P-Particle Theory: A Neutrino-Based TOE

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com
P-Particle Theory: a
neutrino-based TOE
Part III
Bijan Yavari
Copyright © 2000-2005
2 P-Particle Theory – Part III
Contents
Gravitational radiation 5
The gravitational luminosity of bodies due to the expansion of the 8

universe
Gravitational luminosity of an accelerated black hole 11
The gravitational wave in a black hole 12
Conditions for the creation of gravitational waves 19
The D value of a general point P in a space at a distance equal to r 20

from the center of a black hole
Interaction of two black holes 22
Constancy of the relativistic mass of black holes 24
Interaction of bodies with a black hole 26
Nature of the gravitational waves 27
Classification of neutrinos 28
The magnitude of the gravitational wave in neutron decay 29
Kinetic energy and the momentum of black holes 31
Extraction of the relation Dmax = D0 max.Ds 33
c as an upper limit for velocity 34
The mass of a body 40
The quantum form of the Schwartzchild relation 42
Evaluation of L0pp1 - the length of the PP1 in standard space 44
Evaluation of L0e – the unwound length of an electron 44
m0 e
Dimensional analysis of L0e = 46
2G0
The impossibility of time travel 57
Conservation of the output of energy 59
Starting point of the conservation law for the output of a PP1 62
www.foundationphysics.com Copyright © 2000-2005 Bijan Yavari

Contents
The inflation of the universe as an inevitable event and its cause 64
The value of D in a singularity 67
A relation for the value of D at the surface of a black hole 69
Discussion about the Einstein field equations 70
c03
Meaning of the relation M b = 72
2G0 .Ds
The velocity of expansion of a black hole 73
Theoretical density of matter inside a black hole 74
Dmax and its implications 76
Evaluation of surface gravity, K 78
The internal structure of a black hole 79
The curvature of space and its relationship with the curvature parameter K 81
Density of the universe 83
Arguments concerning the Einstein-Friedmann equation 84
Inclusion of the cosmological constant, Λ, in the Einstein-Friedmann 92

equation
Calculation of the value ρ with the inclusion of the relation Mu = Mu0.D 97

dM u c05
leading to the relation =− 3 2
dt 8G0 .t
A theoretical evaluation of the upper limit of the inflationary radius 98

of the universe
Non-theoretical evaluation of the radius of the universe at the end of the 99

inflationary period
Dark matter 100
The thermodynamics laws for a black hole according to current theories 102
The universe of the observer 105

Contents
Entropy of the universe 108
Further relations 110
Evaluation of su0 112
Dimensional analysis 113

Gravitational Radiation:
i) The expansion of the universe causes a continuous reduction in its mass, which
appears, as we noted earlier, in the form of microscopic gravitational waves. As
dE
L = , where L is gravitational luminosity, then, considering that
dt
dM u ⎛ c03 ⎞ 2
= - ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ .D , we have:
dt 2G
⎝ 0⎠
dEu ⎛ c5 ⎞
Lu = = - ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D 2
dt ⎝ 2G 0 ⎠
c 03 c03 dM b
ii) Considering that M b = = - = c 02 .t , then = c 02 and
2G0 .D ⎛ c ⎞ dt
2G0 ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 .t ⎠
dEb
= c04 .
dt
Which means that the rest mass energy of a black hole according to an observer in a
D = 1 space continues to increase.
It is important to note that the above relation regarding dMb/dt and dEb/dt represents
the change in the rest mass of the black hole, that is dMb rest mass/dt = c 02 , and not its
relativistic mass or energy. This is because the relativistic mass of a black hole is a
c 03
constant value equal to and remains so during the course of its life. Which
2G0
dM b relativistic
means = 0 . Since this implies that a black hole does not exchange energy
dt
with its surrounding environment, then this means that if a black hole is left
undisturbed, i.e. if it is not accelerated, then it will not emit gravitational waves.
c03
Note - We could simply argue that as M b = = constant, where Mb is the
2G0
c03
relativistic mass of a black hole, and as the relation M b = represents the rest
2G0 .Ds
mass of a black hole in the universe in which it is located in, where the D value of the
universe is equal to Ds, then given that the total energy of a black hole
⎛ c3 ⎞
Eb = m0 .c02 = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.c02 = constant, due to the effect of the law of conservation of
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
energy, the black hole does not exchange energy with its surroundings. Thus the
entropy of a black hole as a system must remain constant. But, as we saw, the entropy
of a black hole is equal to zero – thus the entropy of a black hole is zero and always
remains so.
N.B. Bodies interact with their surroundings through neutrinos, and so through the G
field, and are themselves the carriers of photon energy. Since all of the G field lines

on the surface of a black hole assume curvature, then the body of the black hole is
actually in a state of ‘cut-off’ with respect to its surroundings; thus it is unable to
interact and so exchange energy with its surroundings. Which implies that the entropy
of a black hole must remain constant.
Note -
(a) The starting point of the life of the universe, according to the new version of the
second law, must coincide with the time when the universe began to change its mass
into energy. If the big-bang is reduced to a definition of being a time when the
universe started to expand, then one can assume the big-bang to be the starting point
of the life of the universe.
(b) Since the existence of the universe before the big-bang is then against the second
law, and as the second law has no meaning in isolation, i.e. the universe and the
second law must always have co-existed with each other with there never have being
a time when the universe could have existed without the existence or application of
this law, the implication is therefore that the universe must have been “created” at the
time of the big-bang.
s c
(c) Since s = 0 , where s is entropy, and D = 0 , where t is the age of the
D 2G0 .t
universe, then:
2G0 .s 0 .t
s=
c0
According to this relation, when t → 0, s → 0, which implies that the entropy of the
universe at the start of its life must have been zero, thus confirming the deductions in
(a). This means that the universe at the start of its life was fully in a mass state.
Ru 0 R .s
(d) As Ru = , then Ru = u 0 .
D s0
Since, according to (c), at the birth of the universe s → 0, then Ru at t→0 →0.
(e) Since a black hole does not exchange energy with its surroundings, then the total
number of PP1’s which constitute the body of the black hole is a constant value
during the course of its life. Since the relativistic mass of all black holes are identical
c 03 c
and equal to , and as D0 max = 0 , then according to the relation m = m0 .D we
2G0 2G0
have:
c03 ⎛ c ⎞
= m0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
2G0 ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
⇒ m 0 = c 02
where m0 is the rest mass of the constituent PP1’s of the black hole. As in general
m0 .c 02
NPP1 = , where NPP1 is the total number of PP1’s that make up the body, then
h

c02 .c02 c04

in theory, NPP1b = = , where NPP1b is the total number of PP1’s which
h h
constitute the body of a black hole and which remains constant throughout the life of
the black hole.
(f) The constancy of NPP1 in a black hole, explained in (e), implies that a black hole
does not exchange any particles with its surroundings.
L0 L0 .M 0
(g) (i) According to the relation L = = , the expansion of the universe
D M
causes a reduction in the mass of the bodies.
c c .R
(ii) Rb = 0 = 0 u , which implies that the expansion of the universe causes
D Ru 0
an expansion of black holes.
(iii) From (i) and (ii), the implication is that the expansion of the universe must
cause the constituent PP1’s of the black hole to expand and so their mass must
continuously decrease.
(iv) As both the mass of the black hole and NPP1 in a black hole are constant,
L .m
then the implication is that the relation L = 0 0 , does not hold for black
m
holes.
(h) From (g) we can infer that the reason the entropy of a black hole remains zero is
that these bodies are cut off from the universe and so cannot have a thermodynamic
interaction with it.
(i) Since the phenomenon of cut-off is maintained by the particular G field line pattern
K ( D0 max ) 2 1
that surrounds a black hole, described by curv0 = 2
= − 2 , where these
S0 c0
field lines reflect back from the surface of the black hole into the universe, then we
can say that the behaviour of a black hole, with regard to the second law, must purely
be due to the structure of the G field around these bodies - which causes the space of
the universe to become totally separated from the body of the black hole. This forces
the black hole to act as an independent system separate from the universe. This means
that the fact that the entropy of a black hole remains constant is due only to the effect
of the cut-off phenomenon and is not intrinsic to its constituent matter.
(j) Since a universe which obeys the opposite version of the second law, (where
according to this version, the energy of the universe continuously changes into mass,
and so causes the universe to assume continuous contraction), cannot evolve beyond
its pre-big-bang state, which is a full mass state, then, given that the universe has
moved away from the big-bang, the implication is that the second law must be an
intrinsic property of matter and so the universe must have no other option other than
to follow continuous expansion.

