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Considering two-pole
two pole machine with three phase windings on the stator.
stator
Resultant
R lt t MMF wave att any point
i t in
i the
th air
i gap, defined
d fi d by
b an angle
l θm .
The origin of the angle θm can be chosen to be the axis of phase u. At any
instant of time, all three phases contribute to the air gap mmf along the path
defined by θm. The mmf along θm is
F ( m ) Fu ( m ) Fv ( m ) Fw ( m )
1
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD-ANALYTICAL METHOD
2
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Fv ( m ) N iv cos( m 120º )
Fw ( m ) N iw cos( m 120º )
Th currents
The t iu, iv, iw, are:
iu t I m cos s t
iv t I m cos s t 120º
iw t I m cos s t 120º
3
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD-ANALYTICAL METHOD
F ( m , t ) N I m cos( s t ) cos( m ) N I m cos( s t 120º ) cos( m 120 º ) N I m cos( s t 120º ) cos( m 120 º )
cos A B cos A B
1 1
cos A cos B
2 2
3
F ( m , t ) N I m cos( s t m )
2
Resultant mmf wave in the air-gap rotating at the constant angular velocity Ωs
3N
s t p m 0 F ( m , t ) Im
2 p
s d m s
m t
p dt p
s rad 2 f s 30 60 f s
s s ns r. p.m
p p p
4
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD-ANALYTICAL METHOD
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
The speed of the magnetic rotating field is the synchronous speedspeed. For a
induction motor with P poles, the synchronous speed is given in r/min as:
rev 120 f s 60 f s 60 f s
ns
min P P p
2
where, fs is the stator frequency in Hertz, and ns is the synchronous speed in
r/min
r/min.
However, the rotor rotates at a speed slightly slower than the synchronous
speed. This difference between speeds is called the slip speed and it is given
as:
nslip ns nm
where,
h nm isi th
the mechanical
h i l speedd iin r/min
/ i off th
the rotor,
t andd ns is
i th
the slip
li speed
d
in r/min. Moreover, the slip speed can also be defined in a per unit system as
the slip, s, as given in:
ns nm
s
ns
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED, ASYNCHRONOUS SPEED, AND SLIP SPEED
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
s m
s
s
s m s s
r
P
s m P s s s P s s s fr s fs
2 2 2
8
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
We have seen that the speed of the magnetic rotating field produced by a
currents of fs, respect to the reference system of the stator (fixed) is:
60 f s
ns
p
On the other hand, the currents of the rotor of frequency sfs produces another
rotating
g magnetic
g field, which respect
p to the reference system
y attached to the
rotor turns at:
60 s f s
nsr s ns
p
With the rotor revolving in the same direction of rotation as the stator field, the
rotor currents produce a rotating flux wave rotating at sns with respect to the
rotor in the forward direction.
With respect to the stator, the speed of the flux wave produced by the rotor
currents (with frequency sfs ) equals:
s ns nm s ns ns 1 s ns
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
TORQUE IN ROTOR
The N-S poles created by the stator sweeps to the right at synchronous speed
nS. The flux per pole is distributed sinusoidally
sinusoidally. The rotor is also moving to the
right at a speed nm
A voltage E=B·l·(s-m ) is induced in each conductor while it is being cut by
the mutual flux that crosses the air gap.
The induced voltage immediately produces a current i, which flows down the
conductor undeaneath the pole-face
pole face, through the end bars,
bars and back through the
other conductors.
Because the current-carrying conductor lies in the magnetic field of the
permanentt magnet,
t it experiences
i a mechanical
h i l fforce F=l·i·B;
F liB
the force always acts in a direction to drag the conductor along with the
magnetic
g field.
10
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
TORQUE IN ROTOR
The inducted voltage E its in phase with the flux, but the current I lags an angle
due to the RL load due to the bars. This lagging reduces the torque for the same
current.
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
TORQUE IN ROTOR
Three-phase
p windings
g shifted 120eº
Force applied on the rotor bars F Il B
The IM rotates 13
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
INDUCTION MOTOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The rotor currents, Ir produce additional air gap flux, which is 90º out of phase of
the magnetizing flux.
flux But the stator voltage,
voltage is applied externally and it is
proportional to and 90º out of phase of the air gap flux. Additional currents, will
flow in the stator windings in order to cancel the flux due to the rotor currents.
