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x t\/ Forey,ord

I
ooilmunity has tried to savethe faith of its childrenanclhenceof future
ge)rerations by nraintainingthe tladitionalsystenrof educationalong with
Introdulction
thc sccularistic system. At the First World Confcrenceor.rMuslinr
EdLrcationwe concludedthat asIslanl is a completeway of lil.eit is possible
to evolve social,political,economic,aridpsychologicalthoughtfrom the
lsllmic point ofview. Hencean jntegratedsystemofeducationis nccessary
and it is a possibility provided Muslim govemrnenlsbecornefully awareof
ith the comingof tlrcIndushialRevolutionandthc tlarvnofthe
the danger-of this duality.
scientificage,edllcationbascdon laith or religion facedgrcat
Dr Rosnani l-[ashimis the first scholarto invesligatein detail the
challengeswhich shoohits fbrrrrdation.Two ol lhc faiths
dilfcrencesbetweenthe two systelrs at the thcoreLicaland pr.acticallevels
that had to contend rvith these challerrgesbrc,riglltabout by 'rreat
Westel.n
anrlden'lonstratcthem with specialrcfcrcnceto her.owncountry,Malaysia,
scientificrevolutionwerc Chlistianilyandlslarr. ScholarsofLhc scicntiljc
wtrich is predominantly a Muslirr country, and rvhere its prcvlous
age \\/creplimarily interestcdin cultivatingthc soicntificattitutlcwhiclr
EducationMinister, Daluk Seri Anrvar Itrrahirl, had tried to intplsmentthe
reJecteddoglnasandqucstionedthc absolrrte.They reliedsolclyon reason.
rcr,ommendations ofthe four wolld conferenceson Muslim education.The
They qucstioncdthe strenglh ol'vcrillcittions tltat were not basedon
bar;icproblcm that the Muslinr authoritiesface is that in a mulliracial,
empiricalevidenceto thc extentthal logicalpositivisticphilosophers ofthe
mLrlti:-eligiouscounlrythey find it difficult to Islamizeeducationandhence
VicnnaCircle did no[ accel]tany proof ulless i1was empir.ical.Therewas
1h(1acceptthe easiestway ort, that is to have the secularsystemwith
alsomarkedhostilityloward metaphysics rvhichspeculates ntainlyon thc
Isl:nTicstudiesas an obligatolysubjectfor Muslim childr.en.One of the
natureof tlre Unseen. 'The Vicnna Cir.cleor lYienerKreis was a baudol'
mr',jordrawbacksof the Firs World Conferencewhich I organizedand the
cutthroatsthatwent afterthe fat burghcrsof Continentalmetaphysics wlrit
olher foul world conferencewhich l had the oppofunity to help to or.ganize
had become intolelably inbrcd and ponpously verbose. The ki.r_s is a
is that we never discussedeven this problem. We were too much involved
lvlalaysiankrife, and,the Ll/iencrKr.crscnrployeda kind of Occlm's Razor
in lirst establishingthe theoreticaland pr-acticalneedto Islamizeeducation
calledthe Verifiability Principlc''
for the Muslims, and make edrrcatos and authorities aware of the great
The Vedfiability Principle of mcaning statesthat sonrethingis
danger of the cornpletesecularizationof mirids through the secularist
mcaningfulif and only if it is vcrifiatrlcernpir.ically,
or is a tautologyof
mt,derneducalion. The experintentin Mala),siais an eye-openerfor us all.
mathemalics or logic.2This hasbeelltalicnto meanthatif it cannotbe secn
Dr llosnani's book will thus lead to further researchin this field. Shall we
or measured,it is not worthy of discussion. 'Ihis is of coursea gteat
hirve separateeducation for diflerent religious gror.4rsand also a secular
challengeto religion especiallytvhcn bclief in God aud thc lJeretfter is
sys;temfor the non-religiousgroup? The IslamicAcademyofCambridge
deeplygroundedon faith basedol the Scriptureor revelationanclequally
har; tried to evolve a comnron set of metaphysicalprinciples for a faith-
uponrationalanddeductivercasoning.Usirrghis r.eason, mancouldcleducc
basededucationwhich all the religious groupsmight agreeto acceptas the
from nahtral phetrotlena ceftain laws that govem the universe antt
bar;isfor the nationaleducationsystem.
ultimately indicate the existcnceol tlrc Cr-eator."fhe achievcntents ol'
Tbis book therelbresucceedsrn raisingthesemajor issues.For this
sciencehaveencouraged the view thatscieutificmethodproviclestlrc orly
rcasonalonethis book is a highly u,elcometvorli in the field ofeducation
route to genuine knowledge. As rcligious beliefs cannot tre provctl
as a whole and Muslim educationin uarticular.
sOientifically they are to be doubted,fbr it is assumcdthatreligionis just rr
nratterof subjectiveopiltion."sThe logicalpositivistsnot only wantedto
crpungemetaphysicsfrom philosophy[rut alsofi'om science.
Canbrklge SYEDALI ASHIIAF
CharlesDarwin's theory of evolution which is one of the grearcsr
lugust 1995
tbcoriesof the scieltific agc lrclrs glave inrplicationsfor. lhith bascd
EDUCATIoNAL DUALISM IN MALAYSIA Introduction 3

education.Theideathateveryorganismhasevolvedfroma lesserorganrsm is not basedon blind faith alone.Watsonarguesthat religion caz be


