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Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 8955–8960

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Bioresource Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biortech

Methods to improve the composting process of the solid fraction of dairy


cattle slurry
L.M. Brito a,*, J. Coutinho b, S.R. Smith c
a
Escola Superior Agrária de Ponte de Lima, Plant and Environmental Sciences, IPVC, Refóios, 4990-706 Ponte de Lima, Portugal
b
C. Química, Univ. Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-911 Vila Real, Portugal
c
Centre for Environmental Control and Waste Management, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cattle slurry solid fraction (SF) with different dry matter (DM) contents was collected from two dairy
Received 8 May 2007 farms and composted in static and turned piles, with different sizes and cover types, to investigate the
Received in revised form 30 April 2008 effects of pile conditions on the physical and chemical changes in SF during composting and to identify
Accepted 1 May 2008
approaches to improve final compost quality. Thermophilic temperatures were attained soon after sep-
Available online 16 June 2008
aration of SF, but the temperature of piles covered with polyethylene did not increase above 60 °C. The
rate of organic matter (OM) mineralisation increased for turned piles in comparison to static piles, but
Keywords:
the maximum amount of mineralisable OM (630–675 g kg1) was similar for all pile treatments. The
Ammonium
Compost
C/N ratio declined from over 36 to a value of 14 towards the end of composting, indicating an advanced
Mineralisation degree of OM stabilisation. Mature compost was obtained from raw SF feedstock as indicated by the low
Nitrate compost temperature, low C/N ratio, and low content of NHþ 4 combined with increased concentrations of
Organic matter NO 3 . The efficiency of the composting process was improved and NH3–N losses were minimized by
increasing DM content of the SF, reducing the frequency of pile turning and managing compost piles
without an impermeable cover.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction indicator of the efficiency of the composting process (Imbeah,


1998). The optimal temperature for composting reflects a com-
Solid–liquid separation can be an effective slurry treatment promise between minimizing nutrient loss and maximizing the
method for producing nutrient-rich organic solids and potentially inactivation of pathogens and seeds (Larney et al., 2003; Larney
reducing the nutrient contents and organic matter (OM) in the li- and Blackshaw, 2003; Hanajima et al., 2006; Zhang and He,
quid phase (Zhang and Westerman, 1997; Ford and Fleming, 2006; Larney and Hao, 2007). Stentiford (1996) suggested that
2002). There is value in separating the solid fraction (SF) for use temperatures between 45 °C and 55 °C gave maximum biodegra-
as a soil conditioning agent and this is particularly important in dation rates, and between 35 °C and 40 °C maximized microbial
Southern European climates where soils are deficient in OM. In diversity in the composting process. Above 40 °C, nitrification
addition, the SF can be exported to other farms with a high demand and denitrification and, hence, N2O emissions are suppressed
for organic amendments. Composting may be an effective manage- (Hellmann et al., 1997) because autotrophic nitrifier activity
ment option to improve the suitability and acceptability of SF for ceases. To inactivate pathogens, temperatures should reach
use on agricultural land outside the region of production. In partic- 55 °C for at least 15 days. However, when the MC of the solids ex-
ular, the viability of transporting composted SF increases com- ceeds 70%, which is frequently the case for most separated cattle
pared to untreated waste due to the significant reduction in slurry solids (Ford and Fleming, 2002; Brito et al., 2006), thermo-
volume and mass achieved (Larney et al., 2000; Peigné and Girar- philic temperatures may not be attained, since oxygen movement
din, 2004). is restricted.
The composting process is influenced by a number of factors The SF produced by slurry separation is a fibrous product with
such as temperature, moisture content (MC), C/N ratio, aeration, increased porosity that allows air transfer into the pile. The oxygen
pH value, and the physical structure of the raw, feedstock mate- supply to the pile may be further increased by the upward air flow
rial (Sundberg et al., 2004; Ekinci et al., 2006; Liang et al., 2006; generated by the heat produced by the composting process
Xiujin et al., 2008). Temperature is considered the most important (Oenema et al., 2001). The pile dimensions influence aeration rate
due to convection (Michel, 1999) and pile turning also increases
aeration. Oxygen and MC of the raw material also influence the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 258 909762; fax: +351 258 909779.
E-mail address: miguelbrito@esapl.pt (L.M. Brito). occurrence of nitrification and denitrification (Hwang and Hanaki,