The Gravitational Luminosity of Bodies due to the Expansion of the Universe:
As Ek = m0.c02.(D - 1), where Ek is kinetic energy, then:
Ek = m0.c02.D - m0.c02
⎛ E ⎞
⇒ D = ⎜⎜ k 2 ⎟⎟ + 1
⎝ m0 .c0 ⎠
Since D = m/m0, then equating these two relations for D gives:
Ek
⇒ m= + m0 = m0 .D
c02
But D = [curv/(K.Λ0)]1/2,
Ek
∴ m = m0.[curv/(K.Λ0)]1/2 = + m0
c02
The implication drawn from the above is that the curvature of space created by the
motion of a body, with rest mass m0, induces an additional quantity of energy in the
body and changes its mass into m, where the extra energy is equivalent to some
kinetic energy. In other words, a change in the curvature of space created by the
motion of the body results in a change in the energy of the body, where the value of
the change in energy can be described by Ek. As L = dE/dt, where L is gravitational
luminosity, then L = dEk/dt. So,
d
L= [m0.c02.(D - 1)]
dt
dD
⇒ L = m0.c02.
dt
We have seen that D = c0/(2G0.t) = 1/(Ha0.t), hence:
dD/dt = - 1/(Ha0.t2)
But t = 1/(Ha0.D). Substituting for t gives:
dD/dt = - Ha0.D2
As L = dE/dt = m0.c02.(dD/dt), then:
dE
= m0.c02.(-Ha0.D2)
dt

dE ⎛ − 2G0 ⎞ 2
⇒ = m0.c02. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.D
dt ⎝ c0 ⎠
dE
∴ = -2G0.m0.c0.D2
dt
Since L = m0.c02.(dD/dt) and dD/dt = - c0/(2G0.t2), then:
− m0 .c03
L=
2G0 .t 2
So, in general,
− m0 .c03
L = dE/dt = - 2G0.m0.c0.D2 =
2G0 .t 2
where dE/dt is the gravitational luminosity of a mass m0 due to the expansion of the
universe. This kind of gravitational wave was referred to earlier as the microscopic
gravitational wave, although the mean energy value of these waves is less than the
threshold energy of the electromagnetic waves - the latter being h, Planck’s constant -
as was seen, however, the interference of these waves is able to create a very low
frequency electromagnetic energy, which must be identified with the background
radiation. We note that since the mass of a black hole remains constant during the
course of its life, despite the expansion of the universe, then the gravitational
luminosity of a black hole due to the expansion of the universe is always zero; which
means that the above relation cannot be used for a black hole. In other words, the
above relation is correct for all bodies except a black hole, meaning that m ≠ M b 0 .
Note:
(1) The magnitude of the gravitational luminosity, L, for the mass m0 shown in the
above relations is correct only if it is assumed that the magnitude of the
electromagnetic luminosity due to the bodies, stars, neutrinos and also that of
gravitational waves with origins other than the microscopic gravitational wave in the
universe, are zero. In other words, the magnitude is correct on the condition that all
other luminosities are assumed to have a zero value. This is because if, in the above
c4 ⎛ c5 ⎞
relation, m0 = M u 0 = 0 2 , then L = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D 2 , where L is the total sum of the
4G0 ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
luminosities of the universe. Which implies:
c 05
L= = luminosity due to microscopic gravitational waves + all other luminosities
2G0
which proves the point.

(2) Since the mass of a black hole is the upper limit for mass and so energy for a
body, then all the conditions which can lead to an increase in the mass of a body, such
as acceleration, or the bombardment of a black hole with matter, must lead to the
emission of the surplus energy. In the case of the black hole, it is reasonable to
assume that the emitted energy is in the form of the gravitational wave. So, as
L = dE/dt = m0.c02.(dD/dt) and Mb0 = c03/2G0, then:
⎛ c5 ⎞ dD
Lb = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ dt
where Lb is the gravitational luminosity of a black hole due to acceleration.
As curv = (K.D2)/S02, and since the value of D on the surface of a black hole is equal
to Dmax = (c0/2G0).Ds and S0 = c02/2G0, then:
K .Ds2
curv max. =
c02
In the case of the black hole, one can simply say that the curvature of space on its
surface is the maximum curvature. Any condition that could lead to an increase in this
curvature would then be resisted by the black hole via the process of emission of
gravitational waves.
(3) Since any change in the uniform D value of space surrounding a body leads to the
motion of the body in that direction, then clearly in order for the relation L = dE/dt =
m0.c02.(dD/dt), (where L is gravitational luminosity) to be applied to a body, the
change in the D value of the space surrounding that body must be extremely uniform.
(This is why the expansion of the universe causes bodies to emit gravitational waves).
As this condition is very strict, then it becomes clear that all bodies in general (except
black holes) do not emit gravitational waves on any occasion or for any reason other
than the expansion of the universe.

Gravitational Luminosity of an Accelerated Black Hole:
Since a black hole represents a mass maxima body then, due to the effect of the
relation E = m.c 2 , equally it represents an energy maxima body with a total energy of
⎛ c3 ⎞ c5
E = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. c02 = 0 . The implication is that any kind of energy which is being
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0
received by a black hole must re-emerge out of the black hole in an alternative form
which, in the case of kinetic energy, one can assume must be in the form of
gravitational waves; this is because the motion of a black hole can cause vibration on
its surface.
For Lb, the magnitude of the gravitational luminosity of a black hole, we can write:
dE d ⎛ c05 c05 ⎞
Lb = = ⎜ − ⎟
dt dt ⎜⎝ 2G0 2G0 D ⎟⎠
1
Substituting D = gives:
V2
1− 2
c0
⎡ 1
⎤
d ⎢⎛ c05 ⎞ c05 ⎛ V2 ⎞2 ⎥
Lb = ⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
dt ⎢⎜⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0 ⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎦
c 04
( )
1
− dV
⇒ Lb = c 02 − V 2 2 .V .
2G 0 dt

The Gravitational Wave in a Black Hole:
The relativistic mass of a black hole is constant, which means that the energy of a
black hole is constant and always remains the same irrespective of the space in which
the black hole is located. This implies that the relativistic mass and so the total energy
of a black hole in a space with D = 1, is equal to that of all the other black holes. As
c 03 ⎛ c03 ⎞ c03
M b0 = , then using M = M0.D gives M = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × (1) = , so the Etotal of a
2G0 ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0
⎛ c3 ⎞ c5 c03 1
black hole is ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.c02 = 0 . As M b = and D = , then for Mb,
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0 2G0 .D (1 − V 2
c02 )
the rest mass of a moving black hole, we can write:
1
c 3
c ⎛ V
3 2
⎞ 2
Mb = 0
= .⎜1 − 2
0
⎟⎟
2G0 .D 2G0 ⎜⎝ c0 ⎠
If the velocity of a black hole changes from V1 to V2 where V2 > V1, then we have:
1
c3 ⎛ V 2 ⎞2
M b1 = 0 .⎜⎜1 − 12 ⎟⎟
2G0 ⎝ c0 ⎠
1
c ⎛ V22
3
⎞2
and M b2 = 0
.⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
2G0 ⎜⎝ c0 ⎠
Now, (Mb1 - Mb2).c02 = Eg, where Eg is the total energy of the gravitational wave of
the black hole. The reason for this being so lies in the fact that the total energy of a
black hole is constant and so with any change in the state of motion of the black hole,
the energy created by that motion must be returned back to space in the form of
gravitational waves.
Substituting for Mb1 and Mb2 in the above relation for Eg, gives:
⎡ 3 1 1
⎤
c ⎛ V2 ⎞2 c3 ⎛ V 2 ⎞2 ⎥ 2
Eg = (Mb1 - Mb2).c0 = ⎢ 0 .⎜⎜1 − 12
2
⎟⎟ − 0 .⎜⎜1 − 22 ⎟⎟ .c0
⎢ 2G0 c0 2G0 ⎝ c0 ⎥
⎝ ⎠ ⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦
c04 ⎡ 2 ⎤
( ) − (c )
1 1
∴ Eg = . c0 − V12 2 2
− V22 2
2G0 ⎢⎣ ⎥
0
⎦
Since the maximum value of Eg occurs when V1 = 0 and V2 = c0, then the implication
c 05
is that Eg maxima = .
2G0