and is continuouslyevolving in order to survive has philosophical creativeand not be dogmaticand exclusive,T Another critidi Dudley
implications.Darwin's theory of evolution reinforcedthe notion of Plunkett,stronglyfelt that'thespirihraldimensionofhumanexperience has
relativismandweakened the ideaofthe existence ofan absolutetranscen- viitually disappeared from the repertoireof contemporary writersabout
dentalbeingor God. This notionof relativismencompassed not only the education'andthatWesterneducational institutionsareconfrontedwith a
nah.rralsciencebut wasexpanded to includecultural,societal,andreligious crisisofvalues. He advocated for regenerating education-integratingthe
valuessuchthattherewereno longeranypermanent andsacredvaluesbut spiritualdimensioninto thewholecurriculum-throughspirituallyattuned
merelythetransientandprofane.'The doctrinethatuniversalevolutionis teachers.sThe attemptsby Christianthinkersand educatorsmentioned
thehighestprincipleofthe physicalworld,onein whichall naturallawsare
abovehavenot met with much successand what surviveare pocketsof
broughtto unity, is accompanied with the ideathat the goal of evolution Christian schools anduniversities.
marksthe idealof moralandreligiousbeliefsandendeavors.'n Evolution
In theMuslimworld theideaofseculareducation cameaboutthrough
hastened theprocessofsecularismwhichdesiresto deconsecrate natureof
all mysticaland supemahralbeliefs. The evolutionfrom sacredand theprocessof colonizationandmodemization.In mostMuslim countries
permanent valuesto thatofthe profaneis understood therewerestrongresistances againstsecular,pragmaticeducation.These
asprogress according
to this schoolof thoughtwhich manifestsitself in the philosophyof resistances wereevidentfrom the existenceof dualsystemsof education
pragmatism.'The pragmatistCharlesMorris was quick to note the tkoughouttheMuslimworld. A dualsystemof educationis onein which
similaritybetweenlogicalpositivismandpragmatism, andhis viewbecame two mutually independentsystemsupholdingmutually exclusiveand
widely shared.'5Pragmatism is a greatinfluencein contemporary human possiblycontradictory educational philosophies operatesimultaneously.In
activities,permeating almostall disciplinesof study.. Muslim countries,the two systemswhich havebeenoperatingare the
Westerncountries havefailedto withstandtheonslaught of secularism traditional,religious educationand the secular,pragmaticeducation.
andpragmatism.Historyhasshownhow religiousor Christianeducation Howeverafternationalindependence, mostofthe Muslim countrieshave
whichformedthebasisofeducationin WestemnationssuchastheUnited attempted to refomulatetheireducational policyandcurriculumsoasto be
StatesandGermanyhasbeengraduallyreplacedby pragmaticeducation. contemporary and integratedbut remainfaith-based. Malaysiais onesuch
There were severalefforts by Christianeducatorsand philosophersto predominantly Muslim countrythat is grapplingwith this dual systemof
defendtheChristianfaith asa basisfor education.They highlightedthe education andthisstudyhighlightsattempts madetherein reformulatingthe
problemwith secularandpragmaticeducation fromtheChristianviewpoint educational policy and curriculumwhich havebeenheightenedwith the
but to no avail. JacquesMaritain,addressed this concernat his Terry presence ofa multiethnicandmultireligiouspopulace.
Lecturesdeliveredat YaleUniversityin 1943.ln theselectureswhichhave
beenpublished,Maritainemphasized thattheaim ofeducationis to make Educationin Malaysia:A Profile
man a whole personincluding his spiritualdimension. As a prelude,
Maritaindemonstrated the flawsofthe existingsystemofeducationwhich CountryBackground
'has been more concemedwith techniquesthan:with goals,and with
aptitudesratherthanwith the wholehumanbeing'.bHe arguedthat any Malaysiais a multiracialcountryin South-East
Asiawith a predominantly
discussionconcemingthe end of educationshouldconsiderthephiloso- Muslim population. Geographically,Malaysiaconsistsof two parts,
phical-religious ideaof manandnotbe illusioned by thescientific idea. Peninsularor WestMalaysia,andEastMalaysia,whichlieson thenorthem
ContemporaryChristian thinkers such as Brenda Watson have quarterofthe islandofBorneo(Figure1-l). Theyareseparated by about
formulated a formidablecaseagainstseculareducation.Watsonarguesthat 670kilometres ofthe SouthChinaSea.Peninsular MalaysiaIiesat thetip
secularism is basedon a mistaken viewofscience.Positivism, scepticism, of thelandmass ofSouth-EastAsia,with Thailandborderingon thenorth
andrelativismareillogical,unscientific, andexclusive.Onthecontraryshe andSingaporeon the south. PeninsularMalaysia (fonnerly known as
urgededucators andpolicymakersto give a fair hearingto religionwhich
EDUCATIONALDUALISMIN MALAYSIA roduclion 5

I ; I G URE I,I Malaya)consistsof elevenstates:Perlis,Kedah,Ferak,Selangor,Negeri


l\'Lapof Pcninsulartrlala!sjc Sembilan, Johor,Pahang, Terengganu,Kelantan,MelakaandPulauPinang.
EastMalaysiais madeup of two states:Sabahand Sarawak. In 1993,
Malaysia hada population ofabout18.4millionpeople,consisting of 61.0
percentBumiputra(comprisingmainly of Malaysplus otherindigenous
groups),27.8percentChinese,7.8percentIndians,and3.4percentofother
origins.' The Malaysareall Muslims,the IndiansaremainlyHindusand
the Chineseare primarily Buddhistsor Taoists.roThereis also a small
percentage of Indiins andChinesewho areeitherChristiansor Muslims.
Historically,PeninsularMalaysiahasbeenpopulatedmainly by the
Malays.It wasnot untii thenineteenth cenhrryduringtheBritish colonial
rulethatChineseandIndian immigrantswerebroughtinto thecountryfor
economicpurposes.TheBritishbroughtChineseindentured labourersinto
Malaya in the 1850sto work in the tin mines and Indian indentured
labourersin the 1870sto work in the rubberplantations.Theseand
subsequent economicmigrationsformedthe basesof Malaysia'smulti-
elhnicandmultireligious society.
Islamis theofficial religionof Malaysia.TheConstitution, however,
guarantees religiousfreedomfor adherentsofolher faiths." in continuation
of the British tradition,the autonomyof the stategovemments in matters
relatingto IslamandMalaycustomsis upheldby theFederalConstitution.

TheIslamicEducationSystem

TraditionalIslamiceducationtook root in Malaysiasometimearoundthe


fourteenthcentury.r2Historicaldocumentssuchas the SejarahMelaytL
[Malay Annals] and,the Hikayat Abdullah [Abdullah's Story] fumish
evidenceofthe continuation oftraditionalIslamiceducationinto the early
nineteenthcenfury.13 Accordingto Khoo Kay Kim, the Islamiceducation
systemevolvedfrom an informalpondolr-typera institutionin themiddleof
the nineteenthcenturyto themoreorganizedandformal t4adrasahtssystem
in the early twentiethcentury.ruThesepondok andnndrasahtypesof
leaminginstitutionswerefoundedby individuals,mostly 'ulama(religiols
Johor
scholars),r7or by the localcornmunity.
Jol!,r Il'rhru Althoughthe curriculaand syllabuses of thepondok and,madrasalt
varied from one teacherto another,they had a comnroncore. The
.
SINGAPORE curriculumsubscribed to theShaf i schoolofjurisprudenceandAsh'ari's
theologicalthought.rsThefocusofstudywas 'iln al-naqliyah(therevealed
sciences),which coveredthe Qur'an;Sunnah(Tradition);teiltn allatuhid .
S r r , ! . A . l a I . le ,llfo llJl!\:i!. l) cp ! r icn t,n sr x l 6!i .s. 1.,,,fi r,1 ,t.\tr,/^r.r /eel . (theology);fqh (urisprudence);tarikh (historyof Islam, includingthe
K u a h l . u m p u r . 1 9 9 4 .p . 1 2 1 .
.\i,,e: trl{p not LIri\1'nft) scllc.
6 EDUCATToNAL
DUALISMIN MALAYSIA

ProphetMuhammad'sbiography);and fundamentals of arithmeticand


Introduction

the English schoolsbecausethey omitted the teachingof Islam.


