, #% ;
Ellipse

!
∞ I J I ∞
!
t ‘t’ or

! . !
. ! ,
! !
!
x = a sec ;, ; I ; I 2L M;M or
y = b tan ; (a sec;, ! ;
Hyperbola
Equation of Chord
Conic Equation of Chord joining (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)

Parabola

Ellipse

Hyperbola

Equation of Tangent and Normal
Conic Equation of Tangents at (x1, y1) Equation of Normal at (x1, y1)
Parabola

Ellipse

Hyperbola
Equation of Chord and Tangent at Parametric Form
Conic Equation of Chord at Equation of Tangents at

Parametric Form Parametric Form
Parabola Chord joining the points ! & ! at ‘t’ is yt = x + at2
! ! ! !
is
Ellipse Chord joining the points ; & ; at ‘;’ is
; ; ; ;
#; #%;
is
# #%

;
;
#

Hyperbola Chord joining the points ; & ; at ‘;’ is
;
; ; ;
#(;
!;
is
#
#%

; ;
#


Results connected with Conics
Conic Condition that Point of Contact Equation of any

y=mx+c may tangent is of the form
be a tangent to
the conic

C , D

Parabola

E 9
N , O

Ellipse
where

E 9

N , O

Hyperbola
where

Asymptotes
Definition
An asymptote to a curve is the tangent to the curve such that the point of
∞
∞.
contact is at infinity. In particular, the asymptote touches the curve at
Results regarding Asymptotes

is

The equations of the asymptotes to the hyperbola

•

i.e.,

• The combined equation of asymptotes is


• The asymptotes pass through the centre C(0,0) of the hyperbola.
The slopes of asymptotes are

.

• i.e., the transverse axis and
conjugate axis bisect angles between the asymptotes.

is

If 7 is the angle between the asymptotes then the slope of

•
! 7 .

Angle between the asymptotes is 7 !

•
• Angle between the asymptotes is 7 #(

(
Rectangular Hyperbola ( xy = c2 where

)
Definition
A hyperbola is said to be a rectangular hyperbola if its asymptotes are at right

angles.
Results
• Eccentricity of the Rectangular Hyperbola is ( √ and
The Vertices of the rectangular hyperbola are , and

,

also b2 = a2(e2-1)

√ √ √ √
•
• The foci are (a, a) and (-a, -a)
• The equation of the transverse axis is y = x and the conjugate axis is
y = - x.
•
If the centre of the rectangular hyperbola is (h, k) then (x – h) ( y – k) = c2

• The parametric equation of the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is x = ct,
!
y=
• Equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is
xy1+yx1 = 2c2
• Equation of the tangent at ‘t’ is x + yt2 = 2ct
• Equation of normal at (x1, y1) to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is
Equation of normal at ‘t’ is y - xt2 =

ct3

xx1- yy1 = x12- y12
!
•
• Two tangents and four normals can be drawn from a point to a
rectangular hyperbola.
3. Three Dimensional Analytical Geometry
The equation of the Sphere whose centre is (a, b, c) and radius ‘r’ is

P

The equation of the Sphere has the following three characteristics.

• It is of second degree equation in x, y, z
• The coefficients of x2, y2, z2 are equal
• The terms xy, yz and zx are absent
If the coefficients of x2, y2, z2 are each unity, then the coordinates of the centre

of the Sphere are
C (""%%(! " , (""%%(! " , (""%%(! " PD

and square of the radius is equal to the sum of the squares of the coordinates
of the centre minus the constant term.
P

P P
The equation of a Sphere whose centre is (x1, y1, z1) is
Equation of a Sphere with the extremities of diameter at the points (x1, y1, z1)

P
P P
P
and (x2, y2, z2) is
Two Spheres S1 and S2 whose radii are r1 and r2 touch externally if the distance
between their centres is equal to the sum of their radii.
d = r1 + r2
The point of contact is the point which divides internally the line joining the
centres in the ratio of the radii.
Two Spheres S1 and S2 whose radii are r1 and r2 touch internally if the distance
between their centres is equal to the difference of their radii.
d = r1 ~ r2
The point of contact is the point which divides externally the line joining the
centres in the ratio of the radii.

P . ' RP is
To find the condition that the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 may touch the Sphere
S. T' :R
U S T : . ' R

Condition for the two Spheres to cut Orthogonally
P . ' RP
P . ' R P is
and
.
. '
' R
R . ' R
. ' R

The General Equation of a Right Circular Cylinder

7 V PW
-
If the axis of the required cylinder is and radius is ‘r’ then the
- -
7
V P
W
equation of a circular cylinder is

7
V P
W –
-
The equation of the Cylinder whose generators intersect the curve
? ) " , P

P
-
and parallel to the line is

-P ?
-P
P
P )
-P
"
P
The equation of the cylinder whose generators touch the sphere
P

P
-
and are parallel to the line is
- P - P


The equation of the Cone whose vertex is at the point 7, V, W and whose
generators intersect the conic is
) " , P
The equation of the Right Circular Cone whose vertex is at 7, V, W and its axis

7 V PW
and whose semi-vertical angle ; is
-
at the line
-
7
V P
W
-
7
V P
W # ;
The equations of the enveloping cone whose vertex is at 7, V, W and whose
P is
generators touch the sphere
7 V W

7
V P
W
7
7 V
V WP
W
The equation of the tangent plane at the point (x1, y1, z1) to the cone
P )P "P ? is
? )P ? "P P) " P

4. Boundary Value Problems
VIBRATION OF STRING
Equation and Boundary Correct Most General Solution

Conditions Conditions Solution
Y Y , ! , Z! , ! , !

: # & ]
Y! Y -, ! , Z! _ _!
: #% & \ : #% #
: # &! - -
Y, ^
, [
Y! : #% &!
[-
Initial velocity
zero.
, "
Y Y , ! , Z! , ! , !

: # & ]
Y! Y -, ! , Z! _ _!
: #% & \ : #% #%
: # &! - -
, ^
: #% &!
Y,
Initial velocity
)
Y!
is given
ONE DIMENSIONAL HEAT FLOW EQUATION
Equation and Boundary Correct Most General Solution

Conditions Conditions Solution
Y. Y . ., ! , Z! ., ! ., !

7
S # & ]
Y! Y _ 7
_ !
.-, ! , Z!
T #% & \ T #% ( -
-
., " (7 & !

Beginning point ^
‘A’ and Ending
point ‘B’ are at
zero temperature
Y. Y . ., ! , Z! ., ! ., !

7
S # & ]
Y! Y _ 7
_ !
.-, ! F, Z!
T #% & \ T #% ( -
-
., " (7 & !

Beginning point ^
‘A’ is at zero
temperature and
Ending point ‘B’
is at non-zero
temperature k.

SQUARE PLATE - Condition I
Conditions of Square Plate Boundary Conditions
f(x) • .,
• .,
y=a
0o 0o
• .,
x=0 x=a
• ., "
y=0
0o
Correct Solution Most General Solution
., : # & : #% & ]

_ _
: (& : (& ., \ : #% #% ?

^
SQUARE PLATE - Condition II
0o • .,
• .,
y=a
0o 0o
• .,
x=0 x=a
• ., "
y=0
f(x)
., : # & : #% & ]

_ _
: (& : (& ., \ : #% #% ?

^

SQUARE PLATE - Condition III
0o • .,
• .,
y=a
0o
• .,
f(x)
x=0 x=a
• ., "
y=0
0o
., : # & : #% & ]

_ _
: (& : (& ., \ : #% #% ?

^
RECTANGULAR PLATE - Condition I
Conditions of Rectangular Plate Boundary Conditions
f(x) • .,
• .,
y=b
• .,
0o 0o
x=0 x=a
• ., "
y=0
0o
., : # & : #% & ]

_ _
: (& : (& ., \ : #% #% ?

^

RECTANGULAR PLATE - Condition II
0o • .,
• .,
y=b
• .,
0o 0o
x=0 x=a
• ., "
y=0
f(x)
., : # & : #% & ]

_ _ _
: (& : (& ., \ : #% ( (

^
_

(
RECTANGULAR PLATE - Condition III
0o • .,
• .,
y=b
• .,
0o f(y)
x=0 x=a
• ., "
y=0
0o
., : # & : #% & ]

_ _
: (& : (& ., \ : #% #% ?

^

RECTANGULAR PLATE – Infinite Plate - Condition I

- Infinite Plate
∞ • .,
• .-,
• ., ∞
0o 0o
x=0 x=l
• ., "
y=0
f(x)
., : # & : #% & ]

_ _
: (& : (& ., \ : #% ( -
-
^
RECTANGULAR PLATE – Infinite Plate - Condition II

- Infinite Plate
0o • .,
• ., -
y=l
∞
• .∞,
f(y)
y=0
0o • ., "
., : # & : #% & ]

_ _
: (& : (& ., \ : #% ( -
-
^

5. Co ordinate Geometry
Introduction
The Modern terms Co-ordinates, abscissa and ordinate were contributed by

German Mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Von Neibliz in 1692. Rene Descartes
invented co-ordinate geometry.
Distance Formula between two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2)
U%#!(, ST 9

Mid-Point Formula between two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2)

`%
@%! " ST C , D

Centroid Formula between three points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3)

:(!% C , D

Area of the Triangle from the given three points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3)

S(

Condition for the three points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) to be Collinear

Area of the Parallelogram from the given four points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2),
C(x3, y3) and D(x4, y4)

S(

Slope (or) Gradient of the Line
If ; is the angle of inclination, then Slope, m = tan ;
Slope of the line joining two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2)

Slope, m =

Slope of the line ax+by+c = 0
Slope =
:(""%%(! "
:(""%%(! "
Equation of Straight Line with Slope m and y-intercept c
Equation of straight line is y = m x + c
Equation of Straight Line with Slope m and point A(x1, y1)
Equation of straight line is y – y1 = m (x – x1)
Equation of Straight Line with Slope m and joining two points A(x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2)

Equation of straight line is
Equation of Straight Line with x intercept a and y intercept b

Equation of straight line is
Condition for two lines to be Parallel
Two lines are Parallel, then their slopes are equal. i.e., m1 = m2
Condition for two lines to be Perpendicular
Two lines are Perpendicular, then their product of their slopes gives -1
i.e., m1 x m2 = -1
Equation of Straight Lines with different cases
• Any line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is ax + by + k = 0 (differ only by

constant)
• Any line parallel to x-axis is y=k ( k is constant)
• Any line parallel to y-axis is x = c ( c is constant)
• The line which is perpendicular to the line ax + by + c = 0 is of the form

bx – ay + k = 0

Circumcentre, Centroid and Orthocentre
Circumcentre : The perpendicular bisector of the sides of a triangle are

concurrent. The point of concurrence is called circumcentre.
Centroid of a triangle : The medians of a triangle meet at a point. This point is

known as centroid.
Orthocentre of a triangle : The altitudes of a triangle meet at a point. This point

is called Orthocentre.
Slope of both axes
• The Slope of x-axis = 0
• The Slope of y-axis = not defined
Concurrency of Three Lines
Condition that the lines , and

may be concurrent if,

Intersection of Two Straight Lines
The two lines if not parallel in a plane intersect in a unique point.

6. Commercial Arithmetic
Basic Definitions
Percentage
%

%

Mb # &((!)( "

Profit and Loss
Profit = Selling Price (S.P) – Cost Price (C.P)
Loss = Cost Price (C.P) – Selling Price (S.P)
Selling Price = Cost Price + Profit
Selling Price = Cost Price - Loss
Cost Price = Selling Price – Profit
Cost Price = Selling Price + Loss
A!- @"%! c.@:.@

:#! @%( :#! @%(
Profit (in percent) = x 100 = x100
A!- G## :.@c.@

:#! @%( :#! @%(
Loss (in percent) = x 100 = x100
Selling Price = Cost Price + x% of Cost Price, , if Profit is x%.
Cost Price = Selling Price x d e, if Profit is x%.

Selling Price = Cost Price - x% of Cost Price, , if Loss is x%.
Cost Price = Selling Price x d e, if Loss is x%.


Discount and Market Price
Discount = Marked Price – Actual Selling Price
S!.- c(--%) @%(

`F( @%(
Discount in Percent = Marked Price – x 100
Actual Selling Price = Marked Price – Discount
%U%#.!

= Marked Price - x Marked Price
Marked Price = d e c(--%) @%(

U%#.! %

Successive (2nd) discount is calculated on the balance after deduction of

the first discount from the marked price and so on.
Simple Interest
@fg

• Simple Interest (S.I) = = PNi, where P is the Principal, N is the Period
in years and R% is the rate of interest for 1 year. %
g

= interest for
unit principal for one year
@
h
fg
•
f
h
@g
•
g
h
@f
•
• Amount (A) = Principal + Interest
@
S
fg
•
• Interest = Amount - Principal

Compound Interest (C.I)
f
Compound Interest (C.I) = @ d e
@, where P is the Principal, N is
g
•
the Period in years and R% is the rate percent annually.
f
Amount, A = @ d e
g

•
• Principal = Amount – Compound Interest

Difference between C.I and S.I for 2 years = @ d e
g

•
Difference between C.I and S.I for 3 years = d e

@g g
•
Recurring Deposit (R.D)
Recurring Deposit is a special type of deposit in which a person deposits a

fixed sum every month over a period of years and receives a large sum at the
end of the specified number of years. Since the deposit is made month after
month, it is called Recurring Deposit. Recurring Deposits are also known as
Cumulative Term Deposits. The amount deposited every month is called the
Monthly Deposit.
@fg

Total Interest = , where N = ,
P be the Monthly Instalments,
R % be the rate of Interest and
‘n’ be the number of monthly instalments.
Amount Due = Amount Deposited + Total Interest

Fixed Deposit
Fixed Deposit are deposits for a fixed period of time and the depositor can
withdraw his money only after the expiry of the fixed period. It is also known
as Term Deposits. However, in the case of necessity, the depositor can get his
fixed deposit terminated earlier to get a loan from the bank under terms laid
down by the bank. There are two types of fixed deposits, namely
Short Term Deposits

Long Term Deposits
Short Term Fixed Deposits are accepted by the banks for a short period
ranging from 46 days to one year. The interest paid on this deposit is Simple
Interest.
Long Term Fixed Deposits are accepted by the banks for a period of one year
or more. The interest paid on this type of deposit is Compound Interest.
@g

Quarterly Interest =
@g

Half Yearly Interest =

7. Complex Numbers
The Complex Number System
• A Complex number is of the form a+ib, where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are real
numbers and ‘I’ is called the imaginary unit, having the property i2 = -1.
• If z = a+ib then ‘a’ is called the real part of z, denoted by Re(z) and ‘b’ is
called the imaginary part of z and is denoted by Im(z).
• If z = a+ib is a complex number then the negative of z is denoted by –z
and it is defined as –z = -a + i (-b).
• Basic Algebraic Operations with Complex Numbers
(a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i (b + d)
(a + ib) - (c + id) = (a - c) + i (b - d)
(a + ib) (c + id) = (ac - bd) + i (ad + bc)
• If z = a + i b, then the conjugate of z is denoted by Pi and
is defined by Pi
%.
• Properties of Complex Numbers
PPi
%
%
:j.)!( " Pi P. %. (. , Pi P
Z is real / the imaginary part is zero
g(P
PPi

hP
PPi
%

Conjugate of the sum is the sum of their conjugates
iiiiiiiiii
P i Pi
P P
Conjugate of the product of two complex numbers is the
product of their conjugates iiiiii

P i Pi
P P
The conjugate of the quotient of two complex numbers is
iiiii

P P
iii
P P
iii
the quotient of their conjugates.
iii
P P
i
• The Modulus (or) Absolute value of z = a+ib is denoted by |P| is defined
by √
• The Amplitude (or) Argument of z = a+ib is denoted by arg z or arg z is
defined by ; !