⎛ 2G ⎞
(a) According to Schwartzchild, Rb = ⎜⎜ 2 0 ⎟⎟.M b , where Rb is the radius of a black
⎝ c0 ⎠
1
c3 ⎛ V 2 ⎞2
hole. But M b = 0 .⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ , thus:
2G0 ⎝ c0 ⎠
1
⎛ V2 ⎞2
Rb = c0 .⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ c0 ⎠
c04
(b) As K = , where K is surface gravity, then substituting for Mb gives:
4G0 .M b
1 1
− −
c ⎛ V2 ⎞ 2 ⎛ c ⎞⎛ V 2 ⎞ 2
K = 0 .⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ = G0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠⎝ c0 ⎠
⎛ c ⎞
but, Dmax = D0max..D = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D , and K = G = G0.D, thus:
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
D0 max G
K = G0 . 1
= 1
⎛ V2 ⎞ 2 ⎛ V2 ⎞2
⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
⎜ c0 ⎟ ⎜ c0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
According to (a), when V1 < V2, where V1 and V2 are the initial and final velocities of
a black hole, Rb becomes smaller and vice-versa - that is, when V1 > V2 , Rb increases.
1
−
⎛ V2 ⎞ 2
According to (b), if V1 < V2, the value of the Dmax = D0 max .⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ on the surface
⎝ c0 ⎠
of the black hole, and so the curvature of space in this region, increases and vice-
versa. From the discussion given earlier we know that the value of <<Mb>> is greater
when Rb is larger and vice-versa. So we can conclude that when a black hole is
accelerating, i.e. when V1 < V2:
(1) Its radius reduces.

(2) The curvature of space on its surface increases.
(3) Its <<Mb>> decreases.
Note (a): As we saw earlier Θ g = D.∫ g 0 .dA = K .M 0 .D = M .D , where Θ g is the flux

of the gravitational field, g0 is the gravitational field of the body when D = 1, M0 is a
c3
point mass and K = 4 π .G0 . If M = M 0 .D = M b = 0 = constant, where Mb is the
2G0
relativistic mass of the black hole, then:

⎛ c3 ⎞
Θ gb = 4π .G0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 2π .c03 = constant
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
where Θ gb is the flux of the gravitational field of a black hole. Since Θ gb is constant,
then the implication is that the total number of G field lines that correspond to the
surface of a black hole is constant and remains so for the whole course of its life. The
importance of this point is that it makes clear that since this corresponding number is
constant, then the expansion of the universe, does not cause a black hole to emit
gravitational waves, despite the fact that it causes a reduction in the D value of the
surface of the black hole.
Note (b): Mass, radius and the state of the universe in which a black hole is located in
c03 c
are strictly defined by the relations M b = and Rb = 0 (where
2G0 .D D
c03 c03 c c c03 c
Mb = ⇒ D= and Rb = 0 ⇒ D = 0 ⇒ = 0
2G0 .D 2G0 .M b D Rb 2G0 .M b Rb
R 2G
⇒ b = 2 0 , which is Schwartzchild’s relation). If, in theory, one keeps the value
Mb c0
of D constant, but by some theoretical means one increases the value of Rb, then as the
c
relation Rb = 0 no longer holds for the body, the body loses its state as a black hole.
D
Since a black hole is a mass maxima body and can be defined as a body for which all
the G field lines of space reaching its surface reflect back into space, i.e. all of its
corresponding G field lines are reflected G field lines, then we can say that the above-
mentioned theoretical procedure leads to the penetration of some G field lines into the
body which would otherwise be reflected - where the magnitude of the total number
of the penetrating G field lines into the body is proportional to the increase in the
value of Rb. Considering that Dmax = D0max.Ds, and that when the D value of the
surface of a body becomes equal to Ds, not a single G field line reflects back from the
surface of this body (because then the gravitational state of the body becomes equal to
that of the space itself), we can state that when Rb → Ru , all of the G field lines
which would have been reflected (that is, would have become curved) on the surface
of the black hole, penetrate into the black hole, with not a single G field line
remaining in the reflected state. This has the additional implication that at this stage,
the mass of the body becomes zero (this is again because the state of the surface of the
body, with regard to its D value, becomes identical to that of the universe). The
important result from this theoretical argument is that if the constituent particles of a
body remain constant, which in the case of the black hole and all other bodies means
m .c 2
that if NPP for a body is kept constant, (where NPP = 0 0 and NPP is the total
h
number of PP1’s that constitute that body), then the total number of the G field lines
that corresponds to this body, irrespective of its relativistic state, remains constant.
That is,
nG line = K.NPP

where nG.line is the total number of G field lines that corresponds to a body and NPP is
the total number of PP1’s which constitute the body, and K is a constant of
proportionality. Since the G field lines which correspond to a body can be categorized
into two separate classes – G line reflected, the G field lines that are reflected on the
surface of the body, and G line non-reflected, which are those G field lines that have
penetrated the body from one side and finally leave the body from the opposite side -
then the above relation can also be written in the following form:
K.NPP = nG line reflected + nG line non-reflected
Note that for a black hole n2 = 0. Since when n2 G line non-reflected = 0, m = 0 and as,
G.m.m'
according to Fg = , when m = 0, Fg, the gravitational force between the
r2
bodies, is equal to zero – where m and m’ are the mass of two bodies - then the
implication is that the mass and gravitational field of a body are due to the effect of
reflected G lines. Considering that reflected G lines represent what is known as the
curvature of space around a body, then we can say that the mass and gravitational
field of bodies are due to the effect of the curvature of space around them.
⎛ c02 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Ru 0 ⎜⎝ 2G0 ⎟⎠ c
Note (c): According to the relation D = = = 0 , a change in the D
c0 c0 2G0
c
value of the space of the universe from D = 1 to D = 0 will - because Rb0 = c0 and
2G0
c
D0 max = 0 , where Rb0 and D0max are the radius of and D value on the surface of a
2G0
black hole located in standard space – cause Ru0 → Rb0. If we then consider that the
c 03
rest mass of a black hole in a D = 1 space is equal to , the implication is that the
2G0
collapse of the “space” of the universe can theoretically lead to the creation of a black
c3
hole with rest mass equal to 0 . Since the space of the universe is made up of
2G0
neutrinos, then the implication is that:
c03
m0 PPsu =
2G0
where m0 PPsu is the rest mass of the neutrinos of the universe. Considering that,
according to an earlier argument, the relativistic mass of the present-day neutrinos of
space is equal to Mu0/2, then for the D value of the neutrinos of the universe, DPPs, we
can write:
⎛ M u 0 ⎞ ⎛⎜ c 0 ⎞⎟
4
⎜ ⎟
2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 8G0 ⎟⎠
2
⎝ c0
D PPs = = =
m0 PPsu ⎛ c03 ⎞ 4G0
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠

1
⎛ 1 ⎞2
Substituting for D in the relation V = c0 .⎜1 − 2 ⎟ , gives:
⎝ D ⎠
⎛ 16G 2 ⎞
V = c0 .⎜⎜1 − 2 0 ⎟⎟ ≈ c0
⎝ c0 ⎠
where V is the velocity of neutrinos in the space.
Since
M u0
m PPsu = m0 PPsu .DPPsu =
2
where mppsu is the total mass of the neutrinos of the space of the universe and Dppsu is
the D value of the neutrinos of space, then given that the D value of each individual
neutrino can assume any value between D0 max and D = 1, it becomes clear that the
above result for the velocity of the neutrinos constitutes only one of the solutions to
c
the above relation for mPPsu. Thus, the implication is that, as Dmax = 0 , the
2G0
⎛ 4G02 ⎞
maximum velocity of a neutrino is equal to Vmax PP = c0 .⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ .
⎝ c0 ⎠
Note (d): Regarding the structure of a particle: We know that, according to P-Particle
theory, all particles must be made of P-Particles. The constituent P-Particles of a
particle are attached to each other to make what we term a PP1 chain. There are two
forms of these chains:
m
i) The quantum of length form PP1 chain, whose length is equal to 0 e in
2G 0
D = 1 space – the reasons underlying why we call this the “quantum of
length” are explained in a section on dimensional analysis later. The total
m .c 2
number of PP1’s contained in this chain equals NPP in e = 0 e 0 , where
h
m0e is the rest mass of an electron. These chains are made through the
process known as pair production, where in the chain the direction of the
electric fields of all the constituent PP1’s is identical. The importance of
such a chain lies in the fact that each electron, or equally each positron, is
made of a single quantum of length form PP1 chain. The structure of the
quantum of length form of the PP1 chain is coiled, rather than being in the
form of a straight line, and thus there are two further subdivisions of this
chain, whose only difference is that of the direction of their coiling – these
+ − +
are denoted by e q and e q . Thus, whilst the direction of winding of e q ,
which represents a single quantum of length, is for argument’s sake,
−
clockwise, that of e q , which again represents a single quantum of length,

−
is anti-clockwise in direction. An electron is therefore made of a single e q ,
+
whilst a positron is made of a single e q .
ii) The PP1 chain with a variable number of constituent PP1’s, which is not
therefore the “quantum of length”. The orientation of the electric fields of
the PP1’s in this type of chain is random. Such non-quantum PP chains
constitute the weak field part of the structure of a particle, with their
breakdown leading to an emission of the constituent particles of the chains,
that is, the P-Particles, in the form of neutrinos, thus manifesting a weak
field interaction.
So, for the internal structure of a particle we can write:
⎡ ⎛ m .c 2 ⎞ ⎛ m0 e .c02 ⎞ ⎤
NPP = ⎢n1 ⎜⎜ 0e 0 ⎟⎟ + n2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ + n3 PP1
⎢ ⎝ h ⎠ e+q ⎝ h ⎠ e−q ⎥⎦
⎣
⎛ m .c 2 ⎞ ⎛ m .c 2 ⎞
where ⎜⎜ 0 e 0 ⎟⎟ and ⎜⎜ 0 e 0 ⎟⎟ represent the total number of PP1’s in a single
⎝ h ⎠ e+q ⎝ h ⎠ e−q
+ − ⎛ m .c 2 ⎞ ⎛ m0 e .c02 ⎞
e q and a single e q , respectively. We observe that ⎜⎜ 0 e 0 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ,
⎝ h ⎠ e+q ⎝ h ⎠ e−q
and that the n3 PP1 term represents that total number of PP1’s in the structure of the
particle which are due to its weak field, with the rest of the equation thus representing
the total number of PP1’s belonging to the quantum of length form PP1 chain part of
its structure.
Note (e): According to (d), for the structure of a general particle X we can write:
⎛ + −
⎞
X → ⎜ N 1 e q + N 2 e q ⎟ + weak field part
⎝ ⎠
+ − +
Since eq and eq are in fact positrons and electrons, respectively, then N 1 e q and
−
N 2 e q must represent the total number of positrons and electrons which constitute the
body of a particle. From this we can infer that under conditions of extreme pressure –
+ −
and as a result of the interaction between the eq ’s and eq ’s and their consequent
annihilation – matter changes into energy. In other words, according to the above
relation, under extreme pressure the entire mass of a body must change into energy.
Let us consider the fact that all bodies found in nature have a mass far less than that of
c3
a black hole, whose mass is equal to 0 . If we now note that the phenomena of
2G0
supernovae explosions can be explained as being due to the effect of the above
relation – where the mass of the supernova star is again far less than the mass of a

black hole – then this implies that the upper limit of mass for a ‘compact’ body (itself
+ −
made of matter containing eq and eq as shown in the above relation) must be of the
order of the mass of a supernova. From this we can make the following deductions:
i) The general structure of the internal particles making up the matter of the
body of a black hole is not in the form of the general relation for X above.
In other words, the black hole is not constituted of ‘known’ matter.
ii) Since the only possible valid method for the construction of a black hole is
to utilise the known form of matter and subject it to extreme pressures,
then the argument also implies that in the present state of the universe, it is
impossible to create a black hole.
iii) From the fundamentals of P-Particle theory, all bodies must be made of P-
Particles. These are only able to construct two basic structural forms – one,
the quantum of length form and the other a non-quantum form. The
quantum forms are, in fact, electrons and positrons, both of which,
according to (i), a black hole cannot be made of. The clear implication to
be drawn from this is that a black hole must be made only of the non-
quantum form of the PP1 chain – that is, only of the second term in the
above relation for a general particle X, which is the weak field.
iv) Since the constituent particles of a weak field can, in theory, be
represented by the PP3, a particle which is both a quantum of the magnetic
field and gravitation, then we can state that both gravitation and
magnetism must be regarded as two intrinsic properties of a black hole.
v) Considering that a black hole represents a mass maxima body which, in the
course of all interactions with other bodies, retains its identity as the mass
maxima body, therefore a black hole cannot be destroyed.
vi) According to (ii) and (v), in the present state of the universe a black hole
can neither be created nor destroyed.
vii) Since the present state of the universe, with respect to its constituent
matter, is identical to that of its past states (in other words, it has always
been made of ‘known’ matter) other than at the time immediately after the
big-bang, then black holes must be regarded as primordial – that is, they
must have been made at a time immediately after the big-bang.

Conditions for the Creation of Gravitational Waves:
a) The emission of gravitational waves from a black hole can be assumed to be due to
vibration of the surface of the black hole during the course of its acceleration. The
reason for the creation of gravitational waves by these bodies in the course of their
acceleration arises from their property of being a mass maxima body - it is this which
does not allow a black hole to store any extra energy of any form, including that
which is created through its acceleration.
Since all bodies, other than black holes, are able to store the additional energy created
in them by acceleration in the form of mass, then the emission of gravitational waves
by a moving body must be a property unique to black holes. Thus, an accelerated
black hole cannot store the extra energy provided by acceleration and so this energy
remains outside of the body and since it cannot be stored, moves away from the body
in the form of the gravitational wave.
Note - The state of an accelerated body in the universe can be considered equivalent
to the state of the same body when static being positioned in a collapsing universe. In
general, since in such a universe the mass of all its bodies continually increases
through the absorption of the microscopic gravitational wave (other than the
c 03
relativistic mass of black holes, expressed by , which remains constant), then
2G0
clearly - except in the case of black holes – the acceleration of bodies does not result
in emission of gravitational waves by them.
b) The expansion of the universe also generates gravitational waves, the subject of
which was discussed earlier.

The D value of a General Point P in Space at a Distance Equal to r

from the Center of a Black Hole:
We have seen that:
⎛ c ⎞
Dmax = D0 max .Ds = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. Ds
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
But, as Ds = R0/R, if R0 = Rb0 = c0, then:
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞ c02 R
Dmax = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.⎜ ⎟ = = u0
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ 2G 0 .R R
Where R is the radius of a black hole and Dmax is the D value on the surface of the
black hole. Since the D value of a point P at a distance equal to r from the center of a
black hole is identical to the D value of all points on the surface of a black hole of
radius r, then we can write:
⎛ c ⎞ c2
Dmax = Dr = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. Ds = 0
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0 .r
Where Dr is the D value at a point P, located in a space with D value equal to Ds at a

distance r from a black hole measured from the center of the black hole to the point P.
Note: As Dmax = D0 max .Ds , then:
Dmax ⎛ 2G0 ⎞
Ds = =⎜ ⎟.Dmax
D0 max ⎜⎝ c0 ⎟⎠
c03
Substituting this in M b = gives:
2G0 .Ds
c04
Mb =
4G02 .Dmax
c02
As Dmax = , then:
2G0 .r
c02 .r
Mb =
2G0
r 2G
⇒ = 20
Mb c0

which is Schwartzchild’s relation and which therefore confirms that the relation
c02
Dmax = Dr = is correct.
2G0 .r
c02
When r = Ru0, then Dmax = = 1; as D = 1 is defined as the standard space, we
2G0 .r
can deduce that: i) standard space is, in theory, a space whose distance with the
nearest black hole is equal to Ru0; ii) Since the radius of the universe is Ru0 = c02/2G0
and as the D value of space has a relativistic effect on bodies, then the implication is
that all the black holes of the universe, unless their distance is equal or greater than
c02/2G0, will exert a gravitational effect on each other and on other bodies.