7
i
mantiq(logic).20Thecuniculumwassubject-centred, themethodof study Furthermore, theMalaysalreadyhadanexistingsystemof Islamioreligious
traditional,primarilymemorization androte-leaming, andschooldiscipline educationwhich theybehevednot only to be adequate but alsoofhigher
wasstrict. Therewasno agerestrictionandeverybodywaswelcomedto valuethanEnglisheducation.
attend school and pursueknowledge. TheseIslamic schoolsdid not TheBritishadministration laterintroducedMalayvemacularschools.
incorporateihn al-aqliyah (the acquiredsciences)in their cuniculum Thegoaloftheseschoolswasto ensurea ceratinlevelofliteracybut not to
althoughin the earlyIslamiccivilizationMuslimsactivelypursuedthese theextentthatit wouldleadto possibleuprisingby thenatives.Education
subjects in observatories,hospitals, and libraries and had great for the Malays was limited to creatingbetterfishermenand farmers,
achievements in thesefields.2r Theseeducationalinstitutionshada common because theBritishworriedthatar 'over-educated' populationmightrebel
goal of producing virhrous Muslims who would obey the religious againstcolonialrule. TheBritishhadlearnedanexpensive lessonfrom the
" commandments andbe usefulto society. 'over-education'of natives in the Indian subcontinent.The Malay
Through the years especiallyafter the SecondWorld War, the vemacularschoolsdid not teach Islam. Thosefew schoolsthat later
madrasahexpeiencedfinancialdifficulties.VariousstateIslamicreligious offered religious study did so with little enthusiasmor skill. The
departmentsand councils set up during this period took over the administrators relegatedreligious instructionto aftemoonswhen the
management of someof the madrasalt Subsequently the statereligious weatherwashot andstudents weretired. Secularsubjectsweretaughtin
departments beganestablishingtheir own systemof schools.Now the the momingwhen the studentswere freshand the climatecool.23This
numberof schoolsand the curriculumvariesfrom stateto state. The educational policy failed to attractthe Malaysto attendeventhe Malay
pinnacleof the early Islamic educationalsystemin Malaysiawas the vemacularschools.
{oundingin 1955of theIslamicCollegein Klang,whichprovidedtertiary TheBritishlatersucceeded in drawinga largerproportionofthe Malay
education leadingto a diplomain IslamicShrdies. Thiswaslbllowedby the populationinto the Englishschoolsby employingan economicstrategy.
establishment in 1959of the Departmentof IslamicStudiesin the Arts They gaveeducationan economicaim by makingit a policy that only
Facultyof the Universityof Malaya. In 1971,the IslamicCollegewas Malaysliteratein Englishwouldbe employedin thejunior administrative
absorbedinto the Facultyof Islamic Str.rdies at UniversitiKebangsaan serviceand in British-ownedcommercialhouses.The British beganto
Malaysia.Finally, in 1983,the IntemationalIslamicUniversityMalaysia t change theMalays'perception ofeducation, froma socializingprocesswith
was established. Its goal is to providea holisticeducationbasedon the religionat thecore,to aneconomictoolasa meanstowardgainingmaterial
principle of tawhid (unity of God) which recognizes. the pursuit of prosperity.
l
knowledgeasa formof ibada&(worship)." After independence in 1957,thenewgovemmentbegana systematic
drivetowardsachievingnationalunity througheducation.'oThe British
TheNationalEducationSystem hadletl behindeducationalinstitutionswhich did not supportthe newly
i
independent country'sneedfor racialintegration.Severalneweducational
ThekaditionalIslamiceducation systemevolvedgraduallyuntil theperiod policieswerethereforeformulatedto changethesituation.25 Thesearchfor
of British rule beginningin the late eighteenthcentury. The British,
I a nationalsystemofeducationto serveasthefoundation for integratingthe
initiallythroughChristianmissionaries,
earlyas lBl6 in PulauPinang,
Wift the establishment
established Englishschools,
with Englishasthemediumofinstruction.
of theseschoolsdualismin educationbeganin
as i variousethnicgroups,aswell astheagentfor socio-economic
becameoneof themajorconcernsof Malaysianleaders.
development,

Duringthissameperiod,MalayvemacularandEnglishschoolsbegan FJ
H
r; il
Malaysia.This dualsystemaffectedtheMalaysconsiderably. Most of the to gainpopularityamongthe Malaysfor economicandreligiousreasons. ' t{
En-qlishschoolswerebuilt in urbancentresandproved inaccessible
Malays,manyof whomlivedin themral areas.Anotherfactorwhichmade
theseschoolsunpopular,evenamongMalayaristocrats,
to the

wasthe fearthat
Theteachingof Islamicreligiousknowledgein boththenationalschools
(the former Malay vernacularschools)and the national-typeEnglish
schools(the former English schools)was recommended by the Razak
H
H
studentswould be convertedto Christianity.Most of theMalaysresented Reportsubmittedin the 1956.26In 1960the govemment acceptedthe
8 EDUCATIONAL DUALISM IN MALAYSIA ' Inlroduction 9

RahmanTalibRepodandIslamicreligiousstudywasmadecompulsory for 'untversalvatues- recognrzeo Dy lhe major religionsin the cou:rlry-in