0960-8524/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.05.005
8956 L.M. Brito et al. / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 8955–8960

2000; Yu et al., 2001). Thus, turning and changing the height and ambient air temperature was 11 °C and it was 13 °C within the
the shape of the pile influence the emission rates of gaseous com- greenhouse environment.
ponents (Fukumoto et al., 2003). Turning may serve to provide Compost DM content, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), OM, and
oxygen for the decomposition process, but can increase NH3 emis- Kjeldahl N were determined by standard procedures (CEN, 1999).
sions and therefore reduce the agronomic value of the final product Solids (50 g) were dried in an oven at a temperature of 103 °C ±
by lowering the N concentration of the final product (Hao and 2 °C. The pH was measured with a pH meter in samples extracted
Chang, 2001; Peigné and Girardin, 2004). However, NH3 emissions with water at 22 °C ± 3 °C in an extraction ratio of 1 + 5 (v/v) and
from solid manure can be reduced by covering with a membrane the specific EC was measured in the same extract. The OM content
(Webb et al., 2001; Sommer, 2001; Chadwick, 2005; Hansen et was calculated by the loss of mass on ignition at 450 °C and ex-
al., 2006). pressed as a percentage by mass of dried sample. The N content
During composting, N losses occur in the range of 16–74%, with of the sample was determined using a modified Kjeldahl method
an average N loss reported of 40% (Raviv et al., 2004). Eghball et al. based on a sulphuric acid/potassium sulphate digestion and with
(1997) observed N losses by NH3 volatilization of 19–42% of total N copper selenium catalyst, using a Kjeldahl therm digestion unit
during composting of cattle feedlot manure. The loss of N during and a compact distillation unit.
composting processes may be controlled by increasing the C/N ra- Mineral composition was determined on oven-dried and
tio of the feedstock to enhance N immobilization, and/or by lower- ground samples by wet digestion with aqua regia (HCl + HNO3)
ing compost pH (Dewes, 1996; Raviv et al., 2004). in a microwave digester. The total P content was assessed by a col-
Although many composting studies have been carried out with orimetric procedure, total K by flame emission spectroscopy and
solid manures and SF from pig slurry (Tiquia et al., 1997; Møller et total concentrations of Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn were measured
al., 2000; Fukumoto et al., 2003; Huang et al., 2006; Ross et al., by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The cation exchange capacity
2006), the kinetic changes in the physicochemical properties of (CEC) was determined by the ammonium acetate solution (pH 7)
dairy cattle slurry SF during composting are not well known. This method (Thomas, 1982).
work aims to improve the composting process of SF from a funda- Mineral N content of fresh compost samples was extracted with