• It is obvious that |Pi| |P|. Also, |P| √PPi
• g(P [ |P| and hP [ |P|
• The Modulus of a product of two complex numbers is equal to the
product of their moduli. |P P | |P ||P |
• The above result can be extended to any finite number of complex
numbers. i.e., |P P … . P | |P ||P ||P | … |P |
• The Modulus of a quotient of two complex numbers is equal to the
quotient of their moduli. < <

P |P |
P |P |

• Triangle Inequality
The Modules of sum of two complex numbers is always less than
or equal to the sum of their moduli. |P P | [ |P | |P |
|P
P | [ |P | |P |
|P P l … P | [ |P | |P | l |P |
• The Modulus of the difference of two complex numbers is always greater
than or equal to the difference of their moduli. |P

P | m |P |
|P |
• Polar form of a Complex Number P % # ; % #% ;
• For any two complex numbers P P
|P P | |P ||P |
)P P ) P ) P
) ) P
) P
P
P
• The above result can be extended to any finite number of complex
numbers .
|P P … … . P | |P ||P | … … . . |P |
)P P … … … . P ) P ) P l … … . . ) P
• The Exponential form of a Complex Number (%; is known as Euler’s
Formula and is defined by (%; # ; % #% ;

General Rule for determining the argument ;
Let z = a + ib where a, b n R. Take 7 ! ||

||
In First Quadrant, ; 7
In Second Quadrant, ; _
7
In Third Quadrant, ;
_ 7
In Fourth Quadrant, ;
7
Both cos ; and sin ; are positive. ; 7
Z lies in the first quadrant.
Sin ; is positive and cos ; is negative. ; _

7
Z lies in the second quadrant.
Both cos ; and sin ; are negative. ;

_ 7
Z lies in the third quadrant.
Sin ; is negative and cos ; is positive. ;

7
Z lies in the fourth quadrant.
Theorem
For any polynomial equation P(x) = 0 with real coefficients, imaginary
(complex) roots occur in conjugate pairs.
For any rational number n, opq rs t qtr rs is the value or one of the values
De Moivre’s Theorem
of # ; % #% ;

Roots of a Complex Number
Working Rule to find the nth roots of a Complex Number
• Write the given number in polar form
• Add 2k_ to the argument
• Apply De Moivre’s theorem
• Put k=0, 1, 2,3, …upto (n-1)
nth roots of unity
• R
• Sum of the roots is zero.
• The roots are in Geometric Progression with common ratio w.
_

• The arguments are in Arithmetic Progression with common difference
• Product of the roots =

Cube Roots of Unity
If R , then R
%√ %√

•
• The sum of the cube roots of unity is zero. 1+w+w2 = 0.
• w3 = 1
Fourth Roots of Unity
• 1+w+w2 +w 3= 0.
• w4 = 1
• The values of w used in cube roots of unity and in fourth roots of unity
are different.

8. Data Analysis
Statistics is the study of the methods of collecting, organizing and analyzing
quantitative data, and drawing conclusions. The data are collected on samples
from various populations of people, animals and things by different methods
such as observations, interviews, etc. Statistics is used in almost every field
such as business, education, science, psychology, research, etc.
The word ‘data’ is the plural form of datum, which means facts and figures.
Data
Data represent factual information (in the form of measurements or statistics)

which is used as a basis for reasoning, discussion or calculation. Data are
classified as either Primary or Secondary.
Primary Data
Primary data are the data which are collected directly for a specific purpose for
the first time and they are original in character.
Examples : Questionnaires, Interviews, etc.,
Secondary Data
Secondary data are data already collected, analyzed and presented in written
form ready for people to use.
Examples : Government reports, books, articles, maps, etc.,
Types of Data
Data can be qualitative or quantitative. Names of persons, marital status, etc.,

are examples of qualitative data.
Quantitative Data
Quantitative data are measurements expressed in terms of numbers. Income

of individuals, production of a car company, exports in units of a garment
company, marks of students, etc., are all quantitative data.
Quantitative data can further be classified as continuous data and discrete

data.
Continuous Data : Takes numerical values within a certain range.

Example : Height of a person.
Discontinuous (or) Discrete Data : Takes only whole-number values.

Example : The number of boys in each class can be expressed only in whole
numbers.

Displaying Data
Tables, Charts and Graphs are examples of visual representation of data.

Graphs or Charts show the relationship between changing things and are used
to make facts clearer and more understandable.
Line Graph
A Line Graph is used to show continuous data. The dependent data is plotted
along the y-axis and the independent data along the x-axis.
Multiple-Line Graph
A multiple-line graph can effectively compare similar data over the same
period of time.
Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circular chart divided into segments. Each segment illustrates
relative magnitudes or frequencies. It shows the component parts of a whole.
A pie chart uses percentages to compare information since they are the
easiest way to represent a whole (100%). In a Pie chart, the arc length, central
angle and area of each segment is proportional to the quantity it represents.
Exploded Pie Chart
A chart with one or more segments separated from the rest of the disc is
called an exploded pie chart.
Formation of Frequency Tables
Classification and Tabulation
Collection of data in the form of numbers alone will not help us to make
decisions or form conclusions. Since just a huge collection of numbers does
not have any meaning, it is necessary to classify the numbers as values and
pictures before presentation.
Classification is the process of grouping data according to their common

characteristics.
Tabulation is the process of arranging the classified data in tabular form.
Notes
• The number of times a particular observation or a variable ‘x’ occurs in a

data set is called its frequency which is denoted by ‘f’.

• Frequency distributions show the actual number of observations falling

in each range of observations.
• In a continuous distribution the data are obtained by measurement.
• The vertical bar ‘|’ which represents each occurrence of a variable ‘x’ or
observation is called a tally mark.
• The mid-value of a class interval is called its class mark.
• Class boundaries are actual or true limits of a class interval in a grouped

distribution table and are continuous.
Measures of Central Tendency
The classification and tabulation of statistical data is a process of condensing

the entire data. The graphs / charts give a visual presentation and make the
comparisons easier. But for analysis of given numerical data, some
description of the given data is needed. The statistical average is a numerical
value around which the greatest proportion of the data concentrates. For
example, if we say in a class of 40 students, the mathematics marks vary from
40 to 95, but most of them secured 70 marks then 70 is the statistical average
marks of the class. Such values are called measures of central tendency. The
three important measures of central tendency are
• Arithmetic mean (or) Average

• Median
• Mode
Arithmetic Mean (A.M)
The Arithmetic Mean of a collection of data is a measure of central tendency

and it helps in interpreting the data. The arithmetic mean (or) AM is commonly
known as the mean or the average of a given set of data.
Arithmetic Mean (A.M) of Ungrouped Data
The formula used is S. `, u

c. " v#('!%# ∑
f.( " v#('!%#
Median of Ungrouped Data
Median is the middle value or the mean of the middle two values, when a set of
observed data is arranged in numerical order.
Median divides the distribution into two equal halves such that there are as
many observations less than it as there are greater than it.

f !?
In a set of N observations, when N is odd, the
observation of
arranged data in the numerical order is the median.
f !?

!?
In a set of N observations, when N is even, the average of observation

f

and observation of the arranged data in numerical order is the
median.
Mode of Ungrouped Data
Mode is the data which occurs most frequently in the given set of observations
(data). It is possible to have more than one mode.
Range of Ungrouped Data
The difference between the highest and lowest values of the observed data is
called the Range.

9. Determinants
Singular / Non Singular
A Square Matrix A is said to be Singular if |S| . Otherwise it is said to be

Non-Singular.
Adjoint of A
Let A = [ aij ] be a square matrix of order n. Let Aij be the cofactor of aij. The
adjoint of A is nothing but the transpose of the cofactor matrix [Aij ] of A.
Theorem
If A is a Square matrix of order n, then
A (Adjoint A) = |S| In = (adjoint A) A

where In is the identity matrix of order n.
Theorem
If a matrix A possesses an inverse then it must be unique.
Theorem
If A is a non singular matrix, there exists an inverse which is given by
S j%! S

|S|
Reversal Law for Inverses
non-singular and ST T S

If A, B are any two non-singular matrices of the same order, then AB is also
Reversal Law for Transposes
If A and B are matrices conformable to multiplication, then STA TA SA
Inverses and Transposes
For any non-singular matrix A, SA S A
Matrix Inversion Method
For a system of n linear non-homogeneous equations in ‘n’ unknowns is

represented by AX = B, then its unique solution is given by X = A-1B.

Properties of Determinants
• The Value of a determinant is unaltered by interchanging its rows and

columns
• If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are interchanged the

determinant changes its sign but its numerical value is unaltered.
• If two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical then the value of the
determinant is zero.
• If every element in a row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by a

constant “K” then the value of the determinant is multiplied by K.
• If every element in any row (column) can be expressed as the sum of

two quantities then given determinant can be expressed as the sum of
two determinants of the same order with the elements of the remaining
rows (columns) of both being the same.
• A determinant is unaltered when to each element of any row (column) is

added to those of several other rows (columns) multiplied respectively
by constant factors.

Rank of a Matrix
The matrix A is said to be of rank r, if
• A has atleast one minor of order r which does not vanish
• Every minor of A of order (r+1) and higher order vanishes
In other words, the rank of a matrix is the order of any highest order non
vanishing minor of the matrix.
The rank of A is denoted by xS.
i.e., xS [ % , .

The rank of an m x n matrix A cannot exceed the minimum of m and n.
Elementary Transformation on a Matrix
Let A be an mxn matrix. An elementary row (column) operation on A is of any

one of the following three types.
• The interchange of any two Ith and jth rows (columns). i.e., g% y gj
g% z : g%
• Multiplication of a Ith row (column) by a non zero constant C. i.e.,
• Addition of any multiple of one row (column) with any other row
i.e., g% y g% Fgj
(column).
Echelon Form
A matrix A (of order m x n) is said to be in Echelon form (Triangular form) if

• Every row of A which has all its entries 0 occurs below every row which
has a non-zero entry.
• The first non zero entry in each non zero row is 1.
• The Number of zeros before the first non zero element in a row is less
than the number of such zeros in the next row.
Note :
• Any matrix can be brought to Echelon matrix form.
• The Rank of a matrix in Echelon form is equal to number of non zero
rows of the matrix.
Cramer’s Rule Method ( Determinant Rule)
Consistent and has Unique Solution, if %" ∆ .

For a system of non-homogeneous equation with 3 unknowns, the system is
Solution is , P .
∆ ∆ ∆P
∆ ∆ ∆
Consistency for a given System of Equations by using Rank Method
• xS xS, T , !?( (|.!%# ( %#%#!(! ?# #-.!%.
xS xS, T f.( " .FR# ,

!?( (|.!%# ( #%#!(! ?'( %"%%!( .( " #-.!%#.
•
xS xS, T f.( " .FR# ,

!?( (|.!%# ( #%#!(! ?'( .%|.( #-.!%.
•
Consistency for a System of Homogeneous Equation
A System of Homogeneous equations is always consistent.
xS xS, T f.( " .FR# ,

!?( !%'%- #-.!% %# !?( .%|.( #-.!%
•
xS xS, T f.( " .FR# ,

!?( ##!( ?# !%'%- #-.!%
•

10. Differential Calculus
Derivatives of Standard Functions :
#!! #(
. .
√

( #(

. ( .
√

. #% ?
. # ?

. -) # ?
. #% ?

#%
}. # ! ?
. #( ?

#
~.
#% ! ?
.
#( ?

!
. #( #( ?
.
#( ? ! ?

!
.
#( #( ?
.
#( ? ! ?

#(
. #( !
#% ?
}.
#( √
.
#( !
# ?

-) ~.
. , √

! ?
-) -) ( .
. ,

! ?

#% .
.
√

#( ?

#
.
. √

√

#( ?

!

.
}. √

. .' .'/ './
!

~. . './
.'/
.
' '
"/ "// "///

Seven Indeterminant Forms Maclaurin’s Series

" " l
, , 0x ∞, ∞∞, 1] , ∞ , 0 ! ! !
]
]

Curvature of Curve
The rate of bending of a curve in any interval is called the Curvature of the curve in
ϴ)
that interval.
Cartesian Curve y = f(x) Polar Curve r = f(ϴ

1

1 1

sin =

Sin Ψ =
cos =

cos Ψ =

tan =

tan Ψ =
p= r sin
Radius of Curvature Parametric Form Implicit Form
The reciprocal of the Let x=f(t) and y=g(t) be the Let f(x,y)=o be the implicit
Curvature of a curve at parametric equations of form of the given curve.
any point is called the the given curve.
Radius of Curvature at
the point and is denoted
/
by
d"/ )/ e " "
/

/

x

x " "
" " " " "
x
"/ )//
"// )/

Polar Form Centre of Curvature in Circle of Curvature
ϴ) be the given
the Cartesian Form

Let r = f(ϴ The equation of the circle
u
u, ,

curve in polar coordinates. of curvature is
/ where ,
u u x

x

Local Maxima and Minima for functions of one variable
Given y=f(x), (i) if f/(c)=0 and f//(c)>0, then f has a local minimum at c.
(ii) if f/(c)=0 and f//(c)<0, then f has a local maximum at c.

Maxima and Minima for functions of Method of Lagrangian Multiplier

two variables
Necessary Condition To find the maximum and minimum

values of f(x,y,z) where x,y,z are subject
Let fx(a,b)=0 and fy(a,b)=0 to a constraint equation g(x,y,z)=o, we
define a function
Sufficient Condition
F(x,y,z) = f(x,y,z) + λ g(x,y,z),
If fx(a,b)=0, fy(a,b)=0 and fxx(a,b)=A,
fxy(a,b)=B, fyy(a,b)=C then where λ is called Lagrange Multiplier
which is independent of x,y,z,
i) f(a,b) is maximum value if AC-B2 > 0
and A<0 (or B<0) The necessary condition for a maximum
ii) f(a,b) is minimum value if AC-B2 > 0 or minimum are
Y" Y" Y"

and A>0 (or B>0)
, ,
Y Y YP
iii) f(a,b) is not an extremum if AC-B2 < 0
and
iv) If AC-B2 > 0, the test is inconclusive.
Solving the above equations for four
Stationary Value unknowns λ, x, y, z, we obtain the point
(x,y,z). The point may be a maxima,
A function f(x,y) at (a,b) or f(a,b) is said minima or neither which is decided by the
to be a Stationary Value of f(x,y) if physical consideration.
fx(a,b)=0 and fy(a,b)=0.
Jacobians Properties of Jacobian
1.
Y.,' Y,
If u1, u2, u3, …….un are functions of n 1. If u and v are the functions of x and y,
Y, Y.,'
variables x1, x2, x3, …xn, then the
then
Jacobian of the transformation from x1,
x2, x3, …xn to u1, u2, u3, …….un is
defined by 2. If u,v are the functions of x,y and x,y

Y. Y. Y.,' Y, Y.,'
are themselves functions of r,s then
¢ l §
¡ Y Y ¦ Y. , . , … … . Y, Y,# Y,#
then .
¡ £ ¤ £ ¦ ¨.,. ,…….