all Muslim studentsin all govemmentschools.2TTheseeffods by the all subjectstaught,the greateruse of Malay languageacrossthe cuniculum,
govemment hastened thedeclineof theIslamicschools, by lessening the and an extensionof generaleducationfor all studentsfrom nine to eleven
needfor privatereligiouseducation. years of age. In this curriculuni, too, the number of periods devoted to
Althoughthereligiousschoolsexperienced a declinein thelate1950s, Islamic religious instruction was increased and moml education was
interestretumedin the 1970swith the resurgence of Islamin Malaysia.28 introduced.
Islamicconsciousness wasstronglyfelt by theMuslinimasses, andIslamic
organizations sprangto life. Muslimsexpressed theirdissatisfaction with Dualismin the EducationalSystem
the nationalsystemof education,which they regardedas secular.They
calledfor educational reformin line with Islamicprinciples.In response to TheMuslimDilemma
piessures from anIslamicpoliticalparty,PanMalayanIilamic party( pa*y
Islam Se Malaya or PAS), Islamic groups,islamic organizations,and Despiteall theeffortsmadeby thegovemment, Muslimsin generalarestill
individuals,the govemmentimplementeda few educationalreforms unhappywith thepresentstateof education.Theyaredissatisfied with both
beginningin 1977,whentheMinistryofEducationintroduced thenational educational systems. They criticize the national system for several
secondaryreligiousschools(SekolahMenengahKebangsaan Agamaor shortcomings. First,Muslims feel that the teaching of Islamic religious
SMKA) for selectedstudentsbasedon high achievement in the primary knowledgeis ineffectivein thenationalschools.(Thenationalschoolsand
SchoolEvaluationExamination.Thenationalsecondary religiousschools the national-typeEnglishschoolswere combinedin 1972,with Malay
differ from thenationalsecondary schoolsin thattheformerofferArabic languageas the mediun.Iof inskuction) Religiousinstructionteachers
languageandhigherIslamicreligiousstudyfor all its studentsbeginning reoortedthat a sizeablenumberof studentscouldnot readthe Qur'an(in 30
with the first yearofsecondaryschool. Aiabic) and did not know how to performthe obligatorydaily prayers
ln 1979the Reportof the CabinetCommitteeon the Reviewof the Tuming Islamicreligiousknowledgeinto an examinationsubjectdid not
Implementation of EducationPoliciesrecommended that all Muslim help, critics contend,becausestudentswere learningreligion only for
students be requiredto sit for Islamicreligiousknowledgein national examination purposesratherthanfor moraldevelopment andpractice'
examinations.Ze In 1983,basedon the samereport, the Ministry of Second. Muslims consider Islamic knowledge to be inadequately
Educationimplemented theNew PrinTary SchoolCurriculum(Kurikulum taughtfor themodemera.t'Islamic pedagogy is perceived ascompafment-
Baru SekolahRendahor KBSR). The curriculumemphasized the basic alized,isolated,andtaughtfrom a narrowperspective, asthoughit hasno
skills of reading,writing, and arithmeticand the Malay language.The relationto contemporary life. Conversely, subjectssuchasnaturalscience,
periodsdevotedto Islamicreligiousstudywas increased, and moral mathematics, geography andartaretaughtasif theyhaveno comectionto
education wasintroduced for non-Muslinr students.In 1987,a National theIslamicworld-view. TheWestemview of religionasa privatematter
EducationPhilosophywasformulatedwhichexpressed theaimofcreating hasbeeninculcated,ratherthanthe Islamicview of religionasad-din (a
N{alaysian citizenswho are intellectually, spiritually,emotionally, and way of life). The ideathatreligionis a privatematter,a systemof beliefs
physicallybalanced andharmonious, basedon a firm beliefin anddevotion and ritualsconfinedto the relationshipof an individualwith his God, is
to God. foreignto the Muslim. The inadequacyof Islamicreligiousknowledge
In 1989, following the formulation of the National Education taughtin thisway is evidentfromthefactthatnoneof thestudents fromthe
Philosophy, theMinistryofEducationIaunched theIntegrated Curriculum national system are qualified to specialize in Islamic studiesin higher
for SecondarySchools(Kurikulum BersepaduSekolahMenengahor educationunless they had srudied in the national secondary religious
KBSM). Theimplementation of theIntegrated Curriculumcoincidedwith schools.
theentrance into secondary schoolsofthe first generation of students who Third, the Muslim Youth Movementof Malaysia(AngkatanBelia
hadcomp\eted theNew PrimarySchoolCurriculum.Thenew curriculum IslamMalaysiaor ABIM), whosemembersareNluslimintellectuals, has
emphasizesthe growth of a balancedpersonality,the integrationof criticizedthe govemment's education policy as being over-concemed with
IO EDUCATIoNALDUALISMIN MALAYSIA Introduction II

physicaland materialdevelopmentarrdntanpowerrraining. Membersclaim putting forth ideas for overcomingsocial problen.rsin contemporary
that the system has failed to develop noral characterand point to the rise Malaysia.
of comrption, white collar crime, and drug addictionin Malaysiato support Third, Islamic schoolsare poorly financedand largely dependon
their claim. They contendthat the secularnahrreofthe national education resourcesfrom the various statesreligious departmentsand private
is wrong and the objectives of the presentsystem are inappropriate and endowments. Poorfundingaffectsthe qualityofschools,physicalplants,
opposedto Islam.32 educational equipmentsuchaslibrarybooksandlaboratoryapparatus, and
Fourth, althoughMuslims acceptedthe rationaleof the National thequalityof teachers.
EducationPhilosophyand the KBSM, they are not optimisticwhen it The greatestgrievanceagainstboth systemsof educationlies in
comesto its implementation.Therearepedagogical difficultiesinvolved discontentover their graduates, who, critics claim, do not possessthe
in attemptingto inculcatethe specifiedvalues.Thereis arixietyover the integratedpersonalityof the ideal Muslim. On the one hand, many
possiblemisuseof moral educationclassesbecausein tlie past, civic graduates from the nationalsystemcan pursueprofessionalcareersln
educationhasbeenusedto drill students for examinations. Muslimszrgue medicine,engineering,business,and other scientificand technological
that their concemis not solelyon the inculcationofreligiousknowledge fields. Thereare broad educationalopporhrnitiesfor higher education
andvalues.All subjectsin thecuniculum,theycontend,shouldshengthen leadingto broadereconomicopporhrnities for thegraduates. Thelrcareers
beliefin theunity ofGod andleadpupilsto performgooddeeds. conferhighstatuson them,andtheyarelookedon to provideleadership in
Muslims are alsounhappywith the Islamiceducationsystem.First, themodemsociety.However,manygraduates lacka strongfoundationin
they claim the contentof the curriculum is limited and outdated.It lslamicin termsof moralvaluesandreligiousattinrdes.Theybehavelike
overemphasizesArabic language,grammar, rhetoric, and religious secularmenwho relegatereligioninto a privatedomainanddo not allow
knowledge.The curriculumis designedto hrm every gradtateinto an 'alim their religiousbeliefsto affect their public affairs.This lack of moral
(religious teacher),a qadhi (Islamicjurist), or a nrufti (Islamic Iegal integrityis evidentfromtheriseof whitecolourcrimeandcriminalbreach
scholar). Religious schoolsdo not preparestudentsto be doctors, oftrustin the 1970s.
engineers, architects,or scientists.Nor doesthe limitedcurriculumhelp On the other hand,most graduatesfrom the religioussystemare
studentsto understand contemporary social,political,or scientifrclssues. steadfastin their belief. Howeverdue to their nanow and specialized
Insteadit has led studentsto believesimply that the Qur'an contains I cuniculumthey lack highereducationalopportunitybecauseonly a few
solutionsto all of mankind'sproblemsandthatthereis no needfor other. institutionsoffer Islamic studies. As a consequence their professional
sciences.As a result of the shallowreligiouscuniculum,thereis little careersarelimitedto religiouspursuitssuchasbeingreligiousteachers,
marketvaluefor graduates of this system.3l officials,or judges(qadhi). Theil knowledgeof economics,politics,
Second,Muslim scholars pointoutthatthemethodologyemployedin business, andscientificdevelopment is lackingandthishindersthemfiom
instructiondoesnot encourage or stimulateinquiry and criticalthinking. participating activelyin nationaldevelopment espeeially in providing
MemorizationpervadesIslamiceducation.No innovativemethodshave leadership.
been deployed,and there is hardly any use of moderninstructional Eachsystemhasitsweaknesses thatcouldbecounterbalanced by their
techriques.DatukAmarDr. SulaimanDaud,formerMinisterof Education, strengths.Muslims have begunto recognizethe importanceof both
assertedthat 'religious teachersare very knowledgeable in Islam but 'secular'and religioussciencesfor the fulI development of the human
somehow,they arenot teachingeffectivelyandhavemadethesubjectless personality whichwill contributetowardstheprogress ofthe nation.Faisal
interestingto students'.raAccordingto Wan Mohd. Nor Wan Daud,the Osmanbelieves thattherevivalof traditional Arabicor Islamicreligious
components of higherorderthinking-analysis, interpretation, synthesis, schoolswill not preparestudentsto face the dauntingchallenges in
coherency, all importantaspects ofthe Islamicconceptof knowledge-are contemporary life. In fact, an exclusivelyreligiouseducationwill bring
not taughtin the religiouseducationsystem.r5 Consequently, graduates of science andreligioninto needless conflictin Malaysia.Wliatis needed,
the Islamic educationsystemhave not beencreativeand innovativein saysFaisalOsman,is a totalchange whereall knowledge is consideredin
an integrated perspective.r6 The samesentimentwasechoedby the then
12 EDUCATIONALDUALISMIN MALAYSIA Inlt'oducrion 13

