1)Explain the OSPF, Open Shortest Path First. What are the different areas in OSPF?

A)OSPF is a protocol for routing to be used in IP networks. It is a link-state routing protocol and is a
part of interior gateway protocols group. It operates in a single autonomous system. OSPF
is most widely used interior gateway protocol.

The areas are as follows:

Backbone area: Backbone is also referred as ‘area 0’ or ‘area 0.0.0.0’. It is the core of an OSPF network
and all other areas are connected to it. Inter-area routing happens through routers that are connected to the
backbone area and their associated areas.

Stub area: The external route advertisements are not received by the stub area. Many route advertisements
are configured into an area. This occurs at the time where the routing table consists of mostly external
routes. It is advised to have a default route to the stub area. Stub area will have only one OSPF router.

Not-so-stubby area: A stub area which can import autonomous system external routes and send them to
other areas is known as Not-so-stubby area. NSSA is an extension of stub area which allows external routes
injection in a limited fashion into the stub area.

2)What is NAT? Explain how NAT actually works.

Network Address Translation is the full form of NAT. It is a technology that is commonly used for IP
translation and mapping. It allows sharing internet access to home networkers. NAT
implements the accessibility by using a device or software which allows the entire home
network to share internet access.

NAT acts as interface between the private network (home users network) and the public network (internet).
NAT is available between the internet and the home network. When a request is sent from a private network
to the public network, a little conduit will be opened by the NAT device between the home computer and the
destination computer. The response sent by public network system will be sent back to the client though
NAT.

Classless routing protocols advertise subnet mask information along with the
network prefixes. Classful routing protocols do not. Therefore, for a classful
protocol, all subnets for the major network number being used must be the same
length. Also, classful protocol cannot support discontiguous networks prefixes.

50. Explain ICMP

ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol, a network layer protocol of the TCP/IP suite used
by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. It uses
the echo test / reply to test whether a destination is reachable and responding. It also handles
both control and error messages.
51. What are the data units at different layers of the TCP / IP protocol suite
The data unit created at the application layer is called a message, at the transport layer the
data unit created is called either a segment or an user datagram, at the network layer the
data unit created is called the datagram, at the data link layer the datagram is encapsulated in
to a frame and
finally transmitted as signals along the transmission media.

63. Explain frame relay, in which layer it comes

Frame relay is a packet switching technology. It will operate in the data link layer.
68. How Gateway is different from Routers
A gateway operates at the upper levels of the OSI model and translates information between
two completely different network architectures or data formats.

When do you use BGP, IGRP, OSPF, Static Routes

BGP - When u have multiple ISP connection on same router it
will perform as loadbalancing and its coonect different
AS ,its slow convergence compare to OSPF and IGRP . it
using the TCP port-179 to exchange packets with neighbor.
Medium to Big Organisation

OSPF - OSPF is fast convergence link state routing

protocol, whcih connect different area with area0, where
area0 is core router. ABR and ASBR are connected to
Area0.its uses own L4 protocol to send hello packet. small
to meduim organisation

IGRP - Its a link-state cisco proprietry routing protocol.

where multi vendor product is not supported. its useful for
small to medum organisation.

Static route - Its best route path defined by network admin

for very small organisation , where n/w traffic will send
to remote n/w faster.

What is the difference between bridges and switches?

Bridges and switches function the same way; the only difference is in how
they are implemented. Bridges are implemented by software and usually
have a couple of network ports. Switches are implemented in hardware by
ASIC chips and have many ports.

What is the Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)?

STP is a loop-prevention bridge-to-bridge protocol. Its main purpose is to
dynamically maintain a loop-free network. It does this by sending out Bridge Protocol
Data Units (BPDUs), discovering any loops in the topology, and blocking one or more
redundant links.
What is Frame Relay?
An industry standard, Frame Relay is a switched data link layer protocol that uses virtual
circuits to identify the traffic that belongs to certain routers. It provides dynamic bandwidth
allocation and congestion control.

What is the difference between a routing protocol and a routed protocol?

Routing protocols determine how to route traffic to the best location of a routed protocol.
Examples of routing protocols are RIP, EIGRP, OSFP, and BGP. Examples of routed protocols are
IP and IPX.

What is the difference between multimode and single mode fiber?

Multimode fiber has a relatively large light carrying core, usually 62.5 microns or larger in
diameter. It is usually used for short distance transmissions with LED based fiber optic
equipment. Single-mode fiber has a small light carrying core of 8 to 10 microns in diameter. It
is normally used for long distance transmissions with laser diode based fiber optic transmission
equipment.

Should I install single-mode or multimode fiber?

This depends on the application. Multimode fiber will allow transmission distances of up to about 10 miles
and will allow the use of relatively inexpensive fiber optic transmitters and receivers. There will be bandwidth
limitations of a few hundred MHz per Km of length. Consequently, a 10 mile link will be limited to about 10
to 30 MHz. For CCTV this will be fine but for high speed data transmission it may not be.

-No. Wavelength Fiber Type Connector Transmission Distance covered**

-1 850 nm multimode ST up to 2 miles (3 Km)
-3 1310 nm multimode ST up to 6 miles (10 Km)
-7 1310 nm single-mode FCPC up to 20 miles (30 Km)
-8* 1310 nm single-mode ST up to 20 miles (30 Km)
-9 1550 nm single-mode FCPC up to 40 miles (60 Km)

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) Operations

The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is responsible for identifying links in the network and
shutting down the redundant ones, preventing possible network loops. In order to do so, all
switches in the network exchange BPDU messages between them to agree upon the root
bridge. Once they elect the root bridge, every switch has to determine which of its ports will
communicate with the root port.
If more than one link connects to the root bridge, then one is elected as the forwarding port
(Designated Port) and the others are blocked