mental understanding of the effects of MC, pile dimension, cover 2 M KCl in a 1:10 solid:extractant ratio. NHþ4 —N and NO3 —N con-
type and turning frequency on the changes in SF physicochemical tents of the extracts were determined by an automated colorimet-
characteristics and the rate of mineralisation of OM, to maximize ric procedure (Houba et al., 1995). The segmented flow analyser
final compost quality. (ScanPlus, Skalar, Breda) was equipped with dialysers to prevent
interferences from colour or suspended solid particles in the ex-
2. Methods tracts. For the calculation of the C/N ratio, C content in compost
was estimated by dividing the OM by a factor of 1.8 (Gonçalves
Cattle slurry SF with different dry matter (DM) contents was and Baptista, 2001).
collected from two dairy farms. Cattle slurry was dewatered using Losses of OM were calculated according to the following equa-
a screw press. At Farm 1, the press was supplied with slurry at a tion (Paredes et al., 2000):
rate of 1 m3 h1 to produce SF with 30% DM (SF-LM), and at Farm 1
OM lossðg kg Þ ¼ 1000  1000½x1 ð1000  x2 Þ=½x2 ð1000  x1 Þ
2, slurry was supplied at a rate of 3 m3 h1 and the SF contained
25% DM (SF-HM). The characteristics of both SF feedstock materials where x1 and x2 are the initial and final ash contents (g kg1),
used in the composting experiments are shown in Table 1. respectively.
Composting treatments included turned piles (SF-T) with a trac- Non-linear regression analysis of experimental data was com-
tor-mounted front-end loader after 14, 28, 56, 84 and 133 days pleted using the Levenberg–Marquardt method and the Duncan’s
from commencement of the composting process and static (SF-S) multiple range was applied to test for significant differences be-
piles without mechanical aeration. Tall piles (SF-TP) were con- tween mean data. Both forms of statistical analysis were carried
structed to a height of 1.7 m and covered with black polyethylene out using SPSS 12.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc.). A probability level
(PC) or with a permeable, waterproof polypropylene membrane of a = 0.05 was applied to determine statistical significance.
(geotextile, GC) and short piles (SF-SP) made to a height of 1.2 m.
The short piles were covered with black polyethylene (PC) or were 3. Results and discussion
uncovered (NC) and maintained in an unheated greenhouse. Static
piles were maintained for a further 4 week period compared with 3.1. Temperature
turned piles. Composting piles were periodically sampled for
chemical analysis at the start of the process and at day 7, 14, 28, Temperature conditions during SF composting (Fig. 1) followed
42, 56, 84, 133 and 154 after the beginning of composting in turned expected trends (Ross et al., 2006). Initially, the temperature of
piles, and at day 7, 14, 28, 42, 56, 112, 154 and 182 for static piles. composting piles rose as a consequence of the rapid breakdown
Four replicate samples of each composting treatment were col- of the readily available OM and nitrogenous compounds by mi-
lected and analysed on each occasion. Compost temperature was cro-organisms (thermophilic phase). As the OM became more sta-
monitored automatically with a thermistor positioned in the cen- bilised, microbial activity, the OM decomposition rate and the
tre of each pile (Delta-T Devices). During composting, the average temperature decreased gradually to ambient levels.

Table 1
Selected characteristics of the two dairy cattle slurry solid fractions under study (SF-LM and SF-HM), (x ± r, n = 24)

DM (%) pH EC (dS m1) OM (g kg1) N (g kg1) CEC (cmol kg1) NHþ 1


4 —N (mg kg ) NO 1
3 —N (mg kg )

SF-LM 30.3 ± 0.2 9.0 ± 0.1 0.66 ± 0.05 905 ± 4 13 ± 1 44.2 ± 9.8 849 ± 63 0.4 ± 0.6
SF-HM 24.9 ± 0.2 8.9 ± 0.1 0.86 ± 0.06 897 ± 5 14 ± 1 41.9 ± 8.2 1110 ± 176 0.8 ± 0.7
P (g kg1) Ca (g kg1) Mg (g kg1) K (g kg1) Fe (g kg1) Zn (mg kg1) Cu (mg kg1) Mn (mg kg1)
SF-LM 4.0 ± 0.1 7.0 ± 0.4 2.9 ± 0.2 8.8 ± 0.4 8.8 ± 1.6 114.3 ± 5.6 27.5 ± 1.6 89.1 ± 4.9
SF-HM 2.8 ± 0.2 8.8 ± 1.1 3.3 ± 0.3 9.6 ± 0.5 7.7 ± 0.4 142.2 ± 8.8 31.5 ± 2.5 80.2 ± 13.2
L.M. Brito et al. / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 8955–8960 8957

Ta
80 Ta 80 80 SF-T-PC
Ta

Temperature (ºC)
SF-T-TP SF-T-GC
60 60 SF-T-LM 60 SF-T-NC
SF-T-SP SF-T-HM
40 40 40
20 20 20
0 0 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150