Interaction of Two Black Holes:
Derivation of a relation for the radius of two interacting black holes:
c02 c
As Dr = and Rb = 0 , then if Dr = Ds – equivalent to the condition allowing
2G0 .r Ds
the least possible distance between the center of a black hole and the surface of
another for neither of them to exert a gravitational effect on each other – we have:
⎛ 2G ⎞
Rb = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.r
⎝ c0 ⎠
where r is the distance between two black holes measured from the center of one of
the black holes to the surface of the other and Rb is the radius of each of the black
holes. According to this relation, as two black holes approach each other, the value of
their radii continually decreases. Using the above relation:
i) When r = Ru0, Rb = Rb0 = c0,

ii) When r = c0, Rb = 2G0, and
iii) When r = 2G0, Rb = 4G02/c0.
We can verify these results by the following argument:
a) If a black hole is placed in the center of a universe of radius Ru0, and the other
black hole is positioned on the surface of this sphere – bearing in mind that in theory
the D value of the surface of a universe with radius equal to Ru0 is one – then as
Rb = c0/Ds ⇒ Rb = c0, where Rb is the radius of the black hole located on the surface
of the universe. But, we know that Rb = Rb0 = c0 is the radius of an isolated black hole
in Ds = 1 space, which therefore implies that this black hole can be considered to be
an ‘isolated’ black hole. Given that Rb for all isolated black holes which are located in
the same universe is identical, then clearly the black hole located at the center of the
universe must also be isolated, with an Rb = c0/Ds = c0. This verifies (i).
b) If we now bring the two black holes closer to each other such that the distance
between the center of one to the surface of the other becomes c0 (which is equivalent
to stating that two black holes are placed in direct contact with each other, since the
radii of the two black holes are identical and equal to c0), then, given that the D value
of the surface of a black hole with Rb = c0 equals D0 max = c0/2G0, the condition of
these two black holes is equivalent to that of being in a universe with a Ds = D0 max =
c0/2G0. Thus according to Rb = c0/Ds, this means that the radius of each one of these
c c0
black holes is given by Rb = 0 = = 2G0 . In summary, where the distance r
Ds (c0 2G0 )
is equal to c0, then Rb = 2G0, thus proving (ii).

c) In order to reduce r = c0 to r = 2G0, then using the equation L = L0/D, if L0 = c0 we

find that D = Ds = c0/2G0. In other words, we have to transfer the two black holes,
whilst the distance r is still equal to c0, that is whilst they are under the condition
described in (b), to a universe whose D value is c0/2G0 times greater than the D value
c0
of the universe of case (b); as a result of this procedure, we find that r = =
(c0 2G0 )
2G0 4G02
2G0 and Rb = = , confirming case (iii). The two-step operation of
(c0 2G0 ) c0
combining (b) and (c) used to obtain this result can be written as:
c0 c0
Rb = =
Ds (increase of D value due to operation b)x(increase of D value due to operation c)
c0 4G02
Rb = =
⎛ c0 ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞ c0
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
Since black holes are formed during the very earliest stages of the life of the universe,
then these bodies must represent a center around which matter began to accumulate,
implying that at the center of each galaxy there must lie at least one black hole. As a
2G
result of the effect of the relation Rb = 2 0 , however, which in theory permits a large
c0 .r
number of black holes to be accommodated in a small volume – either motionless
with respect to each other, or in a state of orbit around their common center of mass –
the strong suggestion is that the total number of black holes located at the center of
larger galaxies must be greater than for smaller ones.

Constancy of the Relativistic Mass of Black Holes:
c03
Mb = represents the rest mass of a black hole situated in a universe with
2G0 .Ds
D = Ds as evaluated by an observer who is in a D = 1, or standard, space. According

c03
to this relation for Mb, when Ds = 1, M b = = M b 0 ; meaning that the rest mass of
2G0
a black hole in a D = 1 space according to an observer in standard space is equal to
c 03
. On the other hand, given the general relation M = M0.D, where M and M0 are
2G0
the relativistic and rest masses of a body, respectively, then as the rest mass of a black
c03
hole is in general equal to , for the relativistic mass of a black hole we can
2G0 .Ds
write:
⎛ c03 ⎞ c3
Mb relativistic = M0.D = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.Ds = 0 = constant
⎝ 2G0 .Ds ⎠ 2G0
= rest mass of a black hole in a D = 1 space
In other words, despite any changes in their radii, the relativistic mass of all black
c 03
holes remains constant and equal to , a value identical for all of them. The
2G0
reduction of the radius of a black hole (which occurs when it is not in the isolated
state, that is when its distance r with other black holes is reduced), does not have any
effect on the relativistic mass of this body.
We can draw the following implications from the constancy of the relativistic mass of
a black hole:
c 05
i) The total relativistic energy of a black hole is equal to , a constant value,
2G0
remaining the same under all conditions.
ii) For all black holes, Kb = 0 and Pb = 0, where Kb and Pb are the kinetic energy and
momentum of the black hole respectively. Note that this does not necessarily mean
that a black hole cannot or does not move.
iii) From (i) and (ii) the implication is that a black hole itself can be regarded as a
closed system, for which we used the descriptive term “cut-off” phenomenon earlier.

iv) Since Kb = 0 and Pb = 0, collision of black holes must not lead to an exchange of
energy between them. Thus implying that in the course of their interaction with each
other, the total number of black holes remains constant. As we will see, bodies which
approach a black hole change their state into that of energy before reaching its surface
– their mass thus changes completely into energy, which means that a body can never
reach the surface of a black hole. As a result of this, no body other than a black hole
would be able to collide with it, and so the destruction of a black hole in the course of
its collision with another body remains an impossible outcome. Thus, it can be said
that in all of their interactions, the total number of black holes remains constant. Since
we know that black holes are primordial and that one cannot make a black hole by
using matter (because prior to the total mass of the body reaching the mass maxima,
the matter will decay into energy and neutrinos due to extreme pressure), then we can
generalize these findings to a principle, namely the principle of the conservation of
black holes. According to this principle, the total number of black holes in a closed
system is conserved. Since the universe can be regarded as a closed system, then, in
accordance with this principle, the total number of black holes in the universe must
remain constant.

Interaction of Bodies with a Black Hole:
In common with all other bodies, we expect black holes to interact with other bodies
through the effect of their mass and gravitational forces – that is, until the point is
reached whereupon the internal particles making up the approaching body begin to
experience the effect of the relation outlined earlier, whereby matter under extreme
pressure must decay into photons and neutrinos:
⎛ + −
⎞
X ⎯under
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→⎜ N 1 eq + N 2 eq ⎟ + weak field
pressure
⎝ ⎠
i.e. X ⎯under
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→ (photons) + neutrinos
pressure
If we consider the extremely high D values of space in those regions close to the
surface of the black hole, then as anticipated through the relation L = L0/D, the body
must assume an extreme degree of contraction and eventually decay into photons and
neutrinos. Thus it is seen that no non-black hole body can actually reach the surface of
a black hole.
Since:
a) The decay results in the creation of an enormous amount of energy which
can well describe the source of energy for quasars and active galaxies;
b) Black holes are primordial and so by using them one can solve the problem
of the formation of galaxies;
⎛ 2G ⎞
c) The relation Rb = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.r permits a large number of black holes to be
⎝ c0 ⎠
positioned in a small volume and so it can be assumed that larger galaxies
contain a larger number of black holes;
d) Statement (a) makes it possible to assume that black holes can be directly
involved in providing the primary matter required for the process of star
formation (through the creation of the elementary particles – electrons and
positrons – following the stages of the decay process).
Then from the above we infer that black holes must be an essential part of galaxies
and their formation, and that black holes must lie at the center of every galaxy.