Y , , … . .
¡Y. l
Y.. ¦
Y Y ¥
3. If u,v,w are functionally dependent
0
Y.,',R
function of three independent variables
Y,,P
x,y,z then

11. Differential Equations
Definition
An equation involving one dependent variable and its derivatives with respect
to one or more independent variables is called a Differential Equation.
Differential Equation are of two types namely
• Ordinary Differential Equations

• Partial Differential Equations
Definition
An Ordinary Differential Equation is a differential equation in which a single

independent variable enters either explicitly or implicitly.
Order and Degree of a Differential Equation
Definition
The Order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order derivative
occurring in it. The degree of the differential equation is the degree of the
highest order derivative which occurs in it, after the differential equation has
made free from radicals and fractions as far as the derivatives are concerned.
Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree
For the solutions of first order and first degree equations, we shall consider
only certain special types of equations of the first order and first degree. They
are
• Variable Separable
• Homogeneous
• Linear

Variable Separable
Variables of a differential equation are to be rearranged in the form
" ) " )
The above equation can be rewritten as
" )

" )
) "

,

) "
The solution is
) "

©
©
) "
Homogeneous Equations
Definition
"
" ,
A differential equation of first order and first degree is said to be
" ,
homogeneous if it can be put in the form
Solving this, by putting y = vx, we get the solution.

Linear Differential Equation
Definition

A first order differential equation is said to be linear in y, if the power of the

terms and y are unity.
@ ª, where P and Q are function of x only.

A differential equation of order one satisfying the above condition can always

be put in the form
@ ª where P and Q are functions of y only.

Similarly a first order linear differential equation in x will be of the form

The solution of the equation which is linear in y is given as
(« @ « ª (« @ where (« @ is known as an integrating factor and it

is denoted by I.F.
Similarly, the solution of the equation which is linear in x is given as
(« @ « ª (« @ where (« @ is known as an integrating factor and it

is denoted by I.F.
We frequently use the following properties of Logarithmic and Exponential

functions
• (-) S S
• ( -) S S
( -) S S

•

SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT

COEFFICIENTS
A General Second Order non-homogeneous linear differential equation with

constant coefficients is of the form
// / ¬
where a0, a1, a2 are constants a0 0, and X is a function of x. The equation
// / ,
is known as a homogeneous linear second order differential equation with
constant coefficients.
: If > is a root of & & , then (> is a solution of

// / .
Theorem
Definition : The equation & & is called the characteristic

equation of // / , .
General Solution : The General Solution of a linear equation of second order

with constant co-efficient consists of two parts namely the Complementary
Function (C. F) and the Particular Integral (P.I).
Method of finding Complementary Function (C.F)
Let > , > be the two roots of & & then the solution of
// / , is
S(> T(> , %" > > ( (- %#!%!
S T(> , %" > > (- ®
( S # T #% , %" > % >
%
where A and B are arbitrary constants.

Method of finding Particular Integral (P. I )
• Suppose X is of the form ( , where ‘a’ is a constant.
Formula 1
( ( , R?( "U

"U "U
P. I =
Formula 2
( U;U ( (

"U ;
%" "U , U
%# "! " "U
P. I =
Formula 3
( (

"U
%" ; , !?( U %# (&(!( ! " "U
P. I =
• When X is of the form sin ax (or) cos ax
Formula 1
# #% U # #%

"U

P. I =
# #%

Formula 2
Sometimes we cannot form U . Then we shall try to get U, U .

Multiplying and Dividing by the conjugate of the demoninator and get the
solution.
Formula 3
If
, P. I # #
#%
U U
If
, P. I #% U #%
#
U

• Suppose X is of the form
Working Rule : Take the Particular Integral as
, %" " ®
@. h
, %" "
according as f(x) = x or x2. By

Since Particular Integral is also a solution of (aD2+bD+c) y = f(x), take
Substituting y value and comparing the like terms, one can find c0, c1
and c2.

12. Discrete Mathematics
Discrete Mathematics deals with several selected topics in Mathematics that

are essential to the study of many Computer Science areas. Among many
topics, only two topics, namely ‘Mathematical Logic’ and ‘Groups’ have been
introduced here. These topics will be very much helpful to the students in
certain practical applications related to Computer Science.
Mathematical Logic
Logic deals with all types of reasoning’s. These reasoning’s may be legal
arguments or mathematical proofs or conclusions in a scientific theory.
Logic is widely used in many branches of sciences and social sciences. It is

the theoretical basis for many areas of Computer Science such as Digital
Logic, Circuit Design, Automata Theory and Artificial Intelligence.
Logic Statement (or) Proposition
A statement or a proposition is a sentence which is either true or false but not

both.
Truth Value of a Statement
The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value. If a statement is true,
we say that its truth value is TRUE or T and if it is false, we say that its truth
value is FALSE or F.
Simple Statements
A Statement is said to be Simple if it cannot be broken into two or more

statements.
Compound Statements
If a statement is the combination of two or more simple statements, then it is

said to be a Compound Statement.
Basis Logical Connectives
word ‘and’ denoted by the symbol ¯, Disjunction which corresponds to the

Three basis connectives are Conjunction which corresponds to the English
word ‘or’ denoted by the symbol ° and Negation which corresponds to the
word ‘not’ denoted by the symbol ±

Truth Tables
A table that shows the relation between the truth values of a compound
statement and the truth values of its sub-statements is called the truth table. A
truth table consists of rows and columns. The initial columns are filled with the
possible truth values of the sub-statements and the last column is filled with
the truth values of the compound statement on the basis of the truth values of
the sub-statements written in the initial columns. If the compound statement is
made up of n sub-statements, then its truth table will contain 2n rows.
Logical Equivalence
Two compound statements A and B are said to be logically equivalent or

simply equivalent, if they have identical last columns in their truth tables.
Negation of a Negation
write ±(±
±p) ²p.
Negation of a Negation of a statement is the statement itself. Equivalently we
Conditional and Bi-Conditional Statements
In Mathematics, we frequently come across statements of the form “If p then
denoted by & z | and read as ‘p implies q’.

q”. Such statements are called Conditional statements or implications and
If p and q are two statements, then the compound statement & z | | z &
is called a Bi-Conditional statement and is denoted by & y |.
&z| &y|
TRUTH TABLE
p q p¯q p°|
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T
Tautologies and Contradiction
A statement is said to be a Tautology, if the last column of its truth table

contains only T. In other word, it is true for all logical possibilities.
A statement is said to be a Contradiction, if the last column of its truth table

contains only F. In other word, it is false for all logical possibilities.

Groups
Binary Operation
A binary operation * on a non-empty set S is a rule, which associates to each

ordered pair (a, b) of elements a, b in S an element a*b in S.
Multiplication table for a Binary Operation
Any binary operation * on a finite set S = {a1, a2, a3, …., an} can be described by
means of multiplication table. This table consists of ‘n’ rows and ‘n’ columns.
Place each element of S at the head of one row and one column, usually taking
them in the same order for columns as for rows. The operator * is placed at the
left hand top corner. The nxn=n2 spaces can be filled by writing ai * aj in the
space common to the ith row and the jth column of the table.
List of Symbols used
Z - for every
n - belongs to
³ - there exists
´ - such that
, - implies
Definition
A non-empty set G, together with an operation * i.e,, (G, *) is said to be a Group

if it satisfies the following axioms.
• Closure axiom : Z a,b n G, , a * b n G
• Associative axiom : Z a, b, c n G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
• Identity axiom : Z a n G, ³ e n G, such that a * e = e * a = a
• Inverse axiom : Z a, e n G, ³ a-1 n G, such that a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e
Here e is called the identity element of G and a-1 is called the inverse of a in G.

Definition (Commutative Property)
Z a, b n S.
A binary operation * on a set S is said to be commutative, if a * b = b * a,
Definition
If a Group satisfies the Commutative property then it is called an Abelian

Group (or) a Commutative Group, otherwise it is called a non-abelian group.
Order of a Group
The Order of a Group is defined as the number of distinct elements in the

underlying set.
If the number of elements is finite, then the group is called a finite group and if
the number of elements is infinite then the group is called an infinite group.
The Order of a group G is denoted by o(G).
Definition ( Semi-Group )
A non-empty set S, together with an operation * i.e,, (S, *) is said to be a Semi-

Group if it satisfies the following axioms.
• Closure axiom : Z a,b n S, , a * b n S
• Associative axiom : Z a, b, c n S, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Definition ( Monoid )
A non-empty set M, together with an operation * i.e,, (M, *) is said to be a

Monoid if it satisfies the following axioms.
• Closure axiom : Z a,b n M, , a * b n M
• Associative axiom : Z a, b, c n M, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
• Identity axiom : Z a n M, ³ e n M, such that a * e = e * a = a

Properties of Groups
• The identity element of a group is unique.
• The inverse of each element of a group is unique.
• Let G be a group. Then for all a, b, c n G
o a * b = a * c , b = c G("! :(--!% GR
o b * a = c * a , b = c g%)?! :(--!% GR
• In a group G, ^ , for every a n G
• Reversal Law : Let G be a group. a, b n G. Then µ ^

13. Fourier Series

Results :
Fourier Series of f(x)

Interval f(x) a0 an bn
_ _
] - - -
" \ d # #% e _ _
- - © " © "# © "#%
^ - - - - -
- - -
(-l, l)
, "%# , "%# , "%# ('(
_ _
] - - -
" \ d # #% e _ _
- - © " © "# © "#%
(0, 2l)
^
- - - - -

_ _
] _ _ _
_ _

_, _
" \ d # #% e © " © "# © "#%
- - _ _ - _ -
^ _ _ _
, "%# , "%# , "%# ('(
, _ _ _
] _ _ _
_ _
" \ d # #% e © " © " # © " #%
- - _ _ - _ -
^


Half Range Fourier Sine Series of f(x)

]
_
-
" \ #% _
- © "#%
- -
(0, l)
0 0
^

] _

(0, _) " \ #% © "#%
_
0 0
^
Half Range Fourier Cosine Series of f(x)

]
_
- -
_
" \ # © " © "#
- - - - 0
^

(0, l)
]

_ _

" \ # © " © " #
(0, _) _ _ 0

^

COMPLEX FORM OF FOURIER SERIES

Interval Complex form of Fourier Series Fourier Coefficients
]
%_ -
" \ : ( - %_
: © " ( -
-
(-l, l)
^]
-
]
%_
" \ : (
-
- %_
: © " ( -
(0, 2l)
^]
-

] _

_, _ "
\ : (% : © " (%
^]
_
_
] _
, _ " \ : (
: © " (%
%
^] _


Parsevals Identity
Interval Parsevals Identity a0 an bn
- - -
_ _
© " © "# © "#%
« " ∑]
^
-
- - - - -
- - - - -
(-l, l)
- - -
_ _
© " © "# © "#%
« " ∑]
^
-
(0, 2l)
- - - - -
-
_ _ _
_ _

_, _
© " © "# © "#%
« " ∑]
^
_ _ _ - _ -
_ _ _ _ _
, _
_ _ _
_ _
« " ∑]
^
_ © " © " # © " #%
_ _ _ - _ -


Parsevals Identity for Half Range Fourier Sine Series

Interval Parsevals Identity for a0 an bn
Half Range Fourier Sine Series
« " ∑]
^
- -
- _
© "#%
(0, l)
- -
0 0
« " ∑]

(0, _)
_ _
^ _
_
© "#%
_ -
0 0
Parsevals Identity for Half Range Fourier Cosine Series

Interval Parsevals Identity for a0 an bn
Half Range Fourier Cosine Series
« " ∑^
- ]
_ -
_

- © " © "#

- - -
(0, l) 0
_
(0, _) « " ∑^

_ ]
_

_
_
_ © " © " #

_ _ -
0


HARMONIC ANALYSIS
Interval Fourier Series a0 an bn
`( '-.( `( '-.(
_ _
`( '-.(
]
" \ d # #% e

¶ " · ¸ " # - ¹
_
- - _
º " #% »
(0, 2l)
% , - % , -
^
-
% , -

]
_ _ `( '-.( `( '-.( `( '-.(
" \ d # #% e
¶ " · ¶ " # ·
- -
¶ " #% ·
% , _ % , _
(0, 2_)
% , _
^
Harmonic Analysis for Half Range Fourier Sine Series

Interval Harmonic Analysis for a0 an bn
]
_
Half Range Fourier Cosine Series
" \ #% `( '-.(

- º " #%
_
»
(0, l)
^ -
% , -
0 0
]
(0, _) " \ #% `( '-.(
¶ " #% ·
% , _
0 0
^
Harmonic Analysis for Half Range

Fourier Cosine Series of f(x)
Interval Harmonic Analysis for a0 an bn
]
_
Half Range Fourier Sine Series
" \ #
`( '-.( `( '-.(
- ¶ " · _
º" # »
(0, l)
^ % , - -
% , -
0
]

" \ #
`( '-.( `( '-.(
(0, _)
¶ " · ¶ " # ·
^ % , _ % , _ 0

14. Fourier Transforms
Fourier Transform Fourier Sine Transform Fourier Cosine Transform

]

] ]

¼ " © " ( %#
¼# " © " #% #
_
¼ " © " # #
_
√ _
]
] ] ]

" © ¼ " ( %#
# " © ¼# " #% # # " © ¼ " # # #
_ _
√ _
]
¼ " ) ¼# " ) ¼ " )

¼# ½# ¼# # ½# # ¼ # ½ #
¼ "
(%# ¼#

¼# " ¼ " ¼ " ¼ "
# # #
¼ (%# " ¼# --- ---
# # #
¼ " ¼ ¼# " ¼ ¼ " ¼
#
¼

¼ "
% ¼# " ¼ " ¼ " ¼ "
# # # #
"
¼# À "/ Á
#¼ # ¼ À "/ Á " # ¼# #
¼¾ ¿
%# ¼# _

¼ iiiiiiiii
"
iiiiiiiii
¼
#
]
© ¼# ". ½# )# ]

] © ¼ ". ½ )#
© ")
]
© ")

iiiiiiÁ ¼
#
¼ À " iiiiiiii
¼# "# ¼ # ¼ "# ¼ #
#
¼# #
¼
#
¼ À iiiiiiii
"
Á iiiiii
¼# --- ---
¼# ¼ #

¼ "#

--- ---

Convolution of two functions
]
"µ) © "!)
!!
√ _ ]
Convolution theorem for Fourier Transforms
¼ " µ ) ¼#. ½#
Parsevals Identity
«]|"| «]|¼#| #, where ¼# ¼ "

] ]
Parsevals Identity for Fourier Sine Transforms
«]|"| «]|¼# #| #, where ¼# # ¼# "

] ]
Parsevals Identity for Fourier Cosine Transforms
«]|"| «]|¼ #| #, where ¼ # ¼ "

] ]

15. Graphs
Quadratic Graph
To draw a straight line, two points are sufficient but to graph of a quadratic,
more numbers of point required.
For each value of x, the equation y = ax2 + bx + c gives the corresponding

value of y. The set of all such ordered pairs (x,y) which defines the graph is
called quadratic graph.
Quadratic Polynomials
A polynomial with degree 2 is called quadratic polynomial. The general form of
that a 0, and x is a variable.

a quadratic polynomial is y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c are real numbers such
Value of a Quadratic Polynomial
Let y = ax2 + bx + c be a quadratic polynomial and let a be a real number. Then

y = ax2 + bx + c is known as the value of the quadratic polynomial y = f(x) and
it is denoted by y = f(Â).
i.e., f(Â) = aÂ2 + bÂ + c
Solving Quadratic Equation by Graphical Method
In Algebra, we have solved the quadratic equation by

algebraic method. Now we are going to solve this quadratic equation by
Graphical Method.
Type – I
First draw the graph of the equation y = ax2 + bx + c
Here y = 0 is the equation of x=axis
Get the points of intersection of the curve y = ax2 + bx + c with x-axis.
The x- coordinates of the intersecting points will give the roots of the given
equation.
Type – II
Split the quadratic equation into two equations representing a parabola and a
straight line. Draw their graphs.
The x- coordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola and the straight
line will give the roots of the given quadratic equation.

