Introduction:

Graph theory can be said to have its beginning in 1736 when LEONARD EULER
considered the Königsberg bridge problem:
Is there exist a walk crossing each of the seven bridges of Königsberg exactly
once?

After 100 years, the answer was invented that there is no possible way to walk all
cities using the bridges only once.

Graphs:
Let V be a finite set, and denote E(V)={ {u, υ} | u, υ ∈ V, u ≠ υ }
the 2-set of V i.e. subsets of V of two distinct elements.

DEFINITION: A pair G=(V,E) with E ⊆ E(V) is called a graph (on V). The
elements of V are the vertices, and those of E the edges of the graph. The vertex
set of a graph G is denoted by VG and its edge set by G. Therefore G=(VG;EG).

A pair {u,v} is usually written simply as uv. Then for a simple undirected graph
uv=vu.
Graphs can be generalized by allowing loops vv and parallel edges between
vertices to obtain a multigraph G=(V,E,φ), where E={e1,e2,……..,em} a set (of
symbols), and φ:E→E(V) U { υυ | υ ∈ V } is a function that attaches an
unordered pair of vertices to each e ∈ E : φ(e)=uυ.
Directed graphs or Digraphs:

A directed graphs or digraphs D=(V,E), where the edges have a direction, that is,
the edges are ordered: E⊆VXV. In this case, uυ=υu.

Order & Size of the graph:

For a graph G, we denote υG=|VG| and ξG=|EG|

The number υG of the vertices is called the order of G, and ξG is the size of G.

NOTE: Two graphs G and Hare isomorphic, if |VG|=|VH| and |EG|=|EH|

Loop:
An edge of a graph that joins a node to itself is called loop or self loop i.e. a loop is
a edge(υi,υf) where υi = υf .

Isomorphism of graphs:
Two graphs G and H are isomorphic, denoted by G ≅ H, if there exists a
bijection function α : VG→VH such that
uυ ∈ EG ⇔ α(u)α(υ)∈EH
for all u,υ ∈ G.

Properties of Isomorphism of Graph:

(i) The vertices of H are simply renaming vertices of G.
(ii) Two isomorphic graphs having the same graph theoretical properties, and
they are often identified.
Example of Isomorphism of graphs:

The following graphs are isomorphic.

Indeed, the required isomorphism is given by

v1↦1, v2↦3, v3↦4, v4↦2, v5↦5.

Intersection Graph:
A graph has many different adjacency matrices, an adjacency matrix is
always symmetric.For a undirected graph there are same no. of adjacency matrix
as same as node.
Graphs can also be represented by sets. For this, let X={X1,X2,….,Xn} be a
family of subsets of a set X, and define the intersection graph GX.

Properties of Intersection Graph:

(i) Vertices X1,…,Xn
(ii) Edges for all i and j (i≠j)
(iii) Xi ∩ Xj ≠ ∅

Theorem: Every graph is an intersection graph of some family of subsets.

Proof : Let G be a graph, and define, for all υ∈G, a set Xυ = {{ u,υ}| υu ∈ EG }
Then Xu ∩ Xv≠∅; if and only if uυ∈ EG.
Let s(G) be the smallest size of a base set X such that G can be represented
as an intersection graph of a family of subsets of X, that is,
s(G)=min{|X| | G ≌ GX for some X ⊆ 2X }
Terminology related to graph:
Neighbourhood
Let υ∈G be a vertex a graph G. The neighbourhood of υ is the set
NG(υ)={ u ∈G | uυ ∈ EG }.
Degrees of vertices
The degree of υ is the number of its neighbours : dG(υ)=|NG(υ)|
If dG(υ)=0, then υ is said to be isolated in G, and if dG(υ)=1, then υ is a leaf of
the graph.

Minimum Degree:
The minimum degree of are defined as δG = min {dG(υ) | υ ∈ G }
Maximum Degree:
the maximum degree of are defined as ΔG = max {dG(υ) | υ ∈ G }
Lemma (Handshaking lemma): For each graph G,

∑ dG(υ) = 2 .EG
υ∈G
i.e. the sum of degrees equal twice the no. of edges.