Nature of the Gravitational Waves:
Gravitational waves invoke a PP reaction in neutrinos and so transform gravitational

energy into electromagnetic energy. Since the least energy necessary for a PP reaction
to take place is h joules, and as the universe is in effect full of neutrinos (meaning that
there is always an abundance of these particles ready to undergo a PP reaction at any
point of space), then clearly only those gravitational waves with an energy less than h
joules can survive as a gravitational wave and so be found in nature.
Since the neutrino can, amongst other things, be considered to be the quantum of the
gravitational field, then emission of neutrinos by a body can be regarded as a release
of gravitational radiation by that body. So, the gravitational radiation can be classified
into two separate classes:
(i) Macroscopic gravitational waves, and
(ii) Gravitational waves in the form of the emission of neutrinos in weak decay.

Classification of Neutrinos:
Neutrinos can be classified into two separate groups or sets:
(1) The set of moving neutrinos - the PP2 and PP3 are members of this set.
(2) The set of non-moving or static neutrinos – this has a single member,
namely the static PP.
The existence of the static PP is plausible for the following reasons:

(a) Each PP2 and PP3, which are the elements of the set of moving neutrinos,
must finally lose all their kinetic energy and come to rest. Thus, the static
PP can be viewed as merely the rest state or static form of the PP2 and
PP3.
(b) It gives a simple explanation for the nature of the weak force.
As we noted earlier, dividing the class of the moving neutrinos of space into PP2’s
and PP3’s is essentially a theoretical procedure, because a moving neutrino is made of
a PP1 which continuously changes its state between that of a PP2 and a PP3. Since
this continuous change in the state of a moving neutrino can be attributed to the wave
motion of these particles, then the implication is that a static PP must be identical to a
PP1. But, since these static PP1’s attach to each other through their magnetic fields
and allow their electric fields to assume a random orientation - which results in the net
electric charge of the PP chain to become zero (consequently the chain itself
represents a purely magnetic field line, i.e. as if it were made of PP3’s) - these
constitute what can be termed a non-quantum PP chain, which behaves as a magnetic
field line. Indicating that for practical reasons only, these lines can be assumed to be
made of the P-Particles which are in their magnetic state, that is in the state of the
PP3.
Non-quantum PP chains constitute what is known as the weak field inside particles
and can be regarded as a part of their internal structure. Since these PP chains are
simply magnetic field lines, then when they are formed in space, that is, outside of
particles, they constitute what is known as magnetic field lines, which are found in
between planets and stars. They are also a constituent part of the magnetic field lines
of the Sun, which are the origin of the many activities in the Sun, including sunspots.

The Magnitude of the Gravitational Wave in Neutron Decay:
For the magnitude of the non-relativistic mass of a neutron we can write:
M0n = M0p + M0e + mnPP static
where M0n, M0p and M0e are the non-relativistic masses of a neutron, a proton and an
NPPstatic .h
electron respectively, and mnPP static = , is the total mass of NPP number of
c02
static PP’s which are positioned in the inner space of a neutron and constitute a part of
the internal structure of this particle. Given that mnPP static = [M0n - (M0p + M0e)], then
as in the process of neutron decay, an electron is also emitted, accompanying the
emitted neutrinos, which shares a fraction of the total energy that is involved in the
decay, where the total energy of the decay equals [M0n - (M0p + M0e)].c02, then:
Eg = [M0n - (M0p + M0e)].c02 - Ee
where Eg can be regarded as the gravitational wave energy and Ee is the kinetic energy
of the emitted electron.
Note (1) - A neutron can be regarded as a moving body with a non-relativistic mass
equal to [M0p + M0e + (Ee/c02)] and relativistic mass equal to Mn. As D = m/m0, then
D = Mn/[M0p + M0e + (Ee/c02)]. As L = dE/dt = m0.c02.dD/dt, then:
L = dE/dt = [M0p + M0e + (Ee/c02)].(c02).dD/dt
⎛ E ⎞ d ⎡ M 0n ⎤
⇒ L = dE/dt = ⎜⎜ M 0 p + M 0e + 2e ⎟⎟.c02 . ⎢ ⎥
⎝ c0 ⎠ dt ⎢⎣ M 0 p + M 0e + (E e c02 )⎥⎦
where L is the gravitational radiation luminosity of a neutron in the process of its

decay.
In weak decay, the static PP1’s which constitute the non-quantum PP1 chains inside
the particle, change their state into that of moving PP1’s. The prerequisite for such a
change in state is the breakdown of the chain as a consequence of which the
constituent particles of the chain, i.e. the PP1’s, begin to move away from the particle
and manifest the process known as neutron decay. The energy of the motion of these
PP1’s comes from the chain itself, which means that the chain can be regarded as an
energy bond. This bond attaches an electron to the other inner structures of the
neutron; breakdown of this bond releases some energy, of which a part is taken up by
the electron and a part is taken away by the constituent particles of the bond itself,
manifesting in the form of an emission of neutrinos. So for the total energy which is
taken up by these PP1’s (i.e. the neutrinos) we can write:
Eg = mnPP static.c02 – Ee

where Eg is the energy taken by the PP1’s manifesting themselves as an emission of

neutrinos, which can also be regarded as an emission of gravitational waves, and Ee is
the kinetic energy of the emitted electron. But,
mnPP static = M0n – (M0p + M0e)
Thus,
Eg = [M0n –(M0p + M0e)].c02 – Ee
Note (2) – PP1’s participate in the formation of two types of PP1 chain:
i) The chain which we term the quantum PP1 chain and which constitutes the
body of an electron or a positron. Each quantum PP1 chain contains NPP
m 0 e .c 02
= number of PP1 particles, where m0e is the rest-mass of an electron;
h
the only difference between the quantum PP1 chain of an electron and that of a
positron is in the direction of coiling of the chain (bearing in mind that the
quantum PP1 chains are coiled in shape). Each electron and positron is formed
from a single one of such quantum PP1 chains, where the orientation of the
electric field of all the PP1’s composing it are equal – the latter explains why
the electron and positron are charged particles. Similarly, the direction of the
magnetic fields of the constituent PP1’s of this chain are also in the same
direction, and it is the magnetic field of these PP1’s which is responsible for
the attachment of the individual PP1’s to each other in the chain. This
arrangement has the effect of ‘cancelling’ the magnetic field of each PP1 with
the opposite magnetic field of its neighbouring PP1. Since the magnetic fields
of the two PP1’s located at the ends of the chain are not cancelled out, the
quantum PP1 chain, besides manifesting an electric charge, also exhibits a
weak magnetic field due to the effect of the magnetic fields of these two
terminal PP1’s, which we identify with what is known as a spin magnet. A
quantum PP1 chain interacts through its spin magnet with a non-quantum PP1
chain and attaches to it.
ii) Non-quantum PP1 chain: the PP1’s in this chain are also attached to each
other through their respective magnetic fields, meaning that all of them are
arranged in the same direction. Since the PP1’s of this chain are, in contrast to
the quantum PP1 chain, randomly orientated, this type of PP1 chain solely
manifests a magnetic field. There is no limit on the number of PP1’s which
can make up a single non-quantum PP1 chain.