Per phase transformer-like equivalent circuit
circuit.
15
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
PER PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
TORQUE
1 s
Pmi 3 Rr ' I r '
2
s
1 s 1 s
I r ' I r ' 3 r I r '
3 Rr '
2
3 Rr '
2 R' 2
P
Ti mi s s s
m m s 1 s s
Ir '
U 1
f
2
R '
Rs r X s X r '
2
s
3 r I r '
R'
s
2 R'
3 r U 1f
s
2
Ti
s Rr '
2
s Rs X s X r ' 2
s
Rr ' f 2
3
s
U1
Ti
Rr '
2
s Rs X s X r ' 2
s
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Rs=0.2268; Rr’=0.12528; Xs=0.51252; Xr’=0.76878; Rfe=185.1; Xm=9.8554; U1L=230
160
Torque [Nm]
T [N ]
140 Output power [CV]
Current [A]
Efficiencyy [[%]]
120
Power Factor*100
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Speed, rpm
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Rs=0.2268; Rr’=0.12528; Xs=0.51252; Xr’=0.76878; Rfe=185.1; Xm=9.8554; U1L=230
160
Torque [Nm]
Output power [CV]
140
Current [A]
Efficiency [%]
120 Power Factor *100
100
80
60
40
20
0
900 920 940 960 980 1000
Speed, rpm
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Speed-torque curve
150
100
50
Torque [Nm]
0
T
-50
-100
-150
150
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Shaft speed [rpm]
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
In the brake region, the rotor rotates in the opposite direction to that of the air
gap flux so that s>1. This condition may arise if the stator supply phase
sequence is reversed when the rotor is moving.
In the regenerating region the motor as acts as a generator . The rotor runs
nm>n
> s ,in
i the
th same direction
di ti as the
th stator
t t field,
fi ld so s<0.
<0 The
Th negativeti slip
li
corresponds to negative Rr/s . The positive resistance consumes energy during
motoring, but the negative Rr/s generates energy and supply it to the source.
nm and
d ns opposite
it sign
i 0 ≤ nm < ns n m > ns
s>1 s (0,1) s<0
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Rs r X s X r '
2
s
Rr ' f 2
s
3
U1
s 2
R'
3 r U 1f
s
2
Ti
Rr '
2
s 2
Rr '
2
s Rs X s X r ' 2
s sR X s X r ' 2
s s
Ti
3 s Rr ' U 1f
2
3 U 1f
s
2
3 U 1f
s
2
3 p U 1f 2 For low slip, i.e.,
s s Rs Rr ' s 2 X s X r '
2 2
s Rr ' s
Rr ' 2 f s Rr '
s very close to rated
speed
speed.
p
Ti
3 p U 1f
2
s
3 p U 1f f r
3 p U 1f
2 2
3 p U1f
2
2 Rr ' f s
fr
2 Rr ' f s f s 2 Rr ' f s Ti fr
2 Rr ' f s
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DIFFERENT SCENARIOS OF CONSTANT TORQUE MODE
1 kW, 4 pole, 1740 rev/min
416 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz
OPERATION AT 6.1 HZ
The frequency applied to the stator is 6.1 Hz, so synchronous speed is 183
rev/min. In order to produce the same torque as before the current in rotor
bars must be exactly as it was before in magnitude, frequency and phase.
This is realized when the slip speed is 60 rev/min. Thus full-load torque is
produced when the rotor turns at 183-60= 123 rev/min.
The induced
ind ced voltage
oltage in the stator is now
no less than before because
beca se the flux
fl is only
onl
turning at 183 rev/min. The value is 240V/1800 rev/min*183 rev/min= 24.4 V ;
frequency 6.1 Hz 24
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DIFFERENT SCENARIOS OF CONSTANT TORQUE MODE
MOTOR STOPPED
The frequency applied to the stator is 2 Hz, so synchronous speed is 60
rev/min. In order to produce the same torque the slip speed must be again 60
rev/min This means that n=0
rev/min. n 0.