16. Integral Calculus

Integrals of Standard Functions :
√

. © ,
. © # ? -)
√

. © -) , √ √
. © 9 -)

. © ( ( √

. © 9
#%

. © , √
√

-)
. © 9

-)
}. © #%
#

. © -) C D , I 3
~. © # #%

! -) #( . © #%
. © √

-) #

! -) #% . © #
. © √

-) #(
#( -) #( ! . © !
_ _
. ©

-) !
}. © !
#( -) #(
!
_
. © ~. © #(

-) ! √

. © #( ! . © #(
√

. © #(
! . © #% ?
√

. © #( !
#(
. © # ?
√

. © #( ! #(
. © ! ?

}. © #% ? # ?

. © ! ?

~. © # ? #% ?

. © #( ?
! ? -) # ? √

. ©

. © #( ?
√
. © ! ? -) #% ? (
. © ( #% #%
#
. © #( ? ! ?
#( ?
(
}. © ( # # #%
. © #( ? ! ?

~. © √
. © #( ? ! ?
#( ? √
]

. © #( ?
! ? . © ( #

. © !
]

. © ( #%
. « -)

, (x>a)

}. © #% . © -) -)

√
_ _
√

~. © 9
#%
}. © #% © #

. © #%
√
}…… _
, if n is even.
√
………..
-)



}. « #% # }. © " © "

© "
_
}……}…… _

………..

}}. © "
© "
only if both m and n are even.

© ", %" "%# ('( ".!%®
} . © " Ã }~. © . ' .'
© ' .

, %" " %# ".!%

}. © . ' .'
./' .//'
./// '
© ", %" "
" ('( -%F( ".!%® l . T(.--% ".-
}. © " Ã

, %" "

" -%F( ".!%

Double Integral in Cartesian Coordinates Properties of the Definte Integrals
. © " © "
Double Integral over region R may be
evaluated by two successive integrations. If A

ÄÅ [ [ Ä

is described as
Å [ [ 35 Å [ [ , . © "

© "
Ê Ê
JÆÇ5 È Ä, É È Ä,

Ì . © " © "

Ë Ë

. © " © "

Double Integral in Polar Coordinates
I = Í Ê Ê Ä,

Ë Ë
}. © " © " © "

Triple Integration in Cartesian Coordinates

I = ÎÌ Ä, , Ï Ï
~. © " © " © "

2) ÎÌ Ï represents the Volume of the
1)

. © "
Region R.

Area of Bounded Regions

S( © " ©
© ", %" "

" ®
Ã

.!
%#
, %" "

"

. © "
Volume of Solids of Revolution
Ð-., Ð © _ " © _

.!
%# © ", %" " %# ('( ".!% ®
Ã

, %" " % ".!%

G()!?, G c."( S(, S

Length of a Curve Surface Area of a Solid

_ © C D © 9"/ ! )/ ! !
© C D © B"/ )/

.!
%#

.!
%#
(Parametric Form)
(Parametric Form)
Gamma Function
Ñ « ( , 0 0

]

Ñ Ñ
Ñ ! , %" %# %!()(
Ñ/ √_

17. Laplace Transform

Basic Definitions:
L { t. f(t) } = Ò/(s)
Definition of Laplace Transform Differentiation of Transform
]
Ò# G "! © (#! "!!, ! 0 0.

"!
Integration of Transform
]
G © G "! #
"! G Ò# !
Inverse Laplace Transform
#
G "! )! G "! G )!

Linearity Convolution

"! µ )! © "! . )!
.

G ( "! Ò#

First Shifting Theorem
© )! . "!
. .
!
G ( "! Ò#
!
G Ò#
(! "!

f periodic with period p
&
G Ò#
( !
"! G "! © (#! "!!

(&#
G "!
.!
(# ¼#
t - shifting Second Shifting Theorem

Scaling
G "! ¼#, 0 0
G (#
¼# "!
.!

Differentiation of Function
GÀ"/ !Á #G "!
"
G%!z "! G%#z] # ¼#
Initial Value
GÀ"// !Á # G "!

#"
"/
G " ! # G "!
# "
…
"
G%!z] "! G%#z # ¼#

Final Value

Integration of the Function
!
G © "!! G "!
#
R
Table of Laplace Transform
G G (! G #% R!
# #
# R
#
G ! G ! (! G # R!
# #
# R
R
G ! G #%? R!
!
!
G ! (
!
# #
R
#
( n=1,2,3…)
#
( n=1,2,3…)
G #? R!
G¾ ¿ G ! ( !
#
R
√_! √# #

! ( G Ó!
(#
G ¸ ¹ G .!

√_ #/ #


G # !
# !
^ #
GÀ(!
(! Á
#
#
# #
(a2≠b2)
R

# G #% R!
R! # R!
GÀ(!
(! Á # R
#
#

R R#
G (! #% R! G #% R! R! # R!
#
R # R
#
R#
G (! # R! G ! #% R!
#
R # R
R #
R
G
# R! G ! # R!
## R # R
R (#
G R!
#% R! G .!

## R #
G Ó!, .%! #!(& ".!% G Ó!

(#

18. Matrices
Basic Definitions:
Row Matrix Transpose of Matrix

One row and any number of columns. The matrix obtained by interchanging rows
Eg:- [ 1 2 3 4 ] and columns of the matrix A is called the
Transpose of A and is denoted by A/ (or)
AT (read as A Transpose).
1 4
Column Matrix
1 2 3
1 Eg ÝÄ É Õ × ÉÞ ¶2 5·
Only one column and any number of rows.
4 5 6
Eg:-¶2· 3 6
3 Triangular Matrix
Square Matrix A Square matrix in which all the entries
Number of rows is equal to number of above the main diagonal are zero, is
called Lower Triangular Matrix. If all the
1 2 3
columns.
1 2
entries below the main diagonal are zero,
Eg:- Õ × ¶4 5 6·
3 4
it is called Upper Triangular Matrix.
7 8 9
1 2 3
Eg:-
Upper Traingular Matrix A ¶0 1 5·

0 0 1
Zero Matrix (or) Null Matrix
0 0 0
All elements are zeros.
0 0 1 0 0
Eg:- 0 Õ × ¶0 0 0· ¶2
0 0 3 0·
0 0 0 1 2 3
Lower Traingular Matrix A
Diagonal Matrix
Symmetric Matrix
A Square matrix all of whose elements
except those in the leading diagonal are A Square matrix A = {aij} is said to be
2 0 0
zero, is called a diagonal matrix Symmetric when aij=aji for all i and j.
3 0
Eg:- Õ × ¶0 3 0·
(i.e., A =AT)
0 5
0 0 4 Skew Symmetric Matrix
Scalar Matrix
A Square matrix A = {aij} is said to be
It is a diagonal matrix whose elements in Skew Symmetric when aij= - aji for all i
2 0 0
diagonal are same. and j.
3 0
Eg:- Õ × ¶0 2 0·
0 3
(i.e., A = - AT)
0 0 2 Singular Matrix
Identity Matrix A Square matrix A is said to be Singular if
the determinant value of A is zero.
A Square matrix in which diagonal

elements are ‘1’ and all other elements ‘0’ Inverse of a Matrix
S j%! S
1 0 0 S
is called Identity Matrix.
1 0
Eg:- Õ × ¶0 1 0·
0 1
0 0 1
Multiplication of Matrices :
Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB only, if the number of
Column in A (Pre-Multiplier) is the same as the number of rows in B (Post-
Multiplier).
A B = AB
[mxn] [nxp] [mxp]
Matrix Multiplication is always associative :

If A,B,C are mxn, nxp, pxq matrices, then (AB)C = A(BC).
Multiplication of a matrix by a Unit Matrix :

If A is a Square Matrix of order n and I is the Unit Matrix of same order n, then
A.I = I.A = A.
Note : AB=0 (NULL) does not necessarily imply A=0 (or) B=0 (or) both A,B=0.
Properties of Matrix Addition :

• Matrix Addition is commutative if both are same order. A+B = B+A.
• It is also associative. A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C.
• Additive Identity : A Null matrix of same order is the identity matrix.
• Additive Inverse : For matrix [A], additive inverse is [-A]. [A] + [-A] = 0.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication :

• Matrix Multiplication is not commutative.
• Matrix Multiplication is distributive over matrix addition.
• A,B,C is of order mxn, nxp and nxp, then A(B+C) = AB + AC.
• A,B,C is of order mxn, mxn, and nxp, then (A+B)C = AC + BC.
The equation ßS
>hà is said to be Characteristic Equation of the
Characteristic Equation :
transformation or the Characteristic Equation of the matrix A.
Eigen Values :
To solve the characteristic equation, we get characteristic roots. They are called
Eigen Values.
To find the eigen vectors, solve (A->I)=0 for the different values of á.
Eigen Vectors :
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem :
Every Square Matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
Properties of Eigen values and Eigen Vectors:

• Sum of the eigen values is equal to the sum of the main diagonal
elements.
• Product of the eigen values is equal to its determinant value.
• The eigen values of A and AT are the same.
• The characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just the diagonal
If > is a eigen value of a matrix A, then 1/> is the eigen value of A-1.
elements of the matrix.
If > is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, 1/> is also its eigen value.
•
If > , > , > , … > are eigen values of a matrix A, then Am has the eigen
•
values > , > , > , … > .

•

• The eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are real numbers.

• The eigen values corresponding to distinct eigen values of a real
symmetric matrix are orthogonal.
• The similar matrices have same eigen values.
• If a real symmetric matrix of order Z has equal eigen values then the
matrix is a scalar matrix.
• The eigen vector X of a matrix A is not unique.
• If A and B are nxn matrices and B is a non-singular matrix then A and
B-1AB have same eigen values.
Diagonalisation of a Matrix :
If a Square matrix A of order n has ‘n’ linearly independent eigen vectors, then
a matrix P can be found such that P-1AP is a diagonal matrix.
Fundamental theorem on Quadratic Form :

Any Quadratic form may be reduced to Canonical form by means of a non-
singular transformation.
Quadratic Form :
A homogeneous polynomial of the second degree in any number of variables
called a Quadratic Form. The matrix corresponding to the Quadratic form in
:(""%%(! " :(""%%(! " :(""%%(! "

ä ç

S ã :(""%%(! " :(""%%(! " :(""%%(! " æ

three variables is
:(""%%(! " :(""%%(! " :(""%%(! "

â å
Let ¬/ S¬ be the given quadratic form in the variables x1,x2,x3,….xn.

Nature of Quadratic Form:
i.e., ¬/ S¬ l … . .
Let the rank of A be r, then ¬/ S¬ contains only ‘r’ terms. The number of
positive terms in the above equation of ¬/ S¬ is called the index of the
quadratic form and it is denoted by ‘s’. The difference between the number of
positive terms and the negative term is called the Signature of the quadratic
form. Signature = 2s-r, where ‘s’ is equal to the number of positive terms and
‘r’ is equal to the rank of A.
19. Measurements
Denominate Number
A Denominate Number is one that refers to a unit of measurement which has

been established by law or by general usage. Examples are 2 inches, 8
pounds, 3 seconds, etc.,
Compound Denominate Number
A compound Denominate Number is one that consists of two or more units of

the same kind. Examples are 4 foot 3 inches, 3 hours 15 minutes, 1 pound 14
ounces, 5 rupees 30 paise etc.,
Denominate numbers are used to express measurements of many kinds, such

as
• Linear (Length)
• Square (Area)
• Cubic (Volume)
• Weight (pounds)
• Time (Seconds)
• Angular (degrees)
This classification is by no means complete. Systems of currency (dollars and

cents, pounds sterling and pence, etc.,) would, for instance, be considered
denominate numbers, and the various foreign systems of weights and
measures would, of course, come under the same head, though they are
beyond the scope of this webpage.
To gain facility in working out arithmetic problems involving denominate

numbers it is necessary to know the most common tables of measures, such
as are given here for reference. Note the abbreviation used, since these are in
accordance with the manner in which the values are usually written.

TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS
1. Length or Linear Measure
Linear units are used to measure distances along straight lines.
U.S. (or) English System

Nautical Measure
12 inches (in. or “) = 1 foot (ft. or ‘) 6080 feet = 1 English nautical mile

3 feet or 36 inches = 1 yard (yd.) 1.15 land miles = 1 English nautical mile
5 ½ yards or 16 ½ feet = 1 rod (rd.) 60 nautical mile = 1 degree of arc
(at the equator)
220 yards or ½ mile = 1 furlong (fur.)
360 degrees of arc = circumference of earth at
320 rods or 8 furlongs = 1 mile (mi.) Equator
1,760 yards = 1 mile 1 fathom = 6 ft. (of depth)
5, 280 feet = 1 mile 1 hand = 4 in.
Metric System
Unit Metres
1 millimetre (mm.) = 0.001 = 0.03937 in.
10 millimetres = 1 centimetre (cm.) = 0.01 = 0.3937 in.
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre (dm.) = 0.1 = 3.937 in.
10 decimetres = 1 Metre (M.) = 1 = 39.3707 in.
10 metres = 1 dekametre (Dm.) = 10 = 32.809 ft.
10 dekametres = 1 hectometre (Hm.) = 100 = 328.09 ft.
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre (Km.) = 1000 = 0.52137 mile
10 kilometres = 1 myriametre (Mm.) = 10000 = 6.2137 miles

2. Square Measure
This is used to measure the area of a surface. It involves two dimensions,

length and width.
SQUARE OR AREA MEASURE
144 square inches = 1 square root (sq. ft.)

9 square feet = 1 square yard (sq. yd.)
30 ¼ square yards = 1 square rod (sq. rd.)
160 square rods = 1 Acre (A.)
640 acres = 1 square mile
SURVEYORS’ SQUARE MEASURE
625 square links (sq. 1.) = 1 square rod (sq. rd.)

( 1 linear link = 7.92”)
16 square rods = 1 square chain (sq. ch.)
10 square chains = 1 acre (A.)
640 acres = 1 square mile
METRIC SQUARE MEASURE
100 square millimetres(sq. mm.) = ¼ square centimetre (sq. cm.)

100 square centimetres = 1 square decimetre (sq. dm.)
100 square decimetres = 1 square metre (sq. m.)
100 square metres = 1 square hectometre (sq. Hm.) or hectare (H)
100 square hectares = 1 square kilometre (sq. km.)

3. Cubic Measure
This is used to measure the volume or amount of space within the boundaries
of three-dimensional figures. It is sometimes referred to as Capacity.
CUBIC OR VOLUME MEASURE
1728 cubic inches (cu.in.) = 1 cubic foot (cu.ft.)

27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard (cu.yd.)
1 cubic yard = 1 load of sand or dirt
128 cubic feet = 1 chord of wood (cd.)
24 ¾ cubic feet = 1 perch of stone (pch.)
LIQUID MEASURE OF CAPACITY
4 gills (gi.) = 1 pint (pt.)

2 pints = 1 quart (qt.)
4 quarts = 1 gallon (gal.)
The imperial gallon is used in the United Kingdom.
1 Imperial gallon = 1.20094 U.S. gallon
APOTHECARIES LIQUID MEASURE
60 drops or minims = 1 fluid drachm

8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce
DRY MEASURE OF CAPACITY
2 pints (pt.) = 1 quart (qt.)

8 quarts = 1 peck (pk.)
4 pecks = 1 bushel (bu.)
METRIC MEASURE OF CAPACITY
1000 cubic millimetres (cu.mm) = 1 cubic centimetre (c.c)

1000 cubic centimetres = 1 cubic decimetre (cu. dm.)
1000 cubic decimeters = 1 cubic metre (cu. m.)
10 centilitres (cl.) = 1 decilitre (dl.)
10 decilitres = 1 litre (l.) = 1 cubic metre
10 cubic litres = 1 dekalitre (Dt.)
10 dekalitres = 1 hectolitre (Hl.)

