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The ocean is Earth's most prominent feature. # Covers more than 70% of its surface. # Prior to the 1940s, information about the seafloor was extremely limited. Today, sound energy is used to measure water depth. The basic approach employs sonar.
The ocean is Earth's most prominent feature. # Covers more than 70% of its surface. # Prior to the 1940s, information about the seafloor was extremely limited. Today, sound energy is used to measure water depth. The basic approach employs sonar.
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The ocean is Earth's most prominent feature. # Covers more than 70% of its surface. # Prior to the 1940s, information about the seafloor was extremely limited. Today, sound energy is used to measure water depth. The basic approach employs sonar.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Verfügbare Formate
Als PDF, TXT herunterladen oder online auf Scribd lesen
Chikyu – a state of the art scientific drilling vessel
In the News: Project Mohole • Project Mohole – a 1960’s drilling project to attempt to reach the Moho layer. ▫ Was meant to be complement the Space Race. • A new goal has been set to reach the Moho by 2020. ▫ Using the drilling rig Chikyu (which was recently damaged by the tsunami). • They say the funding and technology to achieve the feat won’t be available until 2018. • Goal is to acquire unaltered samples of the mantle. The Ocean • The ocean is Earth’s most prominent feature. ▫ Covers more than 70% of its surface. • Prior to the 1940s, information about the seafloor was extremely limited. ▫ Remember, Wegener’s hypothesis of continental drift was rejected partly due to lack of information about the seafloor. • Over the years, technologic advancements have allowed us to become quite familiar with the ocean floor. Mapping the Seafloor • The complexity of the seafloor was not realized until the historic 3½ year voyage of the HMS Challenger (December 1872 – May 1876). ▫ The Challenger expedition made the first comprehensive study of the global ocean ever attempted. • Challenger sampled various ocean properties, including water depth. ▫ This was achieved by lowering LONG weighted lines overboard. Bathymetry • Bathymetry – the measurement of ocean depths and the charting of the shape or topography of sea floors. ▫ Challenger was the first broad-scale effort in bathymetry. • Bathos = depth • Metry = measurement Modern Bathymetric Techniques • Today, sound energy is used to measure water depth. • The basic approach employs sonar. ▫ SOund NAvigation and Ranging • How SONAR works: ▫ Transmission of a sound wave (PING) ▫ Contact with seafloor ▫ Reflection and receipt of reflected sound wave ▫ Measure of time elapsed ▫ Calculation of seafloor depth Advancements in SONAR Technology • In the 1990’s, high-resolution multibeam instruments were produced. ▫ This allowed a survey ship to map a swath of ocean floor tens of miles wide. ▫ [Compared to previous sonar which only obtained the depth of a single point every few seconds.] • When multibeam sonar is used to map sections of the ocean floor, the ship travels in a regularly spaced back-and-forth pattern known as “mowing the lawn”. Seismic Reflection Profiles • Marine geologists are not only interested in the topography of the seafloor. ▫ The also want to view the rock structure beneath the sediments covering the seafloor. • This is accomplished by making a seismic reflection profile. Seismic Reflection Profile • How to make one: ▫ Strong, low frequency sounds are produced by explosions (depth charges) or air guns. ▫ The sound waves penetrate the seafloor and reflect off the boundaries between rock layers and fault surfaces. ▫ The resulting image is similar to an X-ray in which geologists can make assertions. Viewing the Ocean Floor from Space • Measuring the shape of the ocean’s surface from space has led to an enhanced understanding of the seafloor. • After compensating for waves, tides, currents, and weather, it was discovered that the water’s surface is not perfectly “flat”. ▫ WHY NOT? • Because massive structures such as seamounts and ridges exert stronger than average gravitational attraction, they produce elevated areas on the ocean surface. ▫ In contrast, canyons and trenches create slight depressions. • This was discovered by satellites equipped with radar altimeters. ▫ They are capable of measuring subtle differences (as small as centimeters) in sea level by bouncing microwaves off of the sea surface. • Data from these satellites has added greatly to our knowledge of the ocean-floor topography. • Combined with traditional methods (sonar), the data are used to produce detailed ocean-floor maps. Provinces of the Ocean Floor • Because of the amounts of information provided, we can now map out different areas on the seafloor. • Oceanographers studying the topography of the ocean floor identify 3 major areas: ▫ Continental margins ▫ Deep-ocean basins ▫ Oceanic (mid-ocean) ridges Continental Margins • There are two types of continental margins: passive and active. • Overview: ▫ Passive – Atlantic and Indian Oceans Coasts Consist of continental crust capped with weathered materials eroded from adjacent landmasses. ▫ Active – Anywhere oceanic crust is