Director-General of Education, TanSri DatukDr. WanMohd ZahidMohd. sciences classes.a0Ashrafargues thatthisdichotomycouldnotbe resolved
Noordin,who calledfor a revampofall religiousschoolswhichdo not meet by teachers educated in the old systems.Suchteachers do not understand
theobjectives of lslamiceducation." thecomplexities of modemcivilization.Nor cantheproblembe solvedby
Thereis, however, a growingperception amongeducated Muslimsthat teachers educated in the modemsystems,for they do not fully appreciate
the govemmentwhich is led by Muslims leaders is not doing enoughfor theirownreligiousheritage.Ashrafasserts, thata thirdgroupmustemerge
Islamic education. The leadersare seento be merely adopting minor whosemembersareacquainted bothwith theirownreligioustraditionsand
reformsfor thesakeof preserving theirpoliticalinterests.This inadequate with modemcivilization."'
measureshave causedsomesupportersof Islamic movementssuch as In Islarnizationof Knowledge,Ismail Raji Al-Faruqi studiesthe
ABIM, PAS,andDarulArqam,aswell asMuslimintellectuals to suggest Muslims' malaiseand arguesthat therecanbe no revivalof the Muslinr
lhat Muslilr.rsshould shun both systen.rs and construct instead a third ummah(world community) unless the dual system of educationis
educationalsystemthat unifiesIslamicandmodemaimsand resources. integrated andinfusedwith the spilit of Islam. He believesthattheunron
Such suggestion bringsquestions on the feasibilityof thisproposal.More of the dual systemswould economizethe financialresources of the state,
importantly,it raisesthe long standingissueof compatibilitybetweenthe rectify archaictextbooks,upgradeteachersinexperienced in the lslamic
two existingsystems.Findinga viablesolution,in thelightof thelatter, educationsystem,and rejectimitationof secularWestemmethodsand
formsthe mainconcemof thisbook. idealsin the secularschools. Al-Famqi proposesa two-yearstudy of
Islamic civilization for studentsin higher institutesof leaming as a
RelatedStudieson EducationalDualism short-term solutionand,moreimportantly,theIslamizationofknowledge
as a long{erm soluiion. By Islamizationof knowledgehe meansthe
Theproblerns posedby a dualsystemofeducationin a Muslimcountrythat integrationof 'new knowledgeinto the corpusof the Islamiclegacyby
hasundergone colonization is not uniqueto Malaysia.In fact,it is themost eliminating,amending,reinterpreting, andadaptingits components asthe
urgentiszuefacingthe Muslimworid,a 'crisis'in Muslimeducation.rs worldview oflslam andits valuesdictate. The exact relevance of Islamto
Attemptsto resolvethisproblemweremadein Indiain the 1870s'in Egypt thephilosophy-the methodandobjectives----of the discipline should be
in 1890s,and in Bengalin 1910s.reAll thesefailed,however. The determined'.a2 Al-Faruqi argues that the Westem methodology of
experimentof mutual coexistence of secularand Islamic studiesin an knowledgeis not suitablefor Muslim sciencesbecauseit rejectsthe
institutionin theIndiansubcontinent endedbecause moststudents optedfor existence ofGod andthe valuesissuingfrom this belief
secularStudiesthathadecononricvalue. The attemptto refoff) Al-Azhar Thisconcemofthe Muslimshadalsobeenexpressed in a seminarheld
Universityin Egyptwasinitiatedby Jarnaluddin al-Afghani(1839-97)and jointly by the Islamic Academy and the Departmentof Education,
Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905). Abduh, who was a mufti' wantedto University of Cambridge.The representatives of the various faiths--
introducemodemsubjects into the cuniculum. Flowever he wasaccused Christianity, Islam,Judaism,Sikhism,Hinduism,andBuddhism-asserted
of attemptingto secularize the institutron.Though his effort failed,but he thatthevariousintellectual sciences taughtin schoolshavebeensecularized
succeededin iniplementingsome administlativereforms. In Muslirn to thepointthattheydo not assistin strengthening thestudents'faith. They
Bengaltheattenptto combinesomesecularandIslamicreligioussubjects wereemphaticaboutthe fact that secularphilosophyunderliesmuch of
fell shodof a substantial synthesis, andthe dualsystems persisted. Westemeducationwhich claims that this educationalapproacliis to
SyedAli Ashraf posits that attemptsto resolve the dualismand to maintainneutralityto any faith andto avoidcontroversial matters.ar
Islamizen.rodemeducationhavefailedbecause the problem hasnot been In a separate study, Yassin Abdel Rahman Ahmed reveals that there
approached holistically.He arguesthatalthor.lgh someattemptshavebeen is no inherentcontradiction between the fundamentals of Islam and
madeto makereligiouseducationcompulsory,therehasbeenno attempt modemization.aa He suggests thatfor the propermodemization of Muslim
to teachthe nafuraland socialsciencesand literaturefrorn the Islamic nations.what is neededis refomr in education.He calls for better
perspedtive. As a result,whatstudents leamin religionclasses sometimes integrationof IslamicandWesterneducationandthe needto distinguish
conliadictswhat they are taughtin their humanities, social, and natrual betweenWestemeducationandcolonialeducation.Ahmedbelievesit is
t4 EDUCATIONALDUALISM IN MALAYSIA Inlroductiotr ,)