4. Measures of Weight
These are used to determine the quantity of matter a body contains. Four
scales of weight are used.
• Tray – for weighting gold, silver and other precious metals.
• Apothecaries – used by chemists for weighting chemicals.
• Avoirdupois - used for all general purposes.
• Metric – used in scientific work.
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
16 drams (dr. ) = 1 ounce (oz.)

16 ounces = 1 pound (lb.)
7000 grains (gr.) = 1 pound
14 lb. = 1 stone (st.)
2 st. = 1 quarter (qtr.)
112 lb. = 1 cwt.
2240 lb. = 1 ton
TROY WEIGHT
24 grains (gr.) = 1 pennyweight (dwt.)

20 pennyweights = 1 ounce (oz.)
12 ounces = 1 pound (lb.)

5760 grains = 1 pound
3 ~ grains = 1 carat (kt.)
The carat, as defined in the table, is used to weigh diamonds. The same term is

used to indicate the purity of gold. In this case, a carat means a twenty-fourth
part. Thus, 14 kt. Gold means that 14 parts are pure gold and that 10 parts
are of other metals.
APOTHECARIES WEIGHT
20 grains (gr.) = 1 scruple (sc.)

3 scruples = 1 drachm (dr.)
8 drams = 1 ounce (oz. )
12 ounces = 1 pound (lb. )
5760 grains = 1 pound
The above table is now obsolete but is given for historical interest.

METRIC WEIGHT
10 milligrams (mg. ) = 1 centigram (cg. )

10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg. )
10 decigrams = 1 gram (g. )
10 grams = 1 dekagram (Dg.)
10 dekagrams = 1 hectogram (Hg.)
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (Kg. )
10 kilograms = 1 myriagram (Mg.)
10 myriagrams = 1 quintal (Q. )
10 quintals = 1 tonne (T.)
5. MEASURE OF TIME
60 seconds (sec. ) = 1 minute (min. or ‘)

60 minutes = 1 hour (hr.)
24 hours = 1 day (da. )
7 days = 1 weel (wk. )
2 weeks = 1 fortnight
365 days = 1 common year
366 days = 1 leap year
12 calendar months = 1 year
10 years = 1 decade
100 years = 1 century (C.)
6. ANGULAR OR CIRCULAR MEASURE
Angular (L) or Circular (0) Measure
60 seconds ( ‘’ ) = 1 minute ( ‘ )
60 minutes = 1 degree(0)
90 degrees = 1 right angle (L) or 1 Quadrant
360 angle degrees = 4 right angles
360 arc degrees = 1 Circumference (0)
7. MONEY
UNITED STATES MONEY ENGLISH MONEY
10 mills (m. ) = 1 cent (c., or ct. ) 2 half pennies = 1 penny (d. )

10 cents = 1 dime (d.) 12 pence = 1 shilling (s. )
10 dimes = 1 dollar ($) 20 shillings = 1 pound (₤)
10 dollars = 1 eagle (E. ) 21 shillings = 1 guinea

THE METRIC SYSTEM
Since the metric system is based on decimal values, all ordinary arithmetical
operations may be performed by simply moving the decimal point. The metric
system is a system of related weights and measures. The metre is the basis
from which all other units are derived. The unit of capacity, the litre, is the
volume of 1 Kg. (1,000 g.) of water, and thus is represented by a 1,000 c.c. The
unit of capacity, the litre and its derivates are used for both dry and liquid
measure.
In the following tables whenever the metric equivalents of standard measures

are given, metric equivalents of other denominations may be found by simply
moving the decimal point to the right or the left as may be necessary.
EQUIVALENT VALUES
LINEAR MEASURE SQUARE MEASURE
1 inch = 2.5400 centimetres 1 sq. inch = 6.4516 sq. centimeters

1 sq. foot = 0.0929 sq. metre
1 foot = 0.3048 metre
1 sq. yard = 0.8361 sq. metre
1 yard = 0.9144 metre 1 sq. rod = 25.2930 sq. metres
1 acre = 4046.8730 sq. metres
1 rod = 5.0292 metres
1 acre = 0.404687 hectare
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometres 1 sq. mile = 258.9998 hectares
1 sq. mile = 2.5900 kilometres
1 centimetre = 0.3937 inch 1 sq. centimetre = 0.15550 sq. inch

1 sq. decimetre = 15.5000 sq. inches
1 decimetre = 3.9379 inches
1 sq. metre = 15550.0000 sq. inches
1 decimetre = 0.3281 foot 1 sq. metre = 10.7640 sq. feet
1 sq. metre = 1.1960 sq. yards
1 metre = 39.3700 inches
1 hectare = 2.4710 acres
1 metre = 3.2808 feet 1 hectare = 395.3670 sq. rods
1 hectare = 24.7104 sq. chains
1 metre = 1.0936 yards
1 sq. kilometre = 247.1040 acres
1 kilometre = 3280.83 feet 1 sq. kilometer = 0.3861 sq. mile
1 kilometre = 1093.611 yards
The hectare is the unit of land
1 kilometre = 198.838 rods measure.
1 kilometre = 0.62137 mile

CUBIC MEASURE
1 cu. inch = 16.3872 cu. centimetres

1 cu. foot = 28.3170 cu. decimeters
1 cu. yard = 0.7645 cu. metre
1 cord = 3.624 cu. metres
1 cu. centimetre = 0.0610 cu. inch

1 cu. decimeter = 0.0353 cu. foot
1 cu. metre = 1.3079 cu. yards
1 cu. metre = 0.2759 cord
The cubic metre when used for measuring wood is called a ster.
CAPACITY
1 gallon U.S. = 3.7853 litres
1 gallon U.K. = 4.546 litres
WEIGHT
1 grain = 0.0648 gram

1 ounce troy = 31.103 grams
1 pound troy = 0.3732 kilogram
1 ounce avoirdupois = 28.350 grams
1 pound avoirdupois = 0.4536 kilogram
1 ton = 1.0160 tonne
1 gram = 15.4324 grains
1 gram = 0.0322 ounce troy
1 gram = 0.0353 ounce avoirdupois
1 kilogram = 2.6792 pounds troy
1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds avoirdupois
1 tonne = 0.9842 ton
1 tonne = 2,204.6223 pounds avoirdupois

20. Mensuration
Square
If one side of a square is ‘a’, then its
• Area = a2
• Perimeter = 4a
• Diagonal = √
Rectangle
If the length and breadth of a rectangle are ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively, then
• Area = a x b
• Perimeter = 2(a+b)
• Diagonal = √
Parallelogram
If one side = ‘a’ and height = ‘h’, then
• Area = a x h
Rhombus
If d1, d2 be the diagonals of a rhombus, then
• Area =

B

• Side, a =
• Perimeter =
Trapezium
Area = #. " &--(- #%(#U%#!( (!R(( &--(- #%(#


Triangle
• Area = #( -!%!.( 9##

#
#
, where a,b,c are the
sides and #

Area of the equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ = B , its Perimeter = 3a, its

•
.
√

altitude =
Circle
If r is the radius of a Circle, then
• Area = _
• Perimeter = 2 _r
• Diameter =
Cube
If ‘a’ is side of a Cube, then
• Volume =
• Total Surface = ~
• Diagonal = √
Cuboid
If length, breadth and height of a Cuboid are a, b, c respectively, then
• Volume =
• Total Surface Area =
• Diagonal = √

Hollow Cylinder
A Solid bounded by two coaxial cylinders of the same height and different
radii is called a Hollow Cylinder. If ‘R’ is external and ‘r’ is internal radii of a
hollow cylinder of height h, then
• Area of each end (Top and Bottom) = square units
• Curved Surface Area (Lateral Surface Area) = square units
• Total Surface Area = square units
• Volume of the Cylinder = cubic units

Right Circular Cone
• Slant Height,
• Volume of Cone = cubic units
• Curved Surface Area = square units
• Total Surface Area = square units
Hollow Cone made from a sector of radius ‘r’ and central angle ,
• Radius of Cone =
• Radius of Sector = Slant height of Cone

Sphere
• Volume of Sphere = cubic Units
• Surface Area of Sphere = square units
Hemisphere
• Volume of Hemi Sphere = cubic Units
• Curved Surface Area of Hemi Sphere = square units
• Total Surface Area = Cursed Surface Area + Area of Circular Base

= + =
21. Multiple Integrals
1. Change of Order of Integration
If the limits of the inner integral is a function of x ( or function of y), then

the first integration should be with respect to y (or with respect to x).
Draw the region of integration by using the given limits.
If the integration is first with respect to x keeping y as a constant, then

consider the horizontal strip and find the new limits accordingly.
If the integration is first with respect to y keeping x as a constant, then

consider the vertical strip and find the new limits accordingly.
After finding the new limits, evaluate the inner integral first and then the
outer integral.
coordinates, put x = r cos ;, y = r sin ; and dxdy = r. dr. d; in the given

• In evaluating double integrals by changing Cartesian to polar
integral and then find the new limits for ; and r and then evaluate.
we have to put x = r cos ;, y = r sin ;, z = z.

• To change the three dimensional Cartesians to Cylindrical Coordinates,
coordinates, we have to put x = r sin ;. Cos , y = r sin ; sin , z = r cos

• To change the three dimensional Cartesians to spherical polar
;.
…… , %" %#
}
h « #
_/
; ;
®
…… , %" %# ('(
} _
•

• The area included between the curves y = f1(x) and y = f2(x) and the
ordinates x = a and x = b is given by
"
S( © ©
"

22. Number Work
Arithmetic Progression (A. P)
• The first term of an Arithmetic Progression = a
• Common Difference = d
• nth term, tn = a + (n-1)d
• Number of terms of an Arithmetic Progression,

-

Sum of ‘n’ terms, c

•
c -, if first and last term are known

•
Geometric Progression (G. P)
• The first term of an Geometric Progression = a
• Common Ratio = r
• nth term, tn = a r n-1

Sum of ‘n’ terms c

® , %" I 1
, %" 0 1
•

• Sum to infinity terms, c]

Special Series
• ∑ l … … .

• ∑ l … … .

~

• ∑ l … … . d e


23. Number & Operations
The Number System of Algebra
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS is concerned mainly with certain elements
called Numbers and with certain operations defined on them.
The unending set of symbols 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,…. used in counting

are called Natural numbers.
In adding two of these numbers, say, 5 and 7, we begin with 5 ( or with 7) and
count to the right seven (or five) numbers to get 12. The sum of the two natural
numbers is a natural number, i.e., the sum of the tow members of the above set
is a member of the set. In subtracting 5 from 7, we begin with 7 and count to
the left five numbers to 2. It is clear, however, that 7 cannot be subtracted from
5, since they are only four numbers to the left of 5.
INTEGERS
INTEGERS : In order that subtraction be always possible, it is necessary to

increase our set of numbers. We prefix each natural number with a + sign (in
practice, it is more convenient not to write the sign) to form the positive
integers, we prefix each natural number with a – sign ( the sign must always be
written ) to form the negative integers, and we create a new symbol 0, read
zero. On the set of integers … -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ….. the
operations of addition and subtraction are possible without exception.
To add two integers such as +7 and -5, we begin with +7 and count to the left
five numbers to +2, or we begin with -5 and count to the right (indicated by the
sign +7) seven numbers to +2.
To subtract +7 and -5, we begin with -5 and count to the left (opposite to the
direction indicated by +7) seven numbers to -12. To subtract -5 from +7, we
begin with +7 and count to the right (opposite to the direction indicated by -5)
five numbers to +12.
If one is to operate easily with integers, it is necessary to avoid the process of

counting. To do this, we memorize an addition table and establish certain rules
of procedure. Now, we may state
Rule 1 : To add two numbers having like signs, add their numerical values and
prefix their common sign.
Rule 2 : To add two numbers having unlike signs, subtract the smaller
numerical value from the larger and prefix the sign of the number having the
larger numerical value.
Rule 3 : To subtract a number, change its sign and add.
Rule 4 : To multiply or divide two numbers (never divide by 0!), multiply or

divide the numerical values, prefixing + sign if the two numbers have like
signs and a – sign if the two numbers have unlike signs.
Every positive integer m is divisible by E E . A positive integer m > 1 is

called a Prime if its only factors or divisors are E E . Otherwise, m is
called Composite. For example 2, 7, 19 are primes, while 6 = 2.3, 18 = 2.3.3 and
30 = 2.3.5 are composites. In these examples, the composite numbers have
been expressed as products of prime factors, i.e., factors which are prime
numbers. Clearly, if m = r.s.t is such a factorization of m, then –m = (-1).r.s.t is
such a factorization of m.
THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

and n are integers. Thus, the rational numbers include the integers and
The set of rational numbers consists of all numbers of the form , where m
for example, the integer 1 may be represented by , , , … and the fraction

common fractions. Every rational number has an infinitude of representations,

may be represented by , , , … A fraction is said to be expressed in
~
~

lowest terms by the representation , where m and n have no common prime
factor. The most useful rule concerning rational numbers is, therefore
Rule 5 : The value of a rational number is unchanged if both the numerator and
denominator are multiplied or divided by the same nonzero number.
#

# #
If two rational numbers have representations and , where n is a positive

integer, then > if r > s and < if r < s. Thus, in comparing two rational
numbers it is necessary to express them with the same denominator. Of the

many denominators (positive integers) there is always a least one, called the
}
, the least common

least common denominator. For the fractions and
} } } }
denominator is 15. We conclude that < since = < = .
Rule 6 : The sum (difference) of two rational numbers expressed with the
same denominator is a rational number whose denominator is the common
denominator and whose numerators is the sum (difference) of the numerators.

Rule 7 : The product of two or more rational numbers is a rational number

whose numerator is the product of the numerators and whose denominator is
the product of the denominators of the several factors.
Rule 8 : The quotient of two rational numbers can be evaluated by the use of
Rule 5 with the least common denominator of the two numbers as the
multiplier.
DECIMALS
In writing numbers, we use a positional system, that is, the value given any
particular digit depends upon its position in the sequence. For example, in 423
the positional value of the digit 4 is 4(100). While in 234 the positional value of
the digit 4 is 4(1). Since the positional value of a digit involves the number 10,
this system of notation is called the decimal system. In this system, 4238.75
means

4(1000) + 2(100) + 3(10) + 8(1) + 7( ) + 5( )
PERCENTAGE
}
The symbol %, read percent, means per hundred. Thus 5% is equivalent to

or 0.05.
• Any number, when expressed in decimal notation, can be written as a

percent by multiplying by 100 and adding the symbol %.
• Conversely, any percentage may be expressed in decimal form by

dropping the symbol % and dividing by 100.
• When using percentages, express the percent as a decimal and , when

possible, as a simple fraction.
THE IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
The existence of numbers other than the rational numbers may be inferred
from either of the following considerations.
We may conceive of a non repeating decimal constructed in endless time by

setting down a succession of digits chosen at random
The length of the diagonal of a square of side 1 is not a rational number. i.e.,
there exists no rational number a such that a2 = 2. Numbers such as
√ , √ , √ _ .! ! √

√} are called irrational numbers. The first
}
three of these are called radicals. The radical √ is said to be of order n, n is

called the index, and a is called the radicand.
THE REAL NUMBERS
The set of real numbers consists of the rational and irrational numbers. The
real numbers may be ordered by comparing their decimal representations.
• We assume that the totality of real numbers may be placed in one-to-one

correspondence with the totality of points on a straight line.
• The number associated with a point on the line, called the coordinate of
the point, gives its distance and direction from the point (called the
origin) associated with the number 0. If a point A has coordinate a, we
shall speak of it as the point A(a).
• The directed distance from point A(a) to point B(b) on the real number
coordinate .

scale is given by AB = b – a. the midpoint of the segment AB has
THE COMPLEX NUMBERS

be such a number, say, √
, then by definition √

In the set of real numbers, there is no number whose square is -1. If there is to
Note carefully that √

√
√
9

√ is incorrect. In

order to avoid this error, the symbol i with the following properties is used.
If a > 0, √
%√, %

Then √
√
√
%√ %√ % .