Kinetic Energy and the Momentum of Black Holes:
Since the total mass, and so the total energy of a black hole must remain constant,
then the clear implication is that a black hole is not able to assume any kind of energy,
including kinetic energy. This means that as soon as the energy reaches the surface of
a black hole from external space, it must be transmitted back into outer space. This is
because any delay would otherwise, through the change of the energy into mass on the
surface of the black hole, lead to an increase in the curvature of space of the surface of
the black hole, and hence its mass, which is already at its uppermost limit. We can
therefore write:
E kb = 0
But at the same time, as the energy which is directed towards the black hole turns into
gravitational wave energy, we can write:
E = Ew
where E represents any form of energy which is directed towards the surface of the
black hole.
As E 2 − P 2 .c 02 = m02 .c 04 and E = m0 .c 02 + E k , where Ek and P are the kinetic energy

and momentum of a body respectively, then considering that Ekb = 0, and that
E 0 = m0 .c 02 , the implication is that P = 0. This means that in spite of its motion, the
momentum of a moving black hole is zero. That is:
Pb = 0
Which indicates that the collision of two or more black holes does not lead to the
exchange of momentum between them. Note that this does not necessarily imply that
a black hole is static with respect to its surrounding space, because the observations of
Ekb = 0 and Pb = 0 are true for all black holes irrespective of their state of motion.
These properties of black holes can also be derived through a consideration of the
geometry of the gravitational field on the surface of the black hole. Since all of the
gravitational field lines which approach a black hole are curved and move away from
its surface, with none of them entering the body of the black hole - meaning that from
the gravitational point of view, a black hole can be regarded as a cut-off body - and
given that all gravitational interaction must be through the gravitational field lines,
then it becomes clear that the gravitational interaction of a black hole with all other
bodies is limited solely to the space surrounding the surface of the black hole. Hence
the body of the black hole, as an upper-limit of mass entity, remains intact in all
gravitational interactions of the black hole. Considering that exchange of Ek and P
between bodies is possible only when they are gravitationally in contact with each
other, then clearly since a black hole is gravitationally cut-off from its surroundings, it
is unable to exchange energy and momentum with other bodies, which implies that
E kb = 0 and Pb = 0 . Since this is a general property and is valid under all conditions,
either in interactions between the black holes themselves, or between black holes and

bodies, we can infer that in all of their interactions with other bodies, black holes
retain their nature as black holes, thus:
Nb = K
where K is an integer, a constant number representing the total number of black holes
in the universe.

Extraction of the Relation: Dmax = D0 max .Ds
c03 ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞ c2 c
i) M b 0 = = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.Ds . As 0 =<< M b 0 >> and 0 = D0 max , then:
2G0 ⎝ Ds ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ D 2G0
M b 0 =<< M b 0 >> .D0 max .Ds
ii) Since, according to an observer who is on the surface of a black hole whose mass
according to an observer in standard space is equal to Mb0 = c03/2G0, the term
<<Mb0>> represents the non-relativistic mass of the black hole, if we consider that in
general m = m0.D, then for the mass of this black hole we can write:
Mb0 = <<Mb0>>.D.
At the same time, we know that the relativistic mass of a black hole is constant with
c3
its value equal to 0 = M b 0 , which means,
2G0
Mb0 = <<Mb0>>.D = Mb relativistic = c03/2G0
iii) Equating the two relations obtained in (i) and (ii) gives:
<<Mb0>>.D0max.Ds = <<Mb0>>.D
⇒ D = D0max.Ds
⇒ Dmax = D0 max .Ds .
Alternatively, we can write:
M u0
=
(c4
0 4G02 ) c0
= = D0 max
M b relativistic (c3
0 2G0 ) 2G0
Multiplying both sides by Ds gives:
M u 0 .Ds
= D0 max .Ds
M b relativistic
But Mu = Mu0.Ds, thus:
Mu
= D0 max .Ds
M b relativistic
⇒ Dmax = D0 max .Ds

c as an Upper Limit for Velocity:
1
−
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ V 2
⎞ 2
Substituting D = Dmax = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.Ds in the relation D = ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ and solving the
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠
relation for V gives :
1
⎛ 4G ⎞ 2 2
V = ⎜⎜ c02 − ⎟ 0
. . . . (1)
⎝ D ⎟⎠ 2
s
c03 c03
Since M b = ⇒ Ds = , then (1) becomes:
2G0 .Ds 2G0 .M b
1
⎛ 16G04 .M b2 ⎞2
V = ⎜⎜ c02 − ⎟⎟ . . . . (2)
⎝ c06 ⎠
i) If, in the above relation, V = 0, then:
16G04 .M b2
c =
2
0
c06
c 04
⇒ Mb = = M u0
4G 02
c04
Which implies that the universe can be regarded as a black hole body with mass
4G02
and V = 0
c03
ii) If M b = M b 0 = , then:
2G0
( )
1
V = c − 4G 2
0
2 2
0
Comparing this with relation (1), we note that as Ds = 1, the implication is that a black
c3
hole in standard space represents a body with relativistic mass equal to 0 and a
2G0
1
( ) ⎛ 1 ⎞2
1
velocity equal to V = c − 4G . Since, in general, V = c0 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ , then equating
2
0
2 2
0
⎝ D ⎠
( ) c
1
this with V = c02 − 4G02 2 and solving for D yields D = 0 = D0 max . But if
2G0

c03 c
m= and D = 0 , then m0 = c 02 =<< M b 0 >> . This means that the rest mass of
2G0 2G0
the black hole mentioned in (ii) above is equal to c 02 =<< M b 0 >> .
iii) If V = c0, then according to relation (2) above, Mb = 0.
Therefore, the implications from (i), (ii) and (iii) are that:
(a) For any unique value of relativistic mass, there exists a unique velocity
defined by the relation:
1
⎛ 16G04 M b2 ⎞2
V = ⎜⎜ c02 − ⎟⎟
⎝ c06 ⎠
in which the body becomes a black hole.
(b) The greater the relativistic mass of a body, the smaller is V and vice-versa.
(c) The greatest mass in the system is Mu0, whose corresponding velocity is
equal to zero, whilst the smallest mass is when M = 0, whose corresponding
velocity is c0 .
From (a), (b) and (c) we can conclude that V = c0 can be regarded as an upper limit for
velocity, on the condition that ‘negative mass’ does not exist in the system.
However, the presence of negative mass in the system causes a net reduction in the
original value of the mass of the system (because the process of the interaction
between a positive and a negative mass can be assumed to be like the algebraic
addition of a positive number +M, which represents the known form of mass, taken as
a positive mass, and a negative mass, –m, which represents a negative mass, where
M > m ). The implication is that the idea of the constancy of c0 as an upper limit for
velocity must be based on the assumption that the total mass of the system (which in
dM u
the case of the universe is its mass Mu) remains constant, meaning that = 0 . If
dt
dM u
≠ 0 , then c0 as an upper limit for velocity assumes changes in its value, as
dt
shown in the following:
⎛ c4 ⎞ c
As M u = M u 0 .D = ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟⎟.D and c = 0 , then:
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ D

⎛ c4 ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞ c05
M u = ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟⎟.⎜ ⎟ = 2
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ 4G0 .c
c05
⇒ c=
4G02 .M u
which shows that c, as an upper limit for velocity in the system, remains constant only
if Mu, the total mass of the system, also remains constant. In other words, as
c05 c05
c= , then M u .c = = constant. Assuming that the total mass of a closed
4G02 .M u 4G02
system is constant and so conserved, then the constancy of the velocity of light in the
system as an unchanged value for the upper limit of velocity reflects the action of the
conservation law for mass in the system. If we consider that a change in the mass Mu
c05
into energy and vice-versa in the relation M u .c = = constant results in a change
4G02
in the magnitude of c and since the correct form of the law of conservation of energy
is actually the conservation of mass-energy in the system, then the implication is that
the concept of the velocity of light being a constant value and always remaining so is
against the full version of the law of conservation of energy.
Note (1): As the fundamental units of measurement in the system, namely mass,
length and time, and so all other units, assume relativistic change, then the observer is
able to register only those changes in the system that do not have a relativistic effect
on his units of measurement. The expansion of the universe increases the magnitude
of c, the velocity of light, but at the same time, the expansion has a relativistic effect
on the system of measurement, which results in the apparent constancy in the
measurement of the value of c by the observer at all times.
Note (2): Since:
curv
i) Etotal = m0. c02 .D = m0 .c02 .S 0
K
curv ⎛L ⎞
ii) Etotal = m0 .c02 .S 0 . = m0. c02 .⎜ 0 ⎟
K ⎝ L⎠
curv ⎛t ⎞
iii) Etotal = m0 .c02 .S 0 = m0 .c02 .⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
K ⎝ t0 ⎠
⎛L ⎞ ⎛t ⎞ curv
iv) m = m0 .D = m0 .⎜ 0 ⎟ = m0 .⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = m0 .S 0 .
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ t0 ⎠ K