naiveto let the two systemsexistseparately or in mutualcoexistence and that government policy makersandMuslim intellectuals,
Harunsuggests
at thesametime allowfreecompetitionin thejob market,asis envisioned shouldr-view andresolvethis problem^lo
especially-iducationiits,
by somepolicy makers.The separation itselfcreatesneedless differences In anotherstudy, Abdullah Haji Ishak highlights the significant
in thetwo systems.Graduates from theIslamicsystemwill neverbe able contribution ofreligiouseducational suchesthepondok,to the
instih.rtions,
to competeif opporhrnities for modemjobs lequire graduationfrom a lt, development of Muslims in Malaysia. In addition to developingIslamic
secularprogramme.a5 education, Abdullahasserts that these institutionssafeguarded Islamfrom
Fewsh.rdies i
of thereligious/secularconflicthavefocusedon education theinfluenceof Westemcultures,andhelpederadicate misconceptions and
in Malaysia.In his analysisofmorethan280studiespublishedup to about erroneous teachingsof lslam (khurdal) which existedand influencedthe
1979,R. Munay Thomasfoundthateducational studiesin Malaysiahave t. Muslimcommunity.He suggests theredevelopment andupgradingofthese
focusedon four majorconcems:(a) ethnicissuesanddifferences; (b) the I institutions to meetchanges in society.Abdullah'sproposalrepresents the
I
role ofthe educational systemin socio-economic groMh andtheinfluence nostalgicfeelingsof a conservativefor this traditionalinstitutionand
of the five-yearnationaldevelopment plans;(c) the educational process; t contradicts theviewpointof anotherscholar,FaisalOsman,who believes
and(d) theapplications ofeducational researchto Malaysia.a6 He predicted li thatsucha revivalwouldresultin a conflictbetweenscienceandreligion.5l
that the concemaboutethnic differenceswill diminishas the country Sabri Haji Said concludesa shrdy of the madrasahby posing a
I
furtherstabilizesand thereis morenationalplanning. From a surveyof challenging question:To what extenthasthe NationalEducationPolicy
researchdoneon or aboutMalaysianeducationsinceThomas'sreview, benefited students from theseschools?He arguesthatalthoughtherenow
i
only a few studiesdealingwith educationandnationaldevelopment have existsthe Department of IslamicStudiesin theUniversityof Malaya,the
beenfound,andnoneofthem examinetheissueof importance here.aT Facultyof Islamic Studiesin Universiti Kebangsaan Malaya,and the
SyedMuhammadAl-NaquibAl-Attas,providesone of the earliest IslamicTeachers' College,theyareall at thetertiarylevel. He believesthat
glimpsesof theproblem.He asserts thattheWestemworld-viewdominates attentionshould be focussedon the primary and secondaryreligious
in Malaysiabecause ofthe experience ofcolonizationandWestemcultural schools.Sabriallegesthatthenationalsystemofeducationis infused*'ith
control.The de-Islamization of the Muslim mind, Al-Attas claims,was i secular values,andnot with a genuineIslamicspirit He proposes that the
accomplishedgraduallythroughan increasinglysecularizededucation NationalEducationPolicybereviewed and restruchrredso thatit takesinto
system. InadequateIslamic educationgave rise to fzlse 'ulama who accountall thekindsof schoolsthat existin thecountry. He believes that
restrictedknowledgeto the domainofjurisprudence.Thesefalse'ulalna thepresentpolicyhasmisledthousands of Malaystudentsandhaswasted
andsecularpoliticalleaderscausedconfusionin knowledge,whichled to nationalresources. Sabriemphasizes theneedfor an integrated curriculum
excesses in beliefandpractice.Al-Attascallsfor thede-Westemization of imbuedwitli theIslamicspiritthatwouldallowstudents fromthemadrasah
knowledge.a8 i
to acquireall kinds of knowledge,includingknowledgeof the natural
In oneofhis moreimportantworks,HarunDin, expresses his uneasi- sciences.s?
nessat the cunent statusof the IslamicschoolsandIslamiceducationin FatimahAli exposesthe magnihrde of the problemby drawing
Malaysia.He enumerates someof theproblemsconfrontingtheseschools, comparisons betweenthetwo educational systemsin Malaysiaandurging
namely,finance,teachershortage, declineof studentenrolmentdueto the theestablishment of an integrated educational systemfor theMuslims.5rIn
pooreconomicvalueofsuchaneducation, andoverburdening shdentswith anepistemological shrdyof knowledgein Islam,WanMohd.Nor discusses
too many subjects,resultingin mediocrity. Therewere65,932students contemporary Muslims' confusionoverthemeaningof "knowledge"and
enrolledin govemment-assisted ralryatschoolsin 1976.Add this to the itsirrrplicationfor education in Malaysia.He indicates thata misconceptton
enrolmentin non-govemment assisted,
ralg)a.t
schoolsandthe total figure of knowledge froni anIslamicperspective is prevalentamongMuslims'and
wouldbe a little over85,000.0tHarun is concemed that ifnothing is done thismisconception is manifested in the cuniculumandin thecontentof
for thesestudentsenrolledin suchschools,thenationwill suffera great Islamiceducaiionin bothreligiousandthenationalschools.'oh his shrdy
lossin humanresources. He believesthatmanyoftheseschoolswill close, of ABIM,Mohamrnad Nor Monuttilaysoutthemovement's criticisms of
andconsequently acquiringIslamiceducationwill becomemorediffrcult. the nationaleducationsystemwhich did not offer any altenrativcs.s5
16 EDUCATToNAL
DuALrsMrNMALAYSTA Inlroduclion 1'7
_
However,ABIM has maintaineda nationwideprogrammeof Islamic schoolsthat are run privatelyby individuals,Islamicorganizations, and
kindergartens sincethe 1970sandlaunchedits first Islamicprimaryschool particularcommunitiesare not included. The study is confined to
in 1989. PeninsularMalaysiain theperiodafterindependence.
Thesestudiesrevealthegravityofthe problemposedby a dualsystem Throughits proposalthisstudyhopesto contributeto theresolutionof
of educationin theMuslimworld in generalandin Malaysiain particular. Iong-standingeducational andsocialproblemsthat affectMalaysia. The
There appearsto be a consensus that the two educationalsystemsin significanceof this study is pertinentnot only to Malaysiabut to the
Malaysiashouldbe integrated,but stepsto examinethe conceptualand Muslimworld in general.It hopesto demonstrate thecornpatibility
of faith
practicalfeasibilityof sucha unionhaveyet to be undertaken.Thepresent andreason.
studytherefore,is appropriate andtimely.Beforeanyrealintegrationcan
pccur, its philosophicalgroundingmust be examinedso that it can be
anchoredon a firm foundation. Notes