Also, √
√
%√ %√ % . √~
√~
Numbers of the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers, are called
Complex Numbers. In the complex number a + bi, a is called the real part and
bi is called as the imaginary part. Numbers of the form ci, where c is real, are
called imaginary numbers or sometimes pure imaginary numbers.
The complex number a + bi is a real number when b = 0 and a pure imaginary

number when a = 0.

Only the following operations will be considered here.
• To add (subtract) two complex numbers, add (subtract) the real parts
and add (subtract) the pure imaginary parts,
i.e., (a + ib) + (c + id) = ( a + c) + (b+d)i
• To multiply two complex numbers, form the product treating I as an

ordinary number and then replace i2 by -1.
i.e., (a + ib) (c + id) = ( ac - bd) + (bc+ad)i

24. Ordinary Differential Equations
General form of a Linear Differential Equation of the nth order with constant
coefficients is
è è l … … . . ¬, where , , , . . are constants.

è è

The Solution of above equation consists of

• Complementary Function (C.F)
• Particular Integral (P.I)
Also,

¬ © ¬ ¬ ( © ¬ ( ¬ ( © ¬ (
U U
U
Complementary Function
An auxillary equation is given by l … .
Solving this, we get , , , … … , # ′r′ éppêq.
Nature of the Roots
Roots of an Auxillary Equation Complementary Function (C.F)
S( T(
Roots are Real and Distinct.
Roots are m1, m2 where m1 m2.
Roots are Real and Equal. S T(

Roots are m1, m2 where m1 m2.
S T(
(7 S # V T #% V

Roots are imaginary.
7EV

To find Particular Integral
¬

"U
Particular Integral P. I =
X Particular Integral
P. I = Pf1 + Qf2
where P =
«
"
X, where X is a
" " " "

function of x.
Q=«
"
" " " "

(
(
(
, %" "
"U "
P. I =
( , %" " , "/

"/
=
( , %" "/ , "//

"//
=
"U

"U
P. I =
By expanding "U , we get a solution.
Sin 7x (or) cos 7x

# 7 #% 7
"U
P. I =
Replacing D2 by – 7
( ë
(
(
ë
"U "U
P. I =
#%
#% 7 # 7
# "U
P. I =

Homogeneous Equation of Euler Type
(P , z = log x
xD = D/
x2D2 = D/ (D/ - 1)
x3D3 = D/ (D/ - 1) (D/ - 2)
x4D4 = D/ (D/ - 1) (D/ - 2) (D/ - 3)
Some Standard Binomial Expansion

l … ….

l … ….

l … ….

l … ….

25. Partial Differential Equation

Let us assume that z will always represent a function of x and y. i.e., z = f(x,y)
where x and y are two independent variables and z is a dependent variable.
Notations
& , | , , # , !
YP YP Y P Y P Y P
Y Y Y Y Y Y
• If the number of constants to be eliminated is equal to the number of

independent variables then the required Partial Differential Equation will
be of First Order.
• If the number of constants to be eliminated is more than the number of

independent variables then the required Partial Differential Equation will
be of Second Order or higher order.
• If the number of functions to be eliminated is one, then the required

Partial Differential Equation will be of first order otherwise it will be of
second order or higher order.
• Eliminating ф from ф., ' gives a Partial Differential Equation
. .
8' ' 8

To Solve f(p, q) = 0
Let z = ax + by + c be the solution.
Then p = a, q = b, we get f(a,b)=0
Solving, we get ф
The Complete Integral is z = ax + ф y + c. There is no singular integral.
• The complete integral of Partial Differential Equation of the type
Z = px + qy + f(p, q) is z= ax + by + f(a,b)

To Solve f(z, p, q) = 0
Let z=f(x + ay) be the solution.
Put u = x + ay, then z = f(u).
P P
& , |
. .
Solving " P, , . which is an ordinary differential equation, we get

P P
.
the required solution.
To Solve f1(x, p) = f2(y, q)
Let f1(x, p) = f2(y, q) = k
p = F1(x, k)
q = F2(y, k)
Then P « ¼ , F « ¼ , F
To Solve F(xmp, ynq) = 0 and F(z, xmp, ynq) = 0
If , , !?(
Xmp = (1 – m)P
Ynq = (1 – n)Q, where @ , ª

YP YP
Y¬ Yí
Solution is F ( P, Q ) = 0
F (z, P, Q) = 0
If , , !?(
put log x = X and log y = Y
xp = P and yq = Q
Solution is F ( P, Q ) = 0
F (z, P, Q) = 0

Lagranges Linear Equation
The standard form is Pp + Qq = R where P, Q and R are functions of x, y

and z.
The subsidiary equation is
P

@ ª g
Choose any three multiplier l, m, n such that
P - P
, R?(( -@ ª g
@ ª g -@ ª g
i.e., - P = 0
Solving, we get u(x, y, z ) = c1
Similarly choose another set of three multipliers l/, m/, n/ such that
P -/ / / P
, R?(( -/ @ / ª / g
@ ª g -/ @ / ª / g
Solving, we get v(x, y, z ) = c2
The Solution is given by ф(u, v) = 0

HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
The general form of Linear Partial Differential Equation is
Y P Y P Y P
l … ¼ ,
Y Y Y Y
The Solution is z = Complementary Function (C.F) + Particular Integral (P.I)
To find Complementary Function (C.F)
Auxillary Equation is … …
This equation has n roots say , , , … . .
Case (i)
If the roots are real ( or imaginary) and different say l . . ,

then the C.F is
P " " " l … "
Case (ii)
If any two roots are equal say l …then the C.F is
P " " " " … … "
Case (ii)
If any three roots are equal say } l …then

the C.F is
P " " " " … …

"

To find Particular Integral ( P. I )
If F(x, y) = eax+by, then
Rule 1

@. h ( ( &'%( ф,
фU, U
/ ф,
If ф, , !?( ("( ! #(%'.
Rule 2
If F(x, y) = sin (mx+ny) or cos(mx+ny), then

@. h #% #
фU, U/
Replace D2 by –m2, D/2 by –n2 and DD/ by –mn in ф, provided the
denominator is not equal to zero. If the denominator is zero, then refer to
case (iv).
Rule 3
If F(x, y) = xmyn then

@. h фU, U/
фU, U/
Expand фU, U/ by using Binomial theorem and then operate on xmyn.
Note 1
", means integrate f(x,y) with respect to ‘x’ one time assuming ‘y’ as a

U
constant. U/ ", means integrate f(x, y) with respect to ‘y’ one time

assuming ‘x’ as a constant.
Note 2
In xmyn, if m < n, then try to write фU, U/ as фU/ and if n < m, write фU, U/
U
as ф U
U/

Rule 4
If F(x, y) is any other function, resolve фU, U/ into linear factors say
U
U/ U
U/ … . . (!, !?( !?(

@. h ¼,
U
U/ U
U/
¼, « ¼,
R?((

Now,
U U
Note :
If the denominator is zero in Rule 1 and Rule 2, then apply rule 4 to find
Particular Integral.

26. Probability
Random Experiment
Any experiment whose outcomes cannot be predicted in advance or determine

in advance is a random experiment.
Trial
Each performance of the random experiment is called a trial.
Sample Space
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called a sample

space and is denoted by S.
Sample Point
Each element of the sample space is called a sample point.
Event
An event is a subset of a sample space.
Equally Likely Events
Two or more events are said to be equally likely if each one of them has an
equal chance of occurring. In tossing a coin, getting a head and getting a tail
are equally likely events.
Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive events if the occurrence
of any one of them excludes the occurrence of the other event. i.e., they cannot
occur simultaneously.
Favourable Events or Cases
The number of outcomes of cases which entail the occurrence of the event in
an experiment are called favourable events or favourable cases.
Probability
Let A be any event and the number of outcomes of an experiment favourable

to the occurrence of A be ‘m’ and let ‘n’ be the total number of outcomes which
are all equally likely. Then the probability of occurrence denoted by P(A) is
f.( " "'.-( .!(# " S

defined as
@S
A!- .( " .!(#
Definition (Conditional Probability)
The conditional Probability of an event B, assuming that the event A has

already happened and is denoted by P(B/A) and defined as
@
T @SîT
, provided P(A)0
S @S
Similarly
@
S @SîT
, provided P(B)0
T @T
Theorem (Multiplication theorem on probability)
The Probability of the simultaneous happening of two events A and B is given
T
by
@S î T @S. @ C D
S
Definition
Two events A and B are independent if @S î T @S. @T
Baye’s Theorem
Suppose A1, A2, A3, …. An are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events such
that (Ai) > 0 for i = 1,2,3,4,…,n. Let B be any event with P(B) > 0, then
T
S% @S% @
S%
@C D
T T T T
@S @ S @S @ S l . @S @ S


Points to remember
• [ @S [
• Number of outcomes which are not favourable to the event A = n – m.

Probability of non-occurrence of A denoted by A/ is given by
P(A/) + P(A) = 1
• If P(A) = 0, then A is an impossible event. i.e., Probability of an impossible

event is zero. That is P(A) = 0.
• Probability of the sure event is 1. That is P(S) = 1. S is called sure event.
Addition Theorem on Probability
• If A and B are any two events then P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) – P (AîB)
• If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B)
Definition - Random Variable
If S is a sample space with a probability measure and X is a real valued

function defined over the elements of S, then X is called a Random Variable.
Types of Random Variable
• Discrete Random Variable
• Continuous Random Variable
Discrete Random Variable Continuous Random Variable
Definition : Discrete Random Variable Definition : Continuous Random Variable
If a random variable takes only a A Random variable X is said to be

finite or a countable number of continuous if it can take all possible
values, it is called a Discrete Random values between certain given limits. i.e., X
Variable. is said to be continuous if its values
cannot be put in 1-1 correspondence with
Example N, the set of Natural Numbers.
Number of Aces when ten cards are
drawn from a well shuffled pack of 52 Example
cards. The Life length in hours of a certain light
bulb.
Probability Mass Function (p.m.f) Probability Density Function (p.d.f)
@ [ [ « " > 0

• p(x) is non-negative for all real •
• «] "
]
x. for all real X.
• ∑ &% , where pi is the

probability at X = xi
Cumulative Distribution Function
Also, @¬ m
@¬ I 3
@¬ [
@¬ 0 3
If X is a continuous random variable,
∞
the function given by
¼ [ @¬ [ © "!!

∞
Distribution Function

∞ I I ∞
(Cumulative Distribution Function)
The distribution function of a random where f(t) is the value of the

variable X is defined as probability density function of X at t is
¼ [ @¬ [
called the distribution function or
cumulative distribution of X.
\ &%
∞ I I ∞
%ï Properties of Distribution Function
Properties of Distribution Function • F(x) is a non-decreasing

function of x.
• F(x) is a non-decreasing • [ ¼ [ ,

∞ I I ∞
¼
∞ ðtñz] «] "
]
function of x.
[ ¼ [ ,
∞ I I ∞
•
•
¼∞ ðtñz] «] "
]
¼
∞ ðtñz] ¼
•
•
• ¼∞ ðtñz] ¼ • @ [ [ ¼

¼
• @¬ ¼
¼ • F/(x) = f(x)

Mathematical Expectation Mathematical Expectation
Expectation of a Discrete Random Expectation of a Continuous Random

Variable Variable
Definition Definition
If X denotes a discrete random Let X be a continuous random

variable which can assume the values variable with probability density
x1, x2, ….,xn with respective function f(x). Then the mathematical
probabilities p1,, p2, ….pn then the expectation of X is defined as
]
mathematical expectation of X,
ò¬ © "
denoted by E(X) is defined by
ò¬ & & l &

]

\ &% % R?(( \ &%

Note
%^ %^ If is function such that ¬ is a

random variable and ò ¬ exists
Hence the mathematical expectation then
E(X) of a random variable is simply
]
ò © "
the arithmetic mean.
Result ]
]
If ¬ is a function of the random ò © "
]
ò \ @¬

variable X, then
Ð%( " ¬ ò

ò
Properties Properties
• E (Constant) = Constant • E (Constant) = Constant
• E (cX) = cE(X) • E (cX) = cE(X)
• E (aX+b) = aE(X)+b • E (aX+b) = aE(X)+b
• Var (XEc) = Var(X) • Var (XEc) = Var(X)
• Var (aX) = a2Var(X) • Var (aX) = a2Var(X)
• Var (Constant) = o • Var (Constant) = o

Moments
Expected values of a function of a random variable X is used for calculating

the moments. The two types of moments are
• Moments about the origin

• Moments about the mean which are called Central Moments.
Moments about the origin
If X is a discrete random variable for each positive integer r ( r = 1,2,3…) the rth
moment
μ ò¬ \ &% %

/
First Moment : μ ò¬ ∑ &% %

/
Second Moment : μ ò¬ ∑ &% %

/
Moments about the Mean : (Central Moments)
For each positive integer n, (n=1,2,3,…) the nth central moment of the discrete
random variable is
u \%

μ ò¬
¬ u &%
i.e., μ
The algebraic sum of the deviations about the arithmetic mean is always zero.
X. i.e., μ ' ¬ ò¬

ò¬
Second moment about the mean is called the variance of the random variable

Theoretical Distributions
The values of random variables may be distributed according to some definite

probability distribution is called theoretical distribution. Theoretical
distribution are based on expectations on the basis of previous experience.
Discrete Distributions
Definition of Binomial Distribution
A random variable X is said to follow Binomial distribution if its probability

mass function is given by
@¬ & & |è , , , , … . .
Constants of Binomial Distribution
• Mean = np
• Variance = npq
• Standard Deviation = √Ð%( = &|
• p+q = 1
¬~T. & denotes that the random variable X follows Binomial Distribution
with parameters n and p.
In Binomial Distribution, mean is always greater than the variance.

Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution is a limiting case of Binomial Distribution under the

following conditions.
• nth number of trials is indefinitely large. i.e., z ∞
• p the constant probability of success in each trial is very small i.e., & z
• np = >, is finite where > is a positive real number. When an event

occurs rarely, the distribution of such an event may be assumed to
follow a Poisson Distribution.
Definition
A Random Variable X is said to have a Poisson Distribution if the probability

mass function of X is
(> >
@¬ & , , , , , … . . " #( > 0 0
!
The mean of the Poisson Distribution is >, and the Variance is also >.
The parameter of the Poisson Distribution is >.
Examples of Poisson Distribution
• The number of printing errors at each page of a book by a good

publication.
• The number of telephone calls received at a telephone exchange in a

given time interval.
• The number of defective articles in a packet of 100, produced by a good

industry.

Continuous Distribution Function
Normal Distribution
Definition
parameters µ and ô, if the distribution function is

A continuous random variable X is said to follow a normal distribution with
õ
" (

ô

,
∞ I I ∞,
∞ I ö I ∞ 35 ÷ 0 0.
ô√ _
¬~fõ, ô denotes that the random variable X follows Normal Distribution with
mean õ and standard deviation ô. The Normal Distribution is also called
Gaussian Distribution.
• Mean = õ
Constants of Normal Distribution
• Variance = ô2
• Standard Deviation = ô
Properties of Normal Distribution
• It is symmetrical about the line X= õ. i.e., about the mean line.