Ta
80 Ta 80
Temperature (ºC)

Ta 80 SF-S-PC
SF-S-TP SF-S-LM
60 60 SF-S-GC
SF-S-SP SF-S-HM 60
SF-S-NC
40 40 40
20 20 20
0 0 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150
Time (days) Time (days) Time (days)

Fig. 1. Temperature during composting of dairy cattle slurry solid fraction (SF) with different pile conditions: static (S) and turned (T); short (SP) and tall (TP); with initial
higher (HM) and lower (LM) moisture content; covered with polyethylene (PC); geotextile (GC) and not covered (NC); Ta is the ambient air temperature.

The highest temperature (69.9 °C) was recorded for the short cally significant effect on the MC of the final composted products
uncovered pile with the largest DM content eight days after the compared to the initial SF. Thus, the average MC of the final com-
start of composting. The maximum temperature (68.1 °C) was post increased in piles covered with polyethylene, it was main-
measured after 12 days of composting for taller static piles with tained with geotextile and decreased in uncovered conditions.
the higher DM content when covered with geotextile. Thermo- Moisture reduction through evaporative losses is a key benefit of
philic temperatures were maintained for one month during the the composting process in terms of mass reduction and for the
composting process, indicating high rates of microbial activity transportation of biodegradable waste. However, covering piles
and OM stabilisation. These conditions would also be effective at with polyethylene, to reduce NH3 volatilisation and maximise the
inactivating pathogenic organisms (Hanajima et al., 2006; Larney N fertiliser value, also conserved the water released from OM min-
and Hao, 2007). eralisation and increased the overall MC of the composted product
Thermophilic activity was attained soon after separation of SF, compared to the initial amount contained in the SF feedstock.
but the maximum temperature of piles covered with polyethylene Adequate moisture is necessary to support microbial activity
did not increase above 60 °C. The combination of low DM content and the optimum range generally recommended for composting
and impermeable cover reduced the temperature and, thus, the is 50–60% (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). However, Liang et al.
rate of composting activity compared to SF-HM and permeable (2003) reported that maximum microbial activities were provided
covers. After the thermophilic phase, temperatures declined slowly by MC in the range of 60–70%. In the present study, microbial
to ambient air temperature after one to five months of composting. activity and compost temperature declined in piles covered with
Small piles cooled at a faster rate than large piles and approached impermeable polyethylene when the MC increased above 75%,
ambient temperature values within three months. The results indi- compared to piles of lower MC and covered with permeable cover
cated that the optimum conditions for compost sanitation (high or those maintained in an uncovered condition. Therefore, the ini-
temperature and duration) were best achieved with the higher tial MC of the SF feedstock was critical for effective composting to
DM SF feedstock and using a permeable cover. enable oxygen diffusion into the pile to maintain aerobic microbial
activity. However, excessive aeration can increase emissions of
3.2. Moisture content polluting gases such as NH3 or N2O (Kader et al., 2007).

There were statistically significant differences in MC between 3.3. pH and electrical conductivity
composting treatments (Table 2). As would be expected, the MC
of SF-LM treatments were smaller compared to SF-HM in static The pH of SF was generally alkaline and in the range 6.9–9.3
piles during composting. The covering treatments had a statisti- during the thermophilic phase of composting (Table 3), increasing

Table 2
Moisture content (%) of the dairy cattle slurry solid fraction (SF) composted in turned and static piles in short (SP) and tall (TP) piles with high (HM) and low (LM) initial moisture
content and covered with polyethylene (PC), geotextile (GC) or not covered (NC)