ResolvingtheDualism l, D. C. Phillips,Philosophy,Scie ce, a d Socialhquiry, OxfordtPergamonpress,


p.39.
1987,
The problemdescribedabovereflectsthe changein valuesthat is taking 2. rbid.
placein Malaysiansocietyin theprocessof modemization. Unforhrnately, 3I BrendaWatson,TheEffectireTeachingof ReligiousEducalior,London:Longman,
manyMalaysians,religiousauthoritiesin particular,focusonly on what I993,pp. l3-14.
maybe lostthroughmodemization andignorewhatstandsto be gainedin 4. JohnDewey,'The Questfor Certainty:A Studyof theRelationdfKnowledgeand
the way of the scientificand socialdevelopment that economicprogress Action', in John Dewey,John Dewey: TheLater ll/orks tg25-1953eCitedby Jo Arm
brings. On the otherhand,othersfocusonly on industrialization Boydston,Carbondale;SouthemIllinoisUniversiryPress,1988,Vol. 4: 1929,p. 52.
to the
extentofdenyingmoralandreligiousvaluesin theirmaterialisticpursuit. 5. Phiflips,Pl,t/orophy,Science,andSocialInquiry,p.39.
Negativeattitudestowardinnovationreflectedin the educational system 6. Jacques New Haven:Yale Universitypress.
Maritai\, Educationat the Crossroads,
must be changed. Such changeswill requirea restructuringof and a 1943.
reformulationof its philosophicalbasis. Accordingto JohnDewey,'the 7, Watson,TheEffective Teachingof ReligiousEducatioh, pp,34-5,
taskof futurephilosophyis to clari$ men'sideasasto thesocialandmoral 8. DudleyPlunkett,SecularandSpiritualValues,Lorrdon:Routledge,1990
strifesoftheir own day'.56 9. Malaysia,Department
ofStatisdcs,Monthly Stetistical
Buller,r,KualaLumpur,July
This studyseeksto investigatetheproblemof educational dualismin 1995,
p. 5.
Malaysia-particularlyasit affectstheMuslims- with theaimof arriving 10. Fora discussion of Hinduism,Islam,Buddhism, andContucianism, seeFloydH. Ross
andTynetteHills, ?ie GreatReligio s by lyhichMenLiye,NewYorkt CrestBooks,1959;
at a viablesolutionthrougha genuines),nthesisofthe two systemsthatwill PeterBishopand MichaelDarton(eds.),TheEncyclopedia of WorldFaiths,New York:
overcomethe Muslims' educationaldilemmawithout alienatingnon- Factson File Publications. 1989.
Muslims. It seeksto achievethis by examining(a) the philosophical I L SeeL. A. SheridanandFIarryE. Groyes,TheConstihniotlof Malaysia,Singapore:
assumptions, aims,andpracticesunderlyingtheNationalandthe Islamic MalayanLaw Joumal,1987,Article 3 (l).
educationsystems;(b) the areasof compatibilityand differenceof each 12. AbdulJaleelHassan,'IslamicEducationin Malaysia',M,s lint Educatiotl,1 (Winter
system;(c) the scopeof the NationalEducationPhilosophyto ascertain 1983):81-4.
whetherit encompasses the Islamicphilosophyof educalion;and(d) the 13, SeeSejarahMela),uor MalayAlnals, anannotated tmnslationby C.C.Brown,Kuala
inrplicationsof an integratedsystemof educationon the curricular, Lumpur: Oxford UniversityPress,1970;and Abdullahbin Abdul Kadir, The Hikayat
pedagogical, Abdullah:TheAutobiographyof Abdullahbin Abdtl Kadir (1797-1854),an annoralecr
andadministrative aspects.
translationby. A. H. Hill, KualaLumpur:OxfordUniversityPress,1969.
The study focuseson primary and secondaryeducationin both
14. Apondokinstinttion consists
ofseveralsmallhutssurroundi0g
theteacher's
residence
systemslThe assessment of the Islamic educationsystemis basedon or theone-roomschoolpremise.Theschoolhouris flexibleandthecurriculumdepends on
schoolsmn or assisted by thevariousstatereligiousdepartments.Religious theknowledeeofaheteacher.
r8 EDUCATIONAL DUALISM IN MALAYSIA Intt'oduction 19