subducted underneath continental crust (most notably the Pacific Rim). Usually bounded by deep ocean trenches. Passive Continental Margins • The features found on a passive continental margin include the: ▫ Continental shelf ▫ Continental slope ▫ Continental rise Continental Shelf • The continental shelf is a gently sloping, submerged surface extending from the shoreline toward the deep-ocean basin. • Because it is underlain by continental crust, it is clearly a flooded extension of the continents. Continental Shelf • Varies greatly in width. ▫ Although along some coastlines it is nonexistent, the shelf can extend up to 930 miles seaward along others. • On average, the shelf is about 50 miles wide, and the very edge is about 425 feet deep. ▫ This results in an inclination of about 0.1% - a slope so slight that it would appear horizontal. Continental Shelf • The continental shelf tends to be relatively featureless. ▫ However, some areas are covered by glacial deposits. • In addition, some shelves are dissected by large valleys running from the coastline into deeper waters. ▫ These were made during the last Ice Age (Pleistocene Epoch) when enormous amounts of water were caught up in the ice sheets. Continental Shelves During Ice Ages • Sea level dropped by an estimated 300 feet during the last Ice Age. • Because of this drop, rivers extended their courses and land-dwelling plants and animals migrated to the newly exposed portions of the continents. • Ancient remains of mammoths, mastodons, and horses have all been found off the coast on continental shelves. Continental Shelf • The continental shelves represent only 7.5% of the total ocean area. ▫ However, they are politically and economically significant because they contain important mineral deposits and support important fishing grounds. • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: ▫ Up until 2009, all nations had the opportunity to claim any extension of their continental shelf beyond the normal 200 nautical miles. Up to 350 nautical miles. ▫ Russia was the first to file a claim in 2001. Continental Slope • Marking the seaward edge of the continental shelf is the continental slope. ▫ A relatively steep structure that marks the boundary between continental crust and oceanic crust. • Although the inclination of the continental slope varies greatly from place to place, it averages about 5°. ▫ In some places, it exceeds 25°. Continental Rise • The continental slope merges into a more gradual incline known as the continental rise. ▫ The continental rise may extend seaward for hundreds of miles. • Consists of a thick accumulation of sediment that has moved down the continental slope and onto the deep-ocean floor. Continental Rise • Most of the sediments which create a continental rise are delivered to the seafloor by turbidity currents. ▫ Turbidity currents flow down submarine canyons. Turbidity Currents • A muddy slurry of seafloor sediment that usually is generated by a coastal storm. ▫ Travels from continental shelf to the abyssal plain via submarine canyons. ▫ They can accumulate to form continental rises. • When they emerge from the mouth of a canyon onto the relatively flat ocean floor, they deposit sediment that forms a deep-sea fan. ▫ Deep-sea fans can also merge with other fans to produce a continual continental rise in areas. Active Continental Margins • Along active continental margins, the continental shelf is very narrow (if it even exists at all). ▫ Here, the continental slope descends abruptly into a deep-ocean trench. In these settings, the landward wall of a trench and the continental slope are the same feature. • Located primarily around the Pacific Ocean in areas where oceanic lithosphere is being subducted beneath continental crust. Active Continental Margins • At subduction zones (active margins), sediments from the ocean floor and pieces of oceanic crust are scraped from the descending oceanic plate and plastered against the edge of the overriding continent. ▫ This chaotic accumulation of deformed sediment and scraps of oceanic crust is called an accretionary wedge. • The longer the oceanic plate has been subducting, the thicker the accretionary wedge. Active Continental Margins • Along some active margins, there is little to no sediment accumulation (no accretionary wedge). ▫ This would mean that the sediment is being carried into the mantle with the subducting plate. • The absence of an accretionary wedge tends to occur where old lithosphere is subducting nearly vertical into the mantle. ▫ In these locations, the continental margin is very narrow (a trench may lie as close as 30 miles offshore). The Deep-Ocean Basin • Between the continental margin and the oceanic ridge (mid-oceanic ridge) lies the deep-ocean basin. • The size of the deep-ocean basin is comparable to the percentage of land above sea level. ▫ About 30% of Earth’s surface Features of the Deep-Ocean Basin • This region includes: ▫ Deep-ocean trenches – extremely deep linear depressions in the ocean floor; ▫ Abyssal plains – remarkably flat areas; ▫ Seamounts and guyots; ▫ Oceanic plateaus – large flood basalt provinces Deep-Ocean Trenches • Deep-ocean trenches are long, relatively narrow creases in the seafloor that represent the deepest parts of the