Pile conditions Turned piles (sample day number) Static piles (sample day number)
7 14 28 56 84 133 154 7 14 28 56 112 154 182
TP 74 74 72 75 81 81 81 75 71 74 73 76 76 78
SP 73 74 73 71 74 73 69 74 72 69 68 72 65 72
LM 72 72 72 73 78 78 75 73 69 67 64 71 63 69
HM 74 76 73 73 77 76 75 77 75 76 77 77 78 81
PC 73 75 76 82 84 83 83 75 73 75 73 79 80 82
GC 73 72 68 67 79 79 78 75 69 72 72 73 68 74
NC 73 74 70 62 63 63 56 74 71 65 64 64 54 63

Least significant difference (P < 0.05) for comparing mean values = 6%.
8958 L.M. Brito et al. / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 8955–8960

Table 3
pH value of the dairy cattle slurry solid fraction (SF) composted in turned and static piles in short (SP) and tall (TP) piles with high (HM) and low (LM) initial moisture content and
covered with polyethylene (PC), geotextile (GC) or not covered (NC)

Pile conditions Turned piles (sample day number) Static piles (sample day number)
7 14 28 56 84 133 154 7 14 28 56 112 154 182
TP 8.6 8.3 9.1 9.0 8.8 8.8 8.4 6.9 7.4 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.0 7.9
SP 8.6 8.7 9.1 8.9 8.6 8.2 8.1 7.6 8.0 9.1 8.9 8.8 8.5 7.7
LM 8.6 8.6 9.1 8.9 8.6 8.2 8.0 7.1 8.0 9.2 9.0 9.1 8.3 7.7
HM 8.5 8.4 9.1 9.1 8.8 8.8 8.5 7.5 7.4 8.8 8.8 8.6 8.2 7.9
PC 8.4 8.3 9.0 8.9 8.7 8.5 8.4 7.3 7.5 8.9 8.9 9.0 7.9 7.5
GC 8.7 8.8 9.1 9.2 8.9 8.7 8.0 6.6 8.1 8.9 8.9 8.7 8.8 8.3
NC 8.8 8.6 9.3 8.9 8.7 8.2 8.1 7.9 7.8 9.2 8.9 8.7 8.4 7.9

Least significant difference (P < 0.05) for comparing mean values = 0.2.