The induced voltage in the stator is 240V/1800 rev/min*60 rev/min= 8 V ;
frequency 2 Hz 25
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DIFFERENT SCENARIOS OF CONSTANT TORQUE MODE
ROTOR EXCITED BY DC
The frequency applied to the stator is 0 Hz, so synchronous speed is 15
rev/min. Nevertheless, the rated torque can again be obtained provided the
relative speed is 60 rev/min
rev/min. This happens when the rotor turns at 60 rev/min in
either direction. Again the rotor acts as a brake.
The induced voltage in the stator is 0V ; frequency 0Hz 27
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DIFFERENT SCENARIOS OF CONSTANT TORQUE MODE
300
250
N-m
Torque, N
200
150
100
50
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Speed, rpm
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
31
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
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INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
SPEED CONTROL-VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES
From minimun
F i i t base
to b speedd where
h t
torque remains
i constant,
t t andd beyong
b b
based
d
speed where due to a constant power limitation torque decreases with frequency
increase. 33
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DYNAMIC BRAKING
The next figure shows the change in the motor torque when the converter output frequency is
suddenly reduced from f0 to f1. The slip changes from being positive (motoring) to negative
(generating) and the direction of energy flow is reversed,
reversed kinetic energy is converted to electrical
energy in the motor, which is then transferred from the motor to the converter.
DYNAMIC BRAKING
On PWM converters, which use a diode rectifier bridge, the braking current is blocked from
returning to the mains power supply. Therefore, unless some mechanism is provided to absorb this
energy during braking,
braking the voltage on the DC bus will rise to destructive levels.
levels
With dynamic braking, the braking energy is dissipated in a braking resistor connected
across the DC bus of the converter. As described above, braking is achieved by reducing the
inverter output frequency to be less than the actual rotor speed. The slip can be optimized to give
as high a torque per ampere as for motoring.
motoring
Power flow is from the motor back through the inverter to the DC bus. The braking energy cannot
be returned to the mains supply because the input rectifier can only transfer power in one
direction. Instead, the energy is absorbed by the DC capacitor, whose voltage rises. To prevent the
DC bus voltage rising to a dangerously high level, level the capacitor needs to be periodically
discharged. This is done by means of a dynamic brake module shown in the next figure, consisting
of a power electronic switch, usually an IGBT or BJT, and a discharge resistor connected across
the DC link capacitor.
35
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DYNAMIC BRAKING
36
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DYNAMIC BRAKING
The IGBT or BJT is controlled by a hysteresis circuit to turn on when the capacitor voltage is too high
and turn off when the voltage drops below a certain level.
Alternatively the IGBT may be switched on and off at constant frequency
Alternatively, frequency,
with duty cycle varying linearly between 0% and 100% as bus voltage changes over
specific range.
37
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DYNAMIC BRAKING
The switching level of the braking IGBT should be chosen to be higher than the mains supply when it
is operating at highest voltage tolerance, but below the maximum safe switching voltage of the
inverter components. In practice, for a converter connected to a 3 3-phase
phase 415 volt supply, with a
nominal DC peak voltage of 586 V, the switching level would have to be set at least 10% above this
at 650 V, but below 800 V, which is the maximum safe operating voltage of the DC bus. A practical
switch-on level is typically 750 V, with the hysteresis between the upper and lower level being 20 V
to
o 30 V lower.
o e
A 22 kW VSD and motor combination must provide 100% rated motor torque while braking. The
maximum braking duty is 3 seconds in every 10 seconds.
Assume that the bus voltage during braking is 650 V DC and the DC bus over-voltage
over voltage trip level is set
at 700 V DC. What braking resistor should be used for the application?