ocean floor. • Most trenches are located along the margins of the Pacific Ocean. ▫ Here, many trenches exceed 6 miles (10 kilometers) in depth. • One portion of the Marianas Trench (the Challenger Deep) has been measured at 36,163 feet deep. Deep-Ocean Trenches • Not all deep-ocean trenches are located in the Pacific Ocean. • There are two trenches located in the Atlantic Ocean: ▫ Puerto Rico Trench ▫ South Sandwich Trench Deep-Ocean Trenches • Trenches are sites of tectonic plate convergence where slabs of oceanic lithosphere subduct and plunge back into the mantle. • Earthquakes are generated along these trenches as one plate “scrapes” against another. • Volcanic activity is also associated with these regions. Volcanism and Deep-Ocean Trenches • Trenches are often paralleled by an arc-shaped row of active volcanoes. ▫ This is called a volcanic island arc. • Volcanic island arcs begin on the seafloor and can eventually accumulate to form islands. ▫ Example? • When this type of volcanism occurs on a continent, it is then known as continental volcanic arc. ▫ Examples? Marianas Trench • 1580 miles long; 43 miles wide • 6.85 miles deep at its deepest point (Vityaz-1 Deep) • If you could put Mt. Everest into the Marianas Trench, there would still be over 1 mile of water left above it. • Tremendous pressures exist in the trench. ▫ Over 1,000 times more than sea level. Trieste • The only manned vessel to reach the deepest known part of the oceans on Earth. • On January 23, 1960, Jacques Piccard (son of Swiss scientist who designed the Trieste) and Don Walsh (of the US Navy) reached a depth of 35,814 feet. ▫ This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point of the Earth’s oceans. Voyage of the Trieste • Descent to the seafloor: 4 hours, 48 minutes ▫ A few minutes before reaching the bottom, the Plexiglass window panes cracked, shaking the entire vessel. • Piccard and Walsh spent ~20 minutes on the ocean floor noticing flounder swimming around. ▫ Snacking on chocolate bars ▫ Cabin temperature was now 45°F • Ascent to surface: 3 hours, 15 minutes Marianas Trench as Nuclear Dump • Like other ocean trenches, the Mariana trench has been proposed at a nuclear waste site dump. • Being a subduction zone, the nuclear waste would slowly be pushed into the Earth’s mantle. ▫ Technically this is feasible, but such dumping is barred by international law. Abyssal Plain • The word abyssal is derived from: ▫ a = without & byssus = bottom • Abyssal plains are deep, flat features. • They are likely to be the most level places on Earth. ▫ Example – The abyssal plain off the coast of Argentina has less than 10 feet of relief over a distance of 800 miles. Why so flat? • Seismic reflection profiles have allowed marine geologists to determine that the very flat abyssal plains are likely due to thick accumulations of sediment. ▫ These thick layers of sediment have buried the rugged ocean floor making it appear flat. Abyssal Plains • Abyssal plains are found in all of the oceans. • However, the Atlantic Ocean has the most extensive abyssal plains. ▫ Why? There are few trenches to trap sediment traveling down the continental slope. It all ends up on the abyssal plain. Seamounts • Dotting the seafloor are submarine volcanoes called seamounts. ▫ They may rise several hundreds of feet above the surrounding topography. • It is estimated that over one million seamounts exist. ▫ When accounting for any elevation above seafloor. Seamounts • Seamounts come in all shapes and sizes. ▫ Conical, flat-topped, large and low • Follow a distinct sequence of growth, activity, and death (inactivity). • Recently, an active Hawaiian seamount (Loihi) has been observed. ▫ Helps us understand the evolution of seamounts. Dangers of Seamounts • Some seamounts have not been mapped. ▫ People know they are there via word of mouth, but officially have not been put on navigational maps. • In 2005, the submarine USS San Francisco ran into an uncharted seamount at a speed of 35 knots (40 mph). ▫ Sustained serious damage and lost one seaman. Seamounts • Some grow large enough to become oceanic islands, but most do not have a sufficiently long eruptive history to build a structure above sea level. • Although seamounts are found on the floors of all the oceans, they are most common in the Pacific. Formation of Seamounts • Some seamounts, like the Hawaiian Island – Emperor Seamount Chain, form over volcanic hot spots due to mantle plumes. ▫ Others are born near oceanic ridges. • If a seamount reaches sea level, it is then known as an island. ▫ Atlantic Ocean seamount islands: Azores, Ascension, Tristan de Cunha group, and St. Helena. Destruction of Seamounts/Islands • When a seamount reaches/exceeds sea level as an island, it is immediately subjected to the forces of weathering and erosion. ▫ In addition, islands gradually sink and disappear back below sea level as the moving tectonic plate slowly carries them away from the elevated oceanic ridge or hot spot where they were formed. • Submerged, flat-topped seamounts formed by these processes are called guyots or tablemounts. Oceanic Plateaus • The ocean floor also contains several massive oceanic plateaus. ▫ These resemble flood basalt provinces (large regions) on the continents like Deccan Traps, Columbia River Basalts, etc. • Oceanic plateaus are created by vast outpourings of fluid basaltic lavas on the ocean floor. Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge • Along well-developed divergent plate boundaries, the seafloor is elevated. ▫ This forms a broad linear swell called the oceanic ridge, or a mid-ocean ridge. • We know about oceanic ridge systems thanks to: ▫ SONAR ▫ Core samples from deep-sea drilling ▫ Analysis of slices of ocean floor that have been thrust onto dry land during continental collisions (ophiolites). ▫ Visual inspection using deep-diving submersibles Alvin • Weighs 16 tons • 24’ long • Cruising speed: 1.15 mph • Depths of 2.5 miles • 3 man crew ▫ 1 pilot ▫ 2 observers • 6 – 10 hour dives Features of Oceanic Ridge Systems • At oceanic ridges, we find: ▫ Extensive normal and strike-slip faulting ▫ Earthquakes ▫ High heat flow ▫ Volcanism Oceanic Ridge System • The oceanic ridge system winds through all major oceans in a manner similar to the seam on a baseball. • It is the longest topographic feature on Earth. ▫ 43,000 miles long • The crest of the ridge typically stands 6 – 10 feet above the adjacent deep-ocean basin. • It marks the plate boundary where new oceanic crust is being created. A misleading term… • Ridge is somewhat misleading – ▫ Ridges usually refer to narrow and steep features. • Oceanic ridges have widths of 0.5 to 2.5 miles and appear to be broad, elongated rugged swells of basaltic rocks. • Also, the oceanic ridge system is broken into segments that are offset by transform faults. Oceanic Ridges • Oceanic ridges are as high as some mountains on the continents; but the similarities end there. • Oceanic ridges consist of layers and piles of newly formed basaltic rocks that are buoyantly uplifted by the hot mantle rocks from which they formed. ▫ Divergent boundaries = new oceanic crust Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading • The greatest volume of magma (more than 60% of Earth’s total yearly output) is produced along that oceanic ridge system. ▫ Due to seafloor spreading.
Slow Spreading Rate Fast Spreading Rate
Interactions Between Seawater & Oceanic Crust • Results: ▫ Dissipation of Earth’s internal heat ▫ Alteration of both seawater and oceanic crust • Oceanic crust is permeable and highly fractured. ▫ This allows seawater to reach depths of 1 – 1.5 miles • As seawater circulates through the hot, new crust, it is heated and chemically reacts with the basaltic rock by a process called hydrothermal metamorphism. • This causes dark silicates in the basalt to form new metamorphic minerals like chlorite and serpentine. ▫ At the same time, the hot seawater dissolves ions from the hot basalts. • When the water temperature reaches a few hundred degrees, these mineral-rich fluids rise along fractures and eventually spew out onto the ocean floor. Black Smokers • Studies conducted by submersibles have photographed these metallic-rich solutions as the gushed onto the seafloor to form particle-filled clouds called black smokers. • As the particle-filled, mineral-rich clouds condense in the cold seawater, they form economically important deposits of minerals. Continental Rifting – The Birth of a New Ocean Basin Evolution of an Ocean Basin • The opening of a new ocean basin begins with the formation of a continental rift. ▫ An elongated depression along which the entire lithosphere is stretched and thinned. ▫ Examples: East African Rift, Basin & Range Province • In settings where rifting continues, the rift system evolves into a young, narrow ocean basin. ▫ Example: Red Sea • Continued rifting results in formation of a mature ocean basin. ▫ Example: Atlantic Ocean East African Rift • The East African Rift is a continental rift that extends through eastern Africa for 2,000 miles. ▫ It consists of several interconnected rift valleys. • Whether this rift will eventually develop into a spreading center is uncertain. • In the early stages of rifting, magma rose to the surface creating volcanic cones. ▫ Examples – Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro Red Sea • Research suggests that if spreading continues, a rift valley will lengthen and deepen, eventually extending to the margin of the continent. ▫ At this point, the rift becomes a narrow linear sea with an outlet to an ocean. Atlantic Ocean • If spreading continues, the Red Sea will grow wider and develop an elevated oceanic ridge similar to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. • As new oceanic crust is added to the diverging plates, the original rift gradually recedes from the region of upwelling. ▫ As a result, it cools, contracts, and sinks. Atlantic Ocean • Over time, continental margins subside below sea level and material eroded from the adjacent highlands cover this once rugged topography. ▫ The result is a passive continental margin. Note: • Not all continental rift valleys develop into full-fledged spreading centers. • In the central US, a failed rift extends from Lake Superior into Kansas. ▫ This once active rift valley is filled with sediments and volcanic rock that was extruded onto the crust more than a billion years ago. • Why one rift valley develops into a full-fledged active spreading center while others are abandoned is not fully understood.