the potential for NH3 volatilization. Pile dimension and cover type The turned SF-LM piles showed an increased rate of composting
did not affect the pH of the composts consistently. A decline in the (k = 0.038 day1) and therefore reached stability more rapidly
pH value from 9 to approximately 7 was observed during the first (Fig. 2) than the SF-HM piles (k = 0.020 day1). The rate of OM min-
two weeks of composting in static piles, but pH subsequently in- eralisation in turned piles increased for small piles (k =
creased after this period, probably as a result of the degradation 0.031 day1) compared to larger piles (k = 0.025 day1). Turning
of organic acid compounds (Peigné and Girardin, 2004). In the final also increased the rate of OM mineralisation (k = 0.028 day1)
compost the pH ranged from 7.5 to 8.5 and this high pH reaction compared to static pile composting (k = 0.009 day1). However,
was probably due to the buffering effects of bicarbonates (Cáceres variations in overall OM mineralisation between the different com-
et al., 2006). Consequently, it would be necessary to co-compost SF post treatments were small (630–675 g kg1 DM). Similar results
with other organic materials of lower pH value if the end-product were found by Vuorinen and Saharinen (1997) during manure
was to be suitable for use as an alternative to peat-based substrates and straw co-composting in a drum system (620–660 g kg1 DM)
for plant propagation (Cáceres et al., 2006). Lowering the pH value and by Larney and Hao (2007) for beef cattle feedlot manure
may also have the advantage of reducing NH3 volatilisation emis- (670 g kg1 DM).
sions during the composting process (Raviv et al., 2004). The total N concentration (g kg1 DM) increased with decreas-
The EC of SF compost samples ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 dS m1, ing OM content (g kg1) according to the following equation
but EC values were generally less than 1.0 dS m1. The highest EC (n = 448; r2 = 0.99; P < 0.001):
was measured for SF with the largest MC towards the end of com-
posting process. Variations in EC between different treatment piles N ¼ 0:000235 OM2 þ 0:227 OM ð2Þ
were small and not statistically significant on each sampling
occasion. Smaller piles, turning and higher DM contents of SF were asso-
ciated with increased OM degradation rate and N concentrations in
3.4. Organic matter, nitrogen content and C/N ratio the composted residue. The total N content was raised from 14 to
30 g N kg1 DM in 2 months of composting with turning whereas
The OM content of SF decreased from an initial maximum value similar increases in total N were only achieved within 5 months
of 905 g kg1 DM to 762 g kg1 DM after 5 months of composting for static piles (Fig. 3). Turning increased the N concentration
in turned short piles. Average final compost OM content was re- and reduced the C/N ratio (Fig. 3) relative to static pile composting
duced in turned piles (767 g kg1 DM) compared to static piles and covering with geotextile increased the N content of compost.
(802 g kg1 DM), although differences in OM content between Raw dairy manure typically has a low C/N ratio for effective
the various management practices applied to either static or retention of N released my microbial degradation, which is at risk
turned piles were relatively small (Table 4). from volatilisation as NH3 from low C/N feedstock materials (Raviv
Mineralisation of OM during composting, determined by the et al., 2004). However, the SF of dairy cattle slurries studied here
OM lost, followed a first order kinetic equation (Paredes et al., had a much higher C/N ratio and therefore presents a lower risk
2000): of NH3 loss. The SF C/N ratio decreased from over 36 to a value be-
OMm ¼ OM0 ð1  ekt Þ ð1Þ low 14 towards the end of the composting period (Fig. 2), indicat-
ing an advanced degree of stabilisation.
1
where OMm indicates the mineralized OM (g kg DM) at time t According to Larney and Hao (2007), the C/N ratio is an index of
(days), OM0 the maximum mineralisable OM (g kg1 DM) and k compost stability, which decreases during the composting process
the rate of mineralisation (day1). to values approaching 10:1. Zucconi and de Bertoldi (1987), for
example, suggested that a decrease from an initial C/N value of
35–40 or higher to a final value of 18–20 or lower would imply
Table 4
Organic matter content (g kg1 DM) of dairy cattle slurry solid fraction (SF) in final an advanced degree of stabilisation. For SF, the most rapid compost
compost stabilisation was achieved with high DM feedstock in small piles
and with air-permeable compared to polyethylene covers. The
Pile conditions Turned piles Static piles
impermeable cover restricted aeration of the composting piles
Tall piles 771 799 and, therefore, reduced the internal heat production and the degra-
Short piles 762 805
Piles with initial high moisture SF 766 810
dation of OM.
Piles with initial low moisture SF 768 793
Piles covered with polyethylene 766 789 3.5. Mineral nitrogen
Piles covered with geotextile 762 811
Piles not covered 776 819 
Mineral N was characterized by a high initial NHþ
4 and low NO3
Least significant difference (P < 0.05) for comparing mean values = 9 g kg 1
DM. contents during the thermophilic phase of composting (Fig. 4).
L.M. Brito et al. / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 8955–8960 8959

SF-T-PC OMm = 629.5 (1-e-0.0294t) r2 = 0.98***


SF-T-TP OMm = 640.3 (1-e-0.0246t) r2 = 0.98*** SF-T-LM OMm = 655.4 (1-e-0.0382t) r2 = 0.98*** SF-T-GC OMm = 672.9 (1-e-0.0236t) r2 = 0.99***
SF-T-SP OM = 659.3 (1-e-0.0308t) r2 = 0.99***
m SF-T-HM OM = 655.0 (1-e-0.0199t) r2 = 0.99***
m SF-T-NC OM = 663.2 (1-e-0.0291t) r2 = 0.98***
m

800 800 800


OM los se s (g kg -1 )

600 600 600

400 SF-T-TP 400 400 SF -T-PC


SF-T-LM
200 SF-T-SP 200 SF-T-H M 200 SF -T-GC
SF -T-NC
0 0 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150
Time (days) Time (days) Time (da ys)