Proof: Since every edge e∈EG has two ends. Each edge gets counted twice.
Thus the sum of degree equal twice the no. of edges.

Corollary: Every graph has an even number of vertices of odd

degree.*************

2-switch:
Let G be a graph. A 2-switch (uυ,xy) of G , for uυ,xy ∈ Eg and ux,υy ∉ Eg,
replaces the edges uυ,xy by ux,υy. It is denoted by G H.
If there exists a finite sequence of 2-switches that carries G to H.
If G H then H G since we can apply the sequence of 2-switches in
reverse order.
.
Lemma: Let G be a graph of order n with a degree sequence d1≥d2≥…….≥dn,
where dG(υi)= di. Then there is a graph G’ such that G’ G with
NG’(υ1)= {υ2,….., υd+1}
Proof: Suppose that there exists a vertex υi with 2≤i≤d+1 such that υ1υi∉EG.
Since the degree of vertex , dG(υ1) = d, there exists a υj with j≥d+2 such that
υ1υj∈EG. Here also assume there exists a υt (2≤t≤n) such that υ1υt ∈EG.
We can now perform a 2-switch w.r.t. the vertices υ1υjυiυt. This gives a new
graph H, where υ1υj ∉ H and υ1υi∈H, and the other neighbours of υ1 remain to
be its neighbours.
When we repeat this process for all indices i with υ1υi ∉ EG for 2≤i≤d+1, we
obtain a graph G’ where NG’(υ1)= {υ2,….., υd+1}.

Theorem : Two graphs G and H on a common vertex set V satisfy dG(υ)=dH(υ)

for all υ∈V if and only if H can be obtained from G by a sequence of 2-switches.

Proof: If G H, then clearly H has the same degrees as G.

Let G and H have the same degrees.By using Lemma, we have a vertex υ and
graphs G’ & H’ such that G G’ and H H’ with NG’(υ)= NH’(υ). Now
the graphs G’- υ and H’- υ have the same degrees. By induction hypothesis,
G’- υ H’- υ , and thus also G’ H’.
Finally, we can get that G H by the ‘reverse sequence’ of 2-switches.

Trivial &Non-trivial Graph:

A graph G = (V,E)is trivial, if it has only one vertex, i.e., υG = 1; otherwise G is
nontrivial.

Complete Graph:
The graph G=KV is the complete graph on V, if every two vertices are adjacent:
E=E(V). All complete graphs of order n are isomorphic with each other, and they
will be denoted by Kυ.

Complement of Graph:
The complement of G is the graph on VG, where E = {e∈E(υ)| e ∉ EG}.
The complements G= of the complete graphs are called discrete graphs. In a
discrete graph EG=∅.
 Clearly, all discrete graphs of order n are isomorphic with each other.

Regular Graph:
A graph G is said to be regular, if every vertex of G has the same degree. If
this degree is equal to r, then G is r-regular or regular of degree r.
A discrete graph is 0-regular, and a complete graph Kn is (n-1)-regular.
Size of a complete graph of order n is n(n-1)/2.

Example :
Let k ≥1 be an integer, and consider the set Bk of all binary strings of length k. For
instance, B3={000,001,010,100,011,101,110,111}. Let Qk be the graph, called the
k-cube, with VQk = Bk, where uυ ∈ EQk if and only if the strings u and υ differ in
exactly one place.

Here it is the 3 cube.

Subgraphs :
A graph H is a subgraph of a graph G, denoted by H⊆G, if VH ⊆ VG and
EH ⊆ EG.
H is a spanning subgraph of G, if every vertex of G is in H, i.e., VH = VG.
In an induced subgraph H⊆G, the set EH of edges consists of all e ∈ EG such
that e∈E(VH). A subgraph H⊆G is an induced subgraph, if EH=EG∩E(VH).
To each non-empty subset A⊆VG, there corresponds a unique induced subgraph
G[A]= (A,EG ∩ E(VA))