• The normal curve is bell shaped.
• Mean = Median = Mode = õ

• The height of the normal curve is maximum at X = õ and ô√ _ is the

• It has only one mode at X= õ. The normal curve is unimodal.

maximum height.
• The points of inflection are at X= õ ô.

• The normal curve is asymptotic to the base line.
• Since the curve is symmetrical about X= õ, the skewness is zero.

• A normal distribution is a close approximation to the binomial
distribution when n, the number of trials is very large and p the
• It is also a limiting form of Poisson Distribution i.e., > z ∞, Poisson

probability of success is close to ½. i.e., neither p nor q is so small.
Distribution tends to normal distribution.
@õ
ô I ø I ö ÷ . ~ ~
• Area Property :
@õ
ô I ø I ö 2ô . }
@õ
ô I ø I ö 3ô .
Standard Normal Distribution
A random variable X is called a Standard Normal Variate if its mean is zero and
from the x-scale to the z-scale and vice versa is ù ô .

¬õ
its standard deviation is unity. i.e., N(0,1). The formula that enables to change
] ] ]
© " © PP © PP © PP . }
] ] ]

27. Pure Arithmetic
Basic Definitions
Uniform Speed, Time and Distance
c&((
U%#!(
A%(

A%(
U%#!(
c&((

U%#!( c&(( A%(
Relative Speed
Relative Speed = Sum of the speeds of two bodies when they are
moving along straight path in the OPPOSITE DIRECTION.
Relative Speed = Difference of the speeds of two bodies when they are
moving along straight path in the SAME DIRECTION.
Average Speed
A!- U%#!( :'((

A!- A%( AF(
Average Speed = [not average of speeds]
Resultant Speed
• Resultant [ or effective ] speed of a boat = Speed of the boat in still

water – Speed of the stream, when the boat is moving up stream
• Resultant speed of the boat = Speed of the boat in still water + Speed of
the stream, when the boat is moving down stream.

28. Sets
Symbols
N : Set of Natural Numbers = { 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
W : Set of Whole Numbers = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ….}
I+ or Z+ : Set of Positive integers = { 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
I- or Z- : Set of Negative integers = { -1, -2, -3, -4, …}
I or Z : Set of integers = { -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
: Set of Rational Numbers = { x : x = | when p n I, qn I, q 0}

&
Q
Q/ : Set of Irrational Numbers
R : Set of Real Numbers
n : Belongs to
ú : Does not belongs to
û : Subset A û B means A is a proper subset of B
⊇ : Subset A ⊇ B means A contains B
ý : Proper Subset A ý B means A is a proper subset of B
þ : Superset A þ B means A is a superset of B. i.e., A Properly contains B
± : Difference : A ± B means a set containing all elements of A which are

not elements of B
: Universal Set

/
(or) ‘ (or) - : Complement A/ or A’ or A- means complement set of A, is the
set of elements of U which do not belong to A
: Union (or) join : A B means a set of elements which belong either

to A or to V or to both
î : Intersection (or) meet : A î B means a set of elements which belong

to both A and B
N(A) : Cardinal No. of A : means the number of elements in the set A
P(A) : Power set of A
AxB : A x B = Cartesian product of A and B

Operation on Sets
Union of Sets : A B = / n pé n pé n r
Intersection of Sets : A î B = / n r n
u / n r ú
Complement of a Set : A/ or Ac or S
Set Difference : A – B = / n r ú
Properties of Union
Set Union is Commutative. i.e., AB=B A
Set Union is Associative. i.e., A (B C) = (A B) C
Properties of Intersection
Set Intersection is Commutative. i.e., AîB=BîA
Set Intersection is Associative. i.e., A î (B î C) = (A î B) î C
Properties of Set Difference
Set Difference is not Commutative. i.e., A

B B
A
Set Difference is not Associative. i.e., A

(B
C) (A
B)
C
Distributive Property
Union is distributed over intersection. i.e., A (B î C) = (A B) î (A C)
Intersection is distributed over union. i.e., A î (B C) = (A î B) (A î C)
Other Laws
S T S T

S î T
S T : S T :

nA î B
nB î C
nA î C nA î B î C

29. Statistics
Class Boundaries

• Lower Class Boundary = Lower Class Limit -

• Upper Class Boundary = Upper Class Limit +
where d is the common difference between the upper

class limit of a class and the lower class limit of the
next class.
Class Mark
GR( :-## G%%! &&( :-## G%%!

Class Mark =
GR( :-## T. &&( :-## T.

=
Width or Size of a Class
Width or Size of a Class = Upper Class Boundary – Lower Class Boundary
¼(|.( " :-##

A!- ¼(|.(
• Relative Frequency =

¼(|.( " :-##
A!- ¼(|.(
• Percentage Frequency =
Range
Range = Difference between the maximum values and minimum values

of a set of observations.

Arithmetic Mean
u
u
and
∑ % ∑ "
∑"
: ∑ "
Arithmetic Mean = S ∑"
, where C is common interval.
Rang e= Maximum Value – Minimum Value
Standard Deviation = ô B ,
u
iii%# !?( (
∑

∑
=ô B
,
S S %# !?( ##.( (
∑

Standard Deviation for Disordered Series
ô ,
u
iiii%# !?( (
∑ "
∑"
∑ " ∑ "

ô
N O
∑" ∑"
Variance = ô
Standard Deviation of first n natural number = B

• The Standard Deviation of a series remain unchanged when each value

is added (or) subtracted by the same quantity.
• The Standard Deviation of a series gets multiplied (or) divided by the

same quantity k, if each value is multiplied (or) divided by k.

30. Tables
Addition Tables
0+1 =1 1+1 =2 2+1 = 3 3+1 = 4 4+1 = 5 5+1 = 6

0+2 =2 1+2 =3 2+2 = 4 3+2 = 5 4+2 = 6 5+2 = 7
0+3 =3 1+ 3 = 4 2+3 = 5 3+3 = 6 4+3 = 7 5+3 = 8
0+4 =4 1+4 =5 2+4 = 6 3+4 = 7 4+4 = 8 5+4 = 9
0+5 =5 1+5 =6 2+5 = 7 3+5 = 8 4+5 = 9 5 + 5 = 10
0+6 =6 1+6 =7 2+6 = 8 3+6 = 9 4 + 6 = 10 5 + 6 = 11
0+7 =7 1+7 =8 2+7 = 9 3 + 7 = 10 4 + 7 = 11 5 + 7 = 12
0+8 =8 1+8 =1 2 + 8 = 10 3 + 8 = 11 4 + 8 = 12 5 + 8 = 13
0+9 =9 1 + 9 = 10 2 + 9 = 11 3 + 9 = 12 4 + 9 = 13 5 + 9 = 14
0 + 10 = 10 1 + 10 = 11 2 + 10 = 12 3 + 10 = 13 4 + 10 = 14 5 + 10 = 15
6+1 = 7 7+1 = 8 8+1 = 9 9 + 1 = 10 10 + 1 = 10 11 + 1 = 12

6+2 = 8 7+2 = 9 8 + 2 = 10 9 + 2 = 11 10 + 2 = 12 11 + 2 = 13
6+3 = 9 7 + 3 = 10 8 + 3 = 11 9 + 3 = 12 10 + 3 = 13 11 + 3 = 14
6 + 4 = 10 7 + 4 = 11 8 + 4 = 12 9 + 4 = 13 10 + 4 = 14 11 + 4 = 15
6 + 5 = 11 7 + 5 = 12 8 + 5 = 13 9 + 5 = 14 10 + 5 = 15 11 + 5 = 16
6 + 6 = 12 7 + 6 = 13 8 + 6 = 14 9 + 6 = 15 10 + 6 = 16 11 + 6 = 17
6 + 7 = 13 7 + 7 = 14 8 + 7 = 15 9 + 7 = 16 10 + 7 = 17 11 + 7 = 18
6 + 8 = 14 7 + 8 = 15 8 + 8 = 16 9 + 8 = 17 10 + 8 = 18 11 + 8 = 19
6 + 9 = 15 7 + 9 = 16 8 + 9 = 17 9 + 9 = 18 10 + 9 = 19 11 + 9 = 20
6 + 10 = 16 7 + 10 = 17 8 + 10 = 18 9 + 10 = 19 10 + 10 = 20 11 + 10 = 21
Multiplication Tables
0x1 =0 1x1 =1 2x1 = 2 3x1 = 3 4x1 = 4 5x1 = 5

0x2 =0 1x2 =1 2x2 = 4 3x2 = 6 4x2 = 8 5 x 2 = 10
0x3 =0 1x3 =1 2x3 = 6 3x3 = 9 4 x 3 = 12 5 x 3 = 15
0x4 =0 1x4 =1 2x4 = 8 3 x 4 = 12 4 x 4 = 16 5 x 4 = 20
0x5 =0 1x5 =1 2 x 5 = 10 3 x 5 = 15 4 x 5 = 20 5 x 5 = 25
0x6 =0 1x6 =1 2 x 6 = 12 3 x 6 = 18 4 x 6 = 24 5 x 6 = 30
0x7 =0 1x7 =1 2 x 7 = 14 3 x 7 = 21 4 x 7 = 28 5 x 7 = 35
0x8 =0 1x8 =1 2 x 8 = 16 3 x 8 = 24 4 x 8 = 32 5 x 8 = 40
0x9 =0 1x9 =1 2 x 9 = 18 3 x 9 = 27 4 x 9 = 36 5 x 9 = 45
0 x 10 = 0 1 x 10 = 1 2 x 10 = 20 3 x 10 = 30 4 x 10 = 40 5 x 10 = 50
6x1 = 6 7x1 = 7 8x1 = 8 9x1 = 9 10 x 1 = 10 11 x 1 = 11

6 x 2 = 12 7 x 2 = 14 8 x 2 = 16 9 x 2 = 18 10 x 2 = 20 11 x 2 = 22
6 x 3 = 18 7 x 3 = 21 8 x 3 = 24 9 x 3 = 27 10 x 3 = 30 11 x 3 = 33
6 x 4 = 24 7 x 4 = 28 8 x 4 = 32 9 x 4 = 36 10 x 4 = 40 11 x 4 = 44
6 x 5 = 30 7 x 5 = 35 8 x 5 = 40 9 x 5 = 45 10 x 5 = 50 11 x 5 = 55
6 x 6 = 36 7 x 6 = 42 8 x 6 = 48 9 x 6 = 54 10 x 6 = 60 11 x 6 = 66
6 x 7 = 42 7 x 7 = 49 8 x 7 = 56 9 x 7 = 63 10 x 7 = 70 11 x 7 = 77
6 x 8 = 48 7 x 8 = 56 8 x 8 = 64 9 x 8 = 72 10 x 8 = 80 11 x 8 = 88
6 x 9 = 54 7 x 9 = 63 8 x 9 = 72 9 x 9 = 81 10 x 9 = 90 11 x 9 = 99
6 x 10 = 60 7 x 10 = 70 8 x 10 = 80 9 x 10 = 90 10 x 10 = 100 11 x 10 = 110

31. Theoretical Geometry

Definition
The Geometry which deals with properties and characters of various

geometrical shapes with axioms / theorems without accurate measurements is
known as Theoretical Geometry.
History
Geometry was developed by the Egyptians more than 1000 years before Christ
to help them mark out of their fields after the floods from the Nile, but was
abstracted by the Greeks into logical system of proofs many centuries later.
For measurements, the length of line and sizes of angles were needed. For
logical system of proofs, basic postulates or axioms were necessary. Now the
study of Geometry is useful in our daily life in many ways.
Axioms (or) Postulates
Some Geometrical statements are accepted and they are without any proof.
Such statements are called Axioms. An axiom is a self-evident truth.
Let us learn some important axioms.
Axiom – 1
Given any two distinct points in a plane, there exists one and only one line
passing through them.
Axiom – 2
Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in common.
Axiom – 3
Given a line and a point not on the line, there is one and only one line which
passes through the given point and is parallel to the given line.
Complementary Angles
Two angles are complementary if their sum is 90o.
Supplementary Angles
Two angles are said to be supplementary if their sum is 180o.
Adjacent Angles
Two angles are adjacent angles if both angles have a common vertex.

Linear pair
Two adjacent angles form a linear pair if the two non-common arms are in a
straight line.
Theorems
A theorem is a geometrical statement which needs to be proved. To prove a

theorem, the following five important steps are followed.
• Draw the figure

• Write all the data
• Write what is to be proved, using letters of figures
• Write the construction, if necessary which will help to prove the theorem
• Write the proof with statements and reasons
Theorem
If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the two adjacent angles so formed is
180o.
Theorem
If the sum of two adjacent angles is 180o, then their outer arms are in the same
straight line.
Corollary : Corollary is also a Geometrical Statement which can be proved

from the theorem.
Corollary
If two straight line intersect each other, the sum of the four angles so formed is
equal to 360o (or) 4 right angles.
Corollary
If any number of straight lines meet at a point, the sum of all the angles so
formed is equal to 360o (or) 4 right angles.
Corollary
If from a given point on a line, any number of rays are drawn on the same side
of it, the sum of all the angles so formed is equal to two right angles (180o)
Theorem
If two lines intersect, the vertically opposite angles so formed are equal.

Parallel Lines
Two (or) more lines are said to be parallel to each other, if they are in the same
plane and do not intersect when produced on either side. i.e., distance between
them remains same.
Transversal
A straight line which intersect two or more lines at distinct points is called a
transversal. When a transversal intersect two lines, four pairs of angles are
formed.
Playfair’s Axiom
Lines which are parallel to the same line are parallel to each other.
Theorem
If a transversal intersects two parallel lines then the pair of corresponding

angles are equal.
Converse of the above theorem
If a transversal intersects two straight lines such that a pair of corresponding

angles are equal, then the two lines are parallel.
Theorem
If a transversal intersects two parallel line then

• Each pair of alternate angles are equal
• The interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary
Theorem
The sum of three angles of a triangle is 180o.
Theorem
If a side of a triangle is produced, the exterior angle so formed is equal to the

sum of the two interior opposite angles.
Important Notes
• In a triangle, the sum of any sides is always greater than the third side.
• Every triangle should have atleast two acute angles.
• The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180o or 2 right angles.
• The sum of the angles of an n-sided polygon is (2n-4) right angles.
• In any right angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares in the other two sides (Pythagorus theorem)

Angles
• g%)?! )-(
• S.!( )-( I
• v!.#( )-( 0 .! I
• g("-( )-( 0 .! I ~
• S)-(# S T ( :&-((!, %" S T
• S)-(# S T ( c.&&-((! , %" S T
Triangle
In a triangle ABC, A, B, C are the vertical angles and sides BC, CA, AB are
denoted by a, b, c respectively. Then
• A+B+C =
• a + b > c, a + c > b, b + c > a
• ~ I , 4 ~ I 3, ~ 3 I 4
• Exterior angle = Sum of two opposite interior angles
Polygon
= (2n -4) x

• Sum of interior angles of a polygon of n sides = (2n – 4) right angles
• Sum of exterior angles of a convex polygon = ~

• Each angle of a regular polygon of n sides =
•
having internal angle = %#
~
Number of sides of a regular polygon each


Theorem
If two chord of a circle intersect inside the circle (or outside) when produced
the rectangle formed by the two segments of one chord is equal in area to the
rectangle formed by the two segments of the other chord, then
PA x PB = PC x PD
Secant Theorem
If PAB is a secant to a circle intersecting it at A and B and PT is a tangent at T,

then
PA x PB = PT2

Basic Proportionality Theorem (or) Tales Theorem
If the straight line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle it cuts the other
two sides proportionally.
Angle Bisector Theorem
If the vertical angle of a triangle is bisected internally (or) externally, the

bisector divides the base internally (or) externally in to two segments which
have the same ratio as the order of two sides of the triangle.