To achieve rated torque while braking, the resistor must absorb a full 22 kW when the motor is at full
speed. Therefore,
speed e e o e, the
e maximum
a u DC C bus cu
current
e will be roughly
oug y
38
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
DYNAMIC BRAKING
To absorb 34 amps when the bus voltage is at 650 V DC, the braking resistor will need to have a
resistance of 650/34 = 19 ohms. If braking only occurs for 3 sec in every 10 sec, then the duty will
be 30%. The power rating of the braking resistor will then be 30% of 22 kW, which is approximately
7 kW continuous. Care must be taken to allow adequate excess power rating when selecting a
braking resistor, as the instantaneous power is very high and hot spots can cause premature
failure.
Thee maximum
a u transistor
a s s o cu
current
e will occu
occur a
at the
e maximum
a u DC C bus voltage
o age
39
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Examples, Three-Phase non filtered diagram
This figure
g shows an
example of 3P non
filtered PWM circuit
created to control an
induction motor.
motor The
configuration shown has
triplicated the opam
circuit explained
p before,
there is one modulator
per phase but a
commom carrier.
Note that every phase uses two transistors (IGBT) per phase to generate the final
signal not four as show before
signal, before, called half
half-bridge
bridge configuration.
configuration
40
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Examples, Three-Phase non filtered diagram
Output, Sinusoidal
waveform current
(lik a 3P AC
(like
Input, current source)
DC line.
Voltage
does not
varies
though
titime.
41
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
A) Examples, Frequency Variation
Resultant currents
(Intensity)
Voltage
g signals
g
Variation of
Modulator signals
in PWM generator
generator.
60 Hz signal 0,2s
42
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
B) Examples, Amplitude Variation
Resultant currents
(Intensity)
Voltage signals
(A*=0,9 V)
Variation of
Modulator signals (Voltage)
in PWM generator
generator.
Original Voltage Signal 0,2s *RMS values
43
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
C) Examples, Carrier frequency variation
! Transistors must
Variation of Carrier signals in
support higher
PWM generator
generator. switching
it hi ffrequency
Double carrier frequency
Carrier and A-Phase signal (V) Carrier and A-Phase signal (V)
1,5KHz 3KHz
44
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
C) Examples, Carrier frequency variation
Variation of Carrier signals in
PWM generator
generator.
Half carrier frequency
Carrier and A-Phase signal (V) Carrier and A-Phase signal (V)
1,5KHz 750Hz
45
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
C) Transistor Switching
VV
V V VV
A AA No
No B BB No
C CC
V V
V V V V V
A B C A No B No C No A No B No C No A B C No A No B C
46
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Cl
Closed
d loop
l control
t l with
ith volts/Hz
lt /H control
t l and
d slip
li regulation
l ti
48
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
49
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
50
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
51
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
52
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
53
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
Example.
Load with constant torque.
q
15000
T 55 Nm
2
2600
60
54
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
1. Case
60 f
n
p
867 1
f min 14.45 Hz
60
2600 1
f max 43.3 Hz
60
55
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
to f min
1 1
T 55 Nm M 55 Nm 70.51 Nm
u
Mn 0.78
to f max
1 1
T 55 Nm M 55 Nm 57.3 Nm
u
Mn 0.96
Number
Si [[mm]]
Size poles
2
Pu (50 Hz ) 70.51 Nm 3000 22.14 kW AM180 MO 2
60
56
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
2. Case
60 f
n
p
867 2
f mini 28.9 Hz
60
2600 2
f max 86.67 Hz
60
57
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
to f min
1 1
T 55 Nm M 55 Nm 64.7 Nm
u
Mn 0.85
to f max
1 1
T 55 Nm M 55 Nm 112.24 Nm
u
Mn 0.49
Number
Size [mm] poles
2 AM180 MO 4
Pu (50 Hz ) 112.24 Nm 1500 17.62 kW
60
58
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
3. Case
60 f
n
p
867 2
f min 28.9 Hz
60
2600 2
f max 86.67 Hz
60
59
INDUCTION MOTORS-SCALAR CONTROL
to f min
1 1
T 55 Nm M 55 Nm 64.7 Nm
u
Mn 0.85
to f max
1 1
T 55 Nm M 55 Nm 64.7 Nm
u
Mn 0.85
Number
Size [mm] poles
2 AM160 MO 4
Pu (50 Hz ) 64.7 Nm 1500 10.16 kW
60
60