Fig. 2. Organic matter (OM) losses from composting dairy cattle slurry solid fraction (SF) with turning (T) in short (SP) and tall (TP) piles, with initial high (HM) and low (LM)
moisture content, covered with polyethylene (PC), geotextile (GC) or not covered (NC). ***Indicates statistical significance at P < 0.001.

philic stage of composting implies that the risk of N leaching would


be minimal during this phase of the process.
SF-T N (g kg-1)
With increasing temperatures, the NHþ 4 : NH3 equilibrium shifts
SF-S N (g kg-1)
more towards NH3 aqueous; and the NH3 aqueous: NH3 gaseous
SF-T C/Nratio equilibrium shifts to gaseous NH3 increasing the potential volatil-
40 SF-S C/Nratio isation of NH3 to the atmosphere (Ekinci et al., 2000; Peigné and
Girardin, 2004). The high pH of SF also shifts the NHþ 4 : NH3 equilib-
rium towards more NH3 aq. Therefore, warm temperature and
30
alkaline conditions during the thermophilic stage would be ex-
pected to have a significant impact on the NH3/NH4 balance and
20 the emission of NH3–N. Therefore, NH3 loss may occur at this stage,
although immobilization of N by micro-organisms may be concur-
rent with NH3 volatilization, particularly when the C/N ratio of SF
10 is high.
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Ammonia-N concentration has been used to determine compost
Time (days) stability: compost is considered to be completely stabilized when
the NHþ 4 —N content is less than 400 mg kg
1
DM (Zucconi and de
Fig. 3. Total N content and C/N ratio of dairy cattle slurry solid fractions (SF) during Bertoldi, 1987). Here, the final concentration of NHþ 4 —N in compost
composting of dairy cattle slurry solid fraction (SF) in turned (T) and static (S) piles.
Vertical bars indicate standard deviation of mean.
was less than 25 mg kg 1 DM in turned piles and a maximum va-
lue of up to 270 mg kg1 DM was measured in covered static piles
with high initial MC.

High temperature conditions and CO2 concentrations inhibit nitri- The NHþ 4 —N=NO3 —N ratio is often used as an index of compost
fier activity during the initial stages of composting (Hellmann et stability (Bernal et al., 1998) with values of <1 denoting very stable
al., 1997). After 7–14 days the content of NHþ 4 —N decreased and
or mature material (Larney and Hao, 2007). The ratio

the NO 3 —N concentration increased during the maturation phase NHþ 4 —N=NO3 —N at the end of composting was always lower than
with all compost piles following similar patterns of mineral N 0.5 indicating that composts were well mature according to the
transformation. The highest NHþ 4 —N concentrations were associ-
Compost Maturity Index of CCQC (2001). Although the small

ated with static composting (Fig. 4) and maximum values in- amounts of NHþ 4 —N combined with the increase in NO3 —N to-
creased with low DM SF (2257 mg kg1) compared to high DM SF wards the end of composting confirmed that the SF composts
(1398 mg kg1). The NHþ 4 content of static piles increased during
was mature 5 months after composting was initiated, the results
the first two weeks of composting and subsequently declined indicated that composting efficiency was improved by increasing
thereafter. The low NO 3 contents measured during the thermo-
SF DM content.

SF-T SF-S
o Ammonium N (mg kg )

2400 1000 2400 1000


-1

• Nit rate N (mg kg-1)

1800 750 1800 750

1200 500 1200 500

600 250 600 250

0 0 0 0
0 7 14 28 56 84 133 154 0 7 14 28 56 112 154 182
Time (days) Time (days)

Fig. 4. Evolution of ammonium N (open circles) and nitrate N (closed circles) during composting of dairy cattle slurry solid fraction (SF) in turned (T) and static (S) piles.
Vertical bars indicate standard deviation of mean.
8960 L.M. Brito et al. / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 8955–8960

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