Theorem [AAA – Similarity]
If two triangles are equiangular to one another, then the two triangles are
similar.
Theorem [SAS – Similarity]
If two triangles have one angle of the one equal to one angle of the other and
the sides about the equal angles proportional, then two triangles are similar.
Theorem [SSS – Similarity]
If two triangles have their corresponding sides proportional then the two
triangles are similar.
Areas of Similar Triangle
Similar triangles are to one another as the squares on their corresponding

sides (or) the ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of
the squares of their corresponding sides.
Similar Triangles
In
• If D, E are midpoints of AB, AC in triangle ABC,

Right angled triangle ABC, Right angled at A
If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle
to the hypotenuse, the triangle on each side of the perpendicular are similar tto
the whole (original) triangle and to each other.

32. Trigonometry
Trigonometry is that branch of mathematics which deals with the study of the
relationship between the sides and angles of triangle.
Basic Definitions:
v&&#%!( c%( _ g%#

Inter Relations Radian Measure
#% ;
#( ; &!(.#( _ g%#

Sj(! c%(
# ;
#( ; &!(.#(
g% ()((#
v&&#%!( c%( _
! ;
! ; Sj(! c%(
Sj(! c%(
! ;
!; v&&#%!( c%(
Trigonometric Ratios for certain
standard angles
&!(.#( ; } ~
#( ;
# ; Sj(! c%(
√
&!(.#(
#( ; √
sin
#% ; v&&#%!( c%(

#% ; √
! √

cos
# ;
# ;
! ; √ ∞
#% ;
√
tan
√ ∞
√
Identities sec
#% ; # ;

#% ; # ; ∞ √
√
cosec

# ; #% ;
∞ √
√
cot
! ; #( ;
#( ;
! ;
#( ;
! ; Also, sin
;
#% ;
cos
; # ;
! ; #( ; tan
;
! ;
#( ;
! ; cosec
;
#( ;
#( ;
! ; sec
; #( ;
cot
;
! ;

Allied Angles
Trigonometrical ratio’s of 90E;, 180E;, 270E;, 360E; in terms of those

of ; can be found easily by the following rule known as A-S-T-C rule.
When the angle is 90E; (or) 270E;, the trigonometrical ratio changes
from sine to cosine, tan to cot, sec to cosec and vice versa.
When the angle is 180E; (or) 360E;, the trigonometrical ratio remains
the same. i.e., sin; --> sin ;, cos ; --> cos ;, etc.,
In each case the sign (+) or (-) is premultiplied by the A-S-T-C quadrant
rule.
S A A : all ratio’s are positive in the I Quadrant

II (90 – 180) I (0 – 90 ) S : sine is positive in the II Quadrant
T C T : tan is positive in the III Quadrant
III (180 – 270) IV (270 – 360 ) C : cos is positive in the IV Quadrant
Compound Angle Formulae Formulae for A, 2A & 3A angles
#% S T #% S # T # S #% T #% S #% S # S

#% S
T #% S # T
# S #% T
# S T # S # T
#%S #% T
# S
T # S # T #% S #% T # S
#% S
# S # S
®
! S ! T
#% S
! S T

! S ! T
! S
! T ! S
! S
T #% S
! S ! T ! S

! S
To convert product in to sum or
# S
! S
difference formulae

#% S # T #% S T #% S
T

! S
# S #% T

#% S T
#% S
T ! S

! S

# S # T # S T # S
T
#% S #% S
#% S

#% S #% T # S
T
# S T
# S # S
# S

S S
#% S #% #

Hyperbolic Functions
If -)( , ( is called
S S
as the Exponential Function.
#
#%

S
#
®
Hyperbolic Functions are defined
# S

in terms of exponential function
S
as below :

#%
(
(
#% ?

S
!
#% S ( (
S # ?
!

#% ?
! ?
S # ?

!
# S # ?
S ! ?
! #% ? ! ?

S #( ?
! # ?
! S
S

! #( ?
#% ?
Formula to convert a sum or difference in Hyperbolic Identities
# ?
#% ?
to product :
:U :
U
#% : #% U #% C D # C D

! ? #( ?
:U :
U
#% :
#% U # C D #% C D ! ?
#( ?

:U :
U # ? #% ? # ?
# : # U # C D # C D

#% ? # ? #% ?
:U :
U
# :
# U
#% C D #%


Relationship between Trigonometric Standard Results
G%

and Hyperbolic Functions :
C D ,
(%
(% z

#%
%
%# !%- .(
(% (% G% #%

# C D
z
G% !
#% % =
C D
(è ( ( (è
% % z
]
= % = % #% ?
( (è

G%
/ (
z
# % # ?
(è (
%
G%
C D (
z∞
G%
(
z∞
G%
/
z∞
General Solutions of #% ; #% 7
; _
7, R?(( n ù
General Solutions of # ; # 7
; _ 7, R?(( n ù
General Solutions of ! ; ! 7
; _ 7, R?(( n ù

Properties of Triangles
Consider a triangle ABC. It has three angles A, B and C. The sides opposite to
the angles A, B, C are denoted by the corresponding small letters a, b, c
respectively. Thus a = BC, b = CA, c = AB. We can establish number of
formulae connecting these three angles and sides.
Sine Formula
In any triangle ABC,

#% S
c% T #% : g,
R?(( g %# !?( %.# " !?( %. %-( " !?( !%)-( ST:.
Napier’s Formulae
• ! !
ST :

• ! !
T: S

! !
:S T

•
Cosine Formulae
In any triangle ABC, the following results are true with usual notation.
•
# S
•
# T
•
# :

Projection Formulae
• # : # T
• # S # :
• # T # S
Sub – Multiple (half) angle formulae
In any triangle ABC, the following results are true.
S #
#
S ##
S #
#

#% # !
##

T #
#
T ##
T #
#

#% # !
##

: #
#
: ##
: #
#

#% # !
##

where s =

Area Formulae ( ∆ (!(# ( " !%)-(
• ∆ #% :

• ∆ #% S

• ∆ #% T

• ∆

g
• ∆ g #% S #% T #% :
• ∆ 9##
#
#

Are true with the usual notations and these are called Area formulae.

Inverse Trigonometrical functions (Inverse circular function)
Properties of Principal Inverse Trigonometric Functions
#% #% # # ! !
#( #( #( #( ! !

#% C D #( # C D #( ! C D !

#( C D #% #( C D # ! C D !

#%

#% #
# !

!
!

!
#(

#( #(
_
#(
_ _ _
#% # ! ! #( #(

If xy < 1, then ! ! !

•
• #% #% #% 9

√

33. Vector Algebra

Basic Definitions
Dot and Cross Product Properties
and
be any two vectors
.
.
and

subtending an angle ;, between them. $ $
! . !̂ #̂ . #̂ F . F
Let
Also, let
represent the unit vector ! !̂ #̂ #̂ F$ F $
! #̂ F ; # F !̂ ; F$ !̂ #̂
$ $
the vectors . (i.e.,) ! . #̂ #̂ . F$ F$ . !̂
perpendicular to the plane containing
Perpendicular to both and . Then,

and
we have Analytic Expressions for the Dot and
|
.
# ; c- ª.!%!
|
Cross Product
and
! # F
If
|

#% ; Ð(! ª.!%!
|

where , , forms a right handled ! # F then
and
.

system.
Angle Between the vectors

and
! #
F

% %

If ; is the angle between them, then
.

# ;
|
| Scalar Trible Product (or) Box
if ; # ; # .

_ _
Further, the vectors are Perpendicular, Product
.
denoted by [
] is

, . called as the scalar triple product (or)
, , ,

.
the box product of the vectors
%# @(&(%.-

%"
.
Also, to
Properties

Angle Between the vectors
and

.
=
.
using Cross Product

.
= . .
=

If ; is the angle between them, then

#% ;

[ ] is equal to the value
|
|
of the vectors ,
, .
of the coefficient determinant
; _ , #% ; .
Further, the vectors are Parallel, if

,
If any two vectors are identical
in a box product then the value
%# @--(- to ,
Also,
is equal to zero. In such a case,
%"

we say that the vectors are
Coplanar.

Vector Triple Product Equation of a Straight Line

=
.

.

through a point and parallel to
Equation of straight line passing

.
= .

is
.
Scalar Product of Four Vectors =

! .

. .
= 8 .

8
.
.

Equation of a Plane
and parallel to .
a point and '
is
Equation of plane passing through
Vector Product of Four Vectors
= # .
+ t '

= [

]
- [

]
and ' are scalars.
where .

= [ ]
- [
]

Gradient
Divergence ¼
& = !
Y
#
Y
F
Y
= & . ¼
Divergence ¼
Y Y YP

Y" Y" Y"

& . Y Y YP
=
|
|
Directional Derivative =
= 0 , ¼ is Solenoidal.
& .¼

!

< ! <
Curl ¼
Unit Tangent Vector =
Normal Derivative = |&| ! #

F
= ' Y
Curl ¼ = & ¼ Y Y
'
Unit Normal Vector
&
Y Y YP
|&| ¼ ¼ ¼
Angle between the Surfaces is given = 0 , ¼
& ¼ is Irrotational.
by,
& .&
cos ; =
Laplace Operator
|& ||& | Y Y Y
&

Y Y YP

Line Integral
Statement
.
« ¼ .
( ¼ ,
The Line Integral along the curve C is denoted by
if c is a closed curve.
Surface Integral
The Surface Integral of ¼ is defined to be

Statement
.
¼
. # È
È ¼
c g
. F
Volume Integral
Statement
Volume Integral of F(x,y,z) over a region enclosing a volume V is given by
) ¼ , , P ) ¼, , P P

c Ð
Green’s Theorem in a Plane
Statement
If u, v, Y , Y are continuous and one-valued functions in the Region R enclosed

Y. Y'
by the curve C, then
Y Y.
© . ' È

g Y Y

Gauss Divergence Theorem
Statement
The Surface Integral of the normal component of a vector function F over a

closed surface S enclosing volume V is equal to the volume Integral of the
divergence of F taken throughout the volume V is represented by,
È ¼ . # ) & . ¼ '

c Ð
Stoke’s Theorem
Statement
The Surface Integral of the normal component of the Curl of a vector function F
over an open surface S is equal to the line integral of the tangential component
of F around the closed curve C bounding S is given by ,
.
« ¼ Íc & ¼ . #

34. Z - Transforms
PROPERTIES OF UNILATERAL Z-TRANSFORM
Property Discrete Z-Transform

Sequence
Linearity " ) " )
Frequency shifting (! "! P(A

" P ¼P
\ "%P , m

mm0
Time shifting
%^
"F
P ¼P
" ¼PPzP

Scaling in
Z-domain (or)
by
Multiplication
"

P ¼P
P
Differentiation
In Z-domain
"
F
¼C D
P
Time reversal
(Bilateral)
Convolution " µ " ¼ P µ ¼ P
" ðtñ ¼P

Pz]
Initial Value Theorem
"∞
ðtñP
¼P
Final Value Theorem
Pz

TABLE OF Z-TRANSFORMS
" ù "
P
P
F
P
P
F
F

P
(
P(è
( P(

F
P
P
F P
P
F PP
P
FF
P
P

P
P

(P

! F!

P-)
P

F
(%! P(%A
P(%A

#% ! P#% A
P P # A
#! PP# A

P P # A
_
#
P
P
_ P
#%
P
, m ® P
. d
, !?(R%#( P

(! "! ¼PPzP(A
Ó 1
Ó
Ï *
Solving Simultaneous Equations with given initial conditions

P P
uP

P P

P P
uP

P
P P
uP

uP
P

Inverse Z-Transform
• P , P
P P
P P
• PÀF Á , P F
P P
P P
• P , P P
P P
P
• P F , P P F
P P
P
• P , P P

P P
P
• PÀFF Á , P P FF

P P
P
• P , P P

P P
P
• PÀFF Á , P P FF

P P
P
• P
, P P
P
P
• P , P P

P

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Mathematics Formulae Explorer www.MathsHomeWork123.

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 1 of 146

This is dedicated to my parents –

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 2 of 146

MATHEMATICS FORMULAE EXPLORER

S. No. Topics Page

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 3 of 146

Expansion and Factorisation

           

H.C.F x L.C.M of two expression =Product of the two expressions

Two expression connected by a sign of equality is

is consistent equation, if the equality holds for some value of the

an inconsistent equation, if the equality holds for no value of the

an identical equation, if the equality holds for any value of the

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 4 of 146

Simultaneous Equation of the type           

•   … . !  "!#,  %# &#%!%'( %!()(

•    , ( '-.( "      

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 5 of 146

• -)  / !%-)   0 0,  0 0 & 3, 4  

• -)    -)  -) 

[ in all cases from third formulae, a > 0, b > 0 & a, b  ,  0 0, 5 0 0 ]

Some standard forms of the Binomial Expansion

The path traced by a point when it moves according to specified geometrical

A straight line is the simplest geometrical curve. Every straight line is

• Point –Slope Form : y-y1 = m(x – x1)

Intercept Form :   , where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are x and y intercepts.

• Normal Form : # 7  #% 7  &

Length of the Perpendicular

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 7 of 146

Angle between two straight line

Condition for Parallel and Perpendicular

The condition for three straight lines to be concurrent is =   =  ,

Pair of Straight Lines

• Combined equation of the pair of straight lines is

• The Straight line is ( i ) Real and Distinct if h2 > ab

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 8 of 146

Slopes of pair of straight line

Angle between the pair of Straight line

• If the straight lines are parallel, then h2 = ab

c(""%%(! " (""%%(! "   

Condition to represent a pair of straight line

• The condition for

• If the centre is origin, equation of circle is x2+y2 = r2

• The equation of circle, if the end points of a diameter are given by

centre is (-g, -f) and radius is 9) "

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 9 of 146

Tangent to the Circle

• Equation of the tangent to a circle at a point (x1, y1) is

• Length of the tangent to the circle from a point (x1, y1) is

• If PT2 = 0, then the point is on the Circle.

• If PT2 > 0, then the point is outside the Circle.

• If PT2 < 0, then the point is inside the Circle.

• Condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = a2

• Equation of any tangent to a circle if of the form    E √ 

• Two tangent can be drawn from a point to a circle is

Mathematics Formulae Explorer - Page 10 of 146

Circles Touching Internally or Externally

• Two circle touch externally, if C1C2 = r1 + r2

• Two circle touch internally, if C1C2 = r1 - r2

Two circles are said to be Orthogonal if the tangent at their point of

Condition for Orthogonal

• Condition for two circles to cut orthogonal is 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 = c1+c2

Classification with respect to the General Equation of a Conic

Simultaneous Equation of the type

• … . ! "!#, %# &#%!%'( %!()(

• , ( '-.( "

• -) / !%-) 0 0, 0 0 & 3, 4

• -) -) -)

[ in all cases from third formulae, a > 0, b > 0 & a, b , 0 0, 5 0 0 ]

Intercept Form : , where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are x and y intercepts.

• Normal Form : # 7 #% 7 &

The condition for three straight lines to be concurrent is = = ,

c(""%%(! " (""%%(! "

• Equation of any tangent to a circle if of the form E √

End points of Latus rectum is E , ( , E ,

The slopes of asymptotes are

• Angle between the asymptotes is 7 #(

Rectangular Hyperbola ( xy = c2 where

• Eccentricity of the Rectangular Hyperbola is ( √ and

The Vertices of the rectangular hyperbola are , and

- P - P

P )P "P ? is

? )P ? "P P) " P

Y Y , ! , Z! , ! , !

Y Y , ! , Z! , ! , !

Y. Y . ., ! , Z! ., ! ., !

Y. Y . ., ! , Z! ., ! ., !

., : # & : #% & ]