15. Ihe ntadrasahis a schoolcomparable to lhe modefltschoolin organizationand 1980, pp.99- 100.
design.It is alsoknownasthereligiousor Arabicschool. 26. Federationof Malaya,Reportof the EducationConunittee1956,by Doto, Abdul
16. Khoo Kay Kim, 'Perkembangan PclajaranAgama lslam' [The Developmentof RazakBin Hussain,chairman, KualaLumpur:Govemment printer,1957,ChaptefX, pdra.
IslamicReligiousEducatio[],in AwangHadSalleh(ed,.), PendidikankearahPerpaduan l 2l , p. 18.
lEducationfor Unity], KualaLumpur:PenerbitFajafBakti, 1980,p. L 27. MohamedJusoh,'PelajaranUgamadi SekolahMenengah,'lReligiousStudiesin
17. Ulana is plurallor' a/ln, anArabicwordthatmeanslcamed,erudite,scholatexpert, Secondary Schoolsl,MasaI (1978):13l.
savant,or scicntist. Howeverthe usageof this word tbroughoutthe Muslim world 28. SeeJudith A. Nagata,The Refloweringof MalaysianIslan: Modem Religious
specificallyrefersto scholarsof the religion. In theQur'an, ,/a/rd aredefinedasthose RadicalsandtheirRoots,Vancouver:UniversityofBritish Crrlumbiapress,1984.
who fear Allah (seeQur'an35:28). fArabicwordsin the studyarenot all transliterated 29. Malaysia, Minishy of Education,Laporan JawatankuasaKdbinet Mengk.lji
accordingto a standardformatbut the authorhastriedto keepconsistency.] Pelaksanaan Dasar Pelajaran1979 lReport of the CabinetCommitteereview of the
18. Thereare four schoolsofjurisprudencerecoguized in the Sunnilslamictradition, tmplementation ofEducationPolicyl,KualaLumpur,1984,p. 71.
ramely, Hanafi,Maliki, Shaf i, andHanbali. TheAsh ari theologicalschoolofthought perhatian'UslamicReligious
30. Haji DasukiHajiAlmad, 'Pelajaran AgamaKurangkan
emphasizes freedomofreasonwithintheboundofrevelationin contrast to theMu'tazilah's InstructionNeglectedl,in IbrahimSaad(ed.),Isu pendidikandi MalaysialEducarioml
whichputsreasonaboverevelation. Issuesin Malaysia],KualaLumpur:DewanBahasadanpnstaka,1986, pp,32'l-32.
19. Sunnahor Traditionencompasses thesayingsanddeedsofthe ProphetMuhammad, 31. FatiflahAli, 'MalaysianEducationSystemandIslamicEducational Ideals,rVrrslirz
fromthebeginningofhis missionto theendofhis life. It is alsoincludesmatterson which EducationQuarterly4 (Winter 1987):74-5.
he is silelltaboutandthereforeinterpreted asanindicationofapproval.fladil, servesasthe
secondsourceofjurisprudelce in Isiam,aftcrtheQur'an. 32. Moharnmad Nor Monutti,'Perception
ofSocial Changein Contemporary Malaysia: I
20. Traditionally,knowledgehasbeendividedinto two majof categories.Al-Ghazzali
A CriticalAnalysisof ABIM'S Roleandits ImpactamongMuslim youft,, ph.D. thesis,
Temple 1989,p.262.
University,
I
(AD 1058-1I I l) classifiedit intoJ';lrd'ain andfardkifayah.Fd,"d air is knowledgethat
is deemedobligatoryfor everyMuslim, especiallyabouttheir rightsandduties. On the 33. FatimahAli, 'MalaysianEducationSystemandIslamicEducational Ideals,'p. 76.
otllerhand,, fard kifayd&is knowledgethatis 'indispensable for thewelfareofthis world,' 34. AzmiM. Anshar,'Sulaimar:Adoptbetterapproachcs',
ly'ewS/rdibZirer, l0 Ocrober
suclrasnredicineandarithmetic.ln anotherclassification, Ibn Khaldun(AD 1332-1406) 1992,p.4.
categodzed knowledge ili'toilmal-naqlil'ahand'ilnal-'aqliyah..llntal-naqliyahrefers 15. WanMohdNor WanDaud,TheConceptof Knowledge in Islamand ItsInlplications
to revealedknowledgeandauxiliarysciences suchas Arabiclanguage. Ilm al-'aqliyah
for Educationi a DevelopitlgCotntry,London:Mansell,1989,p.lO7.
refersto philosophicalsciencesthat man acquiresthroughthinking and observation.
Chapter5 discusses furthertheclassification ofknowledgein [slam. 36. FaisalOsman,'Pendidikan Islam:KonsepdanRealiti,',UslamicEducariontConcept
: andRealityf,Jumal PendidikanIslan,2 (Jatuary1989):1-20.
21. SeeGeorgeSarton,I tt'oductiohto theHistoryof Science, Baltimore,MD:Cafllegie
Instituteof Washington,1927,Vol. l; MehdiNakosteen 17. Anshar,'SulaimauAdoptBetterApproaches', p. 4.
, Ilistory of IslamicOriginsof
WestemEducatiot!AD 800-1350,Boulder,CO: UniversityofColoradoPress,1964; Ali 38. Formoredetails,seeSyedAli AshrafandSyedSajjadHussin(eds.),CrisisiI Muslin
AbduLlahal-Daffa,TheMuslim Contributionsto Mathenatics,Atlantic Highlands,NJ: Education, IeddahtKing AbdulazizUniversiry,i979.
HumanitiesPress,1977; CharlesM. Sta\Lon,HiglrerLeenti g in Isla|t: The Classical 39. MozammelHaque,'TraditionalandModemSystemof Education:An Attemptat a
PeriodAD 700-1300Savage,MD: Rowmanand LittlefieldPublishers., 1990; Seyyed Synthesisin Muslim Bengal,'Muslin EducationI (Sumner 1982):70-92;David S.
HosseinNasr,^Screrce andCivilizalionin Islaar,Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversityPress, Lely'reld,,Allgarh's Fi/st Generction. Muslittt Solidarity it1 Brit[sh InAia, pinceton.
1968;GeorgeMakdisi,The Riseof Colleges: hlslitutiousof Leoni git1Islamand rc ll/esl, Princaton UniversityPress,1978;AhmadSobrjSalamon,,Reformofal-Azharin the20th
Edinburgh: Edinburgh UniversityPress,1981. Century',Ph,D.thesis,Neiv York University,1980.
22. IntenationalIslamicUniversityMalaysia,S'r CottvocalionCerenory,,)l lsg1157 40. AshrafandHussin,(eds.),Ire Cnrls ih MuslimEducation,p.lj.
1994,KualaLumpur:DasarCetak,1994,p.15. 41. Ibi d,,p. 1 5.
23. D. D. Chelliah,A Histutj of le EducationalPolicyofthe StraitsSetlleinents,K\al^ 42. IsmailRajiAI-Fan)qi,Islahlization ofKnowledge:Generalpfirciplesand Worl<1:tlan,
Lumpur:The GovemmentPrcss,1948,p. 64. Washington, DC: International
InstituteThought,1982,p. 14.
24. lndependence wasachieved througha peacefultransferofpower from theBritishto 43. ThelslamicAcademyandUniversityofCambridge,DepailmentofEducation,Fal1,
the AlliancePartycomposed of UnitedMalaysNationalOrganization (UMNO),Malayan
as theBasisof Educationin a Multi-faith,Multi-cukuralCorr1ry,CambridgerIslanljc
ChineseAssociation (MCA), andtheMalayanIndianCongress (MIC). The Alliancewon
Academy, 1991.
the first nationalelectionsfor LegislativeCouncilseatsin 1955with a strongmajorityand
gainedtlleconfidence ofGreatBritainto beself-governing. 44. YassinAbdelRahmanAhmed,'Islamard Modernization: Convergencg, Divergence,
andCompatibility',Ph.D.thesis,Pennsylvania StateUnivcrsity,1988,p. 121.
25. Arfah Abdul Aziz andChewTow Yow, 'Malaysia',in T. NevillePostiethwaite and
R. Muray Thomas/cds.),Schoolingin lhe AseanRegion,NewYork: PergamonPress, 45. Ibid.,pp. 128-9.

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