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Chapter 9. PN-junction diodes: Applications Rectifiers

Diode applications:
Low R in forward direction:
– Rectifiers
– p+-n-n+ structure preferred I
– Switching diodes
– The p+ and n+ regions reduce
– Zener diodes
the parasitic resistance.
– Varactor diodes (Varactor = Variable reactance)
Low I0 in reverse:
Photodiodes V
– Ge is worse than Si. Why?
– pn junction photodiodes
High voltage breakdown in reverse:
– p-i-n and avalanche photodiodes
– p+-n-n+ structure
Solar Cells
– Higher bandgap materials
Light Emitting Diodes preferred. Why?
Lasers

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Switching diodes Zener diodes

The breakdown characteristics of diodes can be tailored by

• Diodes can be used as switching devices controlling the doping concentration

• Need to change from conducting to non-conducting at high speed Heavily doped p+ and n+ regions result in low breakdown
voltage (Zener effect)
• Storage time or turn-off transients should be small
Used as reference voltage in voltage regulators
• Add recombination centers to reduce minority carrier lifetimes
For example adding 1015cm–3 gold (Au) to Si reduces hole
lifetime to 0.01 s from 1 s!
I
• Use narrow-base diodes
Amount of charge stored in the neutral region of the diode will
be small. V
Region of
operation

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Varactor diodes (Variable reactance diode) Opto-electronic diodes

Voltage-controlled capacitance of a pn junction can be used in

Many of these diodes involve semiconductors other than Si. Use
tuning stage of a radio or TV receiver.
direct bandgap semiconductors.
CJ  (VA)–n , where n = 1/2 for an abrupt pn junction. However, n
can be made higher than 1/2 by suitably changing the doping
Devices to convert optical energy to electrical energy
profile.
– photodetectors: generate electrical signal
– Solar cells: generate electrical power
NA or ND
Linearly graded Devices to convert electrical energy to optical energy
– light emitting diodes (LEDs)
Hyper abrupt abrupt – laser diodes

x
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Optical spectrum correlated with relative eye sensitivity Photodiodes

Photon energy Eph = h c /  Specifically designed for detector application and light penetration
Inserting numerical values for h and c yields Eph = 1.24 eV m /  IL = – q A (LN + W + LP) GL assuming uniform photo-generation
rate, GL
I = Idark + IL

VA I
V

P n
Increasing
Ln W Lp light intensity
Note: Our eye is very sensitive to green light 7 8

Photodiodes p-i-n photodiodes

If the depletion width is negligible compared to Ln + Lp, then IL

is proportional to light intensity.
Spectral response - an important characteristic of any photo-
detector. Measures how the photocurrent, IL varies with the
wavelength of incident light.
The i-region is very lightly doped (it is effectively intrinsic). The
diode is designed such that most of the light is absorbed in the i-
region. Under small reverse bias, the i-region is depleted, and the
carriers generated in the i-region are collected rapidly due to the
strong electric field. If Wi is the thickness of i-region,

Frequency response - measures how rapidly the detector can 1 1

f max  
respond to a time varying optical signal. The generated minority carrier transit time across Wi Wi / vsat 
carriers have to diffuse to the depletion region before an
electrical current can be observed externally. Since diffusion is If Wi = 5 m, vsat =107 cm/s, then fmax= 20 GHz. P-i-n diodes
a slow process, the maximum frequency response is a few tens operating at 1.3 m and 1.55 m are used extensively in optical
of MHz for pn junctions. Higher frequency response (a few fiber communications.
GHz) can be achieved using p-i-n diodes.
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p-i-n photodiodes Bandgap energy versus lattice constant of selected III-V

compounds and alloys
p-i-n photodiodes operating at 1.55 m are made on In0.53Ga0.47As
deposited on InP substrate.

Contact metal
Silicon nitride
p+ InGaAs
i-InGaAs
n-InP buffer

n+-InP substrate
Back contact
metal
h
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Solar cells Solar spectral irradiance

Solar cells are large area pn-junction diodes

designed specifically to avoid energy losses.
I
Voc
Vm
Voc= the open circuit voltage
VA
Isc = current when device is
short circuited –Im

– Isc

 = power conversion efficiency = (Im Vm)/Pin

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Light-emitting diodes Characteristics of commercial LEDs

When pn junction is forward biased,

large number of carriers are injected
across the junctions. These carriers
recombine and emit light if the
semiconductor has a direct bandgap.

For visible light output, the bandgap

should be between 1.8 and 3.1 eV.

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LED cross section

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