Then the implication is that relativistic changes in the fundamental units and so in all
other units is due to the effect of the law of conservation of energy in the system.
Note (3): We have seen that a black hole represents a mass maxima body, whose total
1
−
c3 ⎛ V2 ⎞ 2
mass is M = M 0 .D = 0 . Substituting for D in the relation D = ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ and
2G0 ⎝ c0 ⎠
solving this equation for M0 yields:
c02 2
(c0 − V 2 )2 = Ru 0 (c02 − V 2 )2
1 1
M0 =
2G0
Where M0 represents the rest mass of a body for which, if its velocity reaches V,
(where V is defined in the above relation) the body becomes a black hole. If the
velocity of the body exceeds the unique value described in the above relation for a
particular body with rest mass M0, then the body begins emitting all gained energy in
the form of gravitational waves – (this is because the body becomes a black hole at
velocity V and a black hole represents a mass maxima body).
c03
According to this relation, if V = 0, M 0 = , and therefore according to
2G0
1
−
⎛ V 2
⎞ 2
D = ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ , D = 1. This means that the rest mass of a static black hole in a D = 1
⎝ c0 ⎠
c3
space is equal to 0 and so acceleration of this body, that is, a change in its velocity
2G0
from V = 0, causes emission of gravitational waves by this body. Furthermore,
according to this relation, if V = c0, M = 0. If V exceeds c0 , then (since there is no
such entity as negative mass in nature), the value of M 0 still remains zero, which
implies that the energy of the moving body remains the same. But according to
⎡ −
1
⎤
⎛ V 2
⎞ 2
E k = M 0 .c0 ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ , where Ek is kinetic energy, an increase in the velocity
2⎢
⎢ c0 ⎠ ⎥
⎝
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
of the body must increase its energy, implying that if the velocity of the body (here a
c
photon) exceeds c (where c is defined by c = 0 ) the law of conservation of energy is
D
violated. In other words, the existence of an upper limit for velocity in the system is
due to the effect of the law of conservation of energy, which upholds the necessity of
the existence of an upper limit of mass for a static body, that is, a body with V = 0. So,
c3
on the one hand we note a state defined by V = 0 and M 0 = 0 and on the other
2G0
hand a state defined by V = c0 and M = 0, where in both states the law of conservation
of energy is at work and where the state of the system in both cases is described by

( )
1
M 0 = Ru 0 . c − V
2
0
2 2
. It is important to note that with regard to the body which starts
3
c
with M 0 = 0
and V = 0, and which undergoes acceleration until its velocity
2G0
approaches V = c0 and its mass approaches M = 0, its total energy remains constant at
⎛ c3 ⎞
a value of ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.c02 at all times, which points to the role of the law of conservation
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
law of energy in the whole of this process.
Note (4): The important point regarding the relation m0 = M b non − relativistic =
( )
1
Ru 0 . c − V
2
0
2 2
is that in this, V = Vmax - which means that when the velocity of a body
with rest mass m0 reaches a velocity equal to V = Vmax the body becomes a black hole.
So, as the body does not undergo any further increase in its velocity, it does not
assume any increase in its mass and therefore from that point onwards, the body does
not assume any more kinetic energy than it had at the time when its velocity equalled
Vmax. In other words, its kinetic energy becomes frozen, with the body transforming
any extra energy given to it into gravitational waves. Rearranging the above relation
gives:
⎛ M2 ⎞
Vmax = c02 − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ M u0 ⎠
According to this, when V = c0, M0 = 0, implying that matter can never have a
velocity equal to c0. We can now understand the reason for this being that prior to its
velocity reaching the value of c0, the body becomes a black hole. This clearly implies
that photons must in no way be regarded as particles of matter, but rather as
something that can move with a velocity c0 and which, due to its quantum property,
must be regarded as a ‘quantum of waves’.
Thus, according to this relation, in general, for any value of mass, m, there is a certain
value of V such that V = Vmax, where at this velocity the body becomes a black hole,
and with the additional implication that Vmax for a black hole must be equal to zero.
This latter point can be verified by substituting M0 = c03/2G0 into the relation for Vmax.
From this we can deduce that if we reverse the procedure and solve this relation using
Vmax = 0 and Ds = 1, Schwartzchild’s relation must be obtained:
Vmax = [c02 - (M02/Mu0)]1/2
2G0 .M 0
⇒ c0 =
c02
But Rb0 = c0, where Rb0 is the radius of an isolated black hole in D = 1 space, hence:
2G0 .M 0
Rb 0 =
c02

Rb 0 2G0
⇒ = 2
M0 c0
which is Schwartzchild’s relation for the particular case when D = 1 and can be
generalized to R/m = 2G0/c02, Schwartzchild’s original relation.

The Mass of a Body:
⎛L ⎞
Considering that E = ∫ F .dr and E = m0 .c02 .D = m0 .c02 .⎜⎜ 0 PP ⎟⎟ , then:
⎝ LPP ⎠
⎛L ⎞
m0 .c02 .⎜⎜ 0 PP ⎟⎟ = ∫ F .dr
⎝ LPP ⎠
Since we relate the mass of a body to the gravitational field of space, which indicates
that the mass of a body is due to the contractive effect of the gravitational force on the
individual P-Particles which constitute a body, then F = F0G. So, we can write:
⎛L ⎞ r
m.c02 = m0 .c02 .⎜⎜ 0 PP ⎟⎟ = ∫ FG .dr
⎝ LPP ⎠ 0
1 r
⇒ m0 = 2 .∫ F0G .dr
c0 0
If we assume that when LPP = c0, EPP = 0, as has been shown earlier, then we can
write:
∫ dr = c0
Which means,
1 r 1 c0 1 F
m0 =
c02 ∫
0
F0G .dr = 2
c0
.F0G ∫ dr = 2 .F0G .c0 = 0G
0 c0 c0
⇒ F0G = m0 .c0
But, as in general P = m.V, where P is momentum, then:
P0G = m0.c0 = F0G
curv ⎛ c 2 ⎞ curv
Since m = m0 .D = m0 .S 0 . = m0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. , then:
K ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ K
F0G .c0 curv

m= . curv = D0 max .F0G .
2G0 . K K
2G0
Also as H a 0 = , then:
c0
F0G curv
m=
H a0 K

F0G h
Since m0 = , then if m0 = m0 PP1 = 2 :
c0 c0
h F0G PP1
=
c02 c0
h
⇒ F0G PP1 =
c0
F0G PP1
Considering that in general m = m0 .D = (m0 PP1 .NPP1).D , then as m0 PP1 = ,
c0
(F0G PP1 .D )NPP1
m=
c0

The Quantum Form of the Schwartzchild Relation:
⎛ h ⎞ S curv ⎛ c02 ⎞ curv

As m = m0 .D = (m0 PP1 .NPP1).D = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟.NPP1.D , and D = 0 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟. ,
⎝ c0 ⎠ K ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ K
then:
h.NPP1 curv
m=
2G0 K
Rb .c02
But, according to Schwartzchild, M b = , thus:
2G0
h.NPP1 curv Rb .c02

=
2G0 K 2G0
Rb 1
⇒ = 2
h.NPP1 curv c 0 K
K .D 2 4G02 .K .D 2 c
Since curv = 2
= 4
, then if D = D0 max = 0 , we have:
S0 c0 2G0
K
curv max =
c02
curvmax 1
⇒ = 2
K c0
Thus:
Rb 1 curvmax
= 2
=
h.NPP1 curv c 0 K K3
This equation can be regarded as the quantum form of the Schwartzchild relation.
M 0 .c02 2G0 .D K K
Note: Substituting NPP1 = , curv = 2
and curv max = 2 in the
h c0 c0
Rb 2G Rb 2G0
above relation gives: = 20 ⇒ = 2 . In addition, by using the above
M 0 .D c0 M c0
Rb 2G c
relation = 2 0 , given that Rb = 0 and M0.D = Mb, we obtain:
M 0 .D c0 Ds
c03
Mb =
2G0 .Ds
Which is the general relation for the rest mass of a black hole.

c03
Since M0.D = M0.D0max.Ds in the above relation, then M 0 .D0 max .Ds = ;
2G0 .Ds
rearranging this gives:
c03
M0 =
D0 max .Ds .(2G0 .Ds )
c0
But, as D0 max = , then:
2G0
c03 c02
M0 = = = <<Mb>>
⎛ c0 ⎞ Ds2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.Ds .(2G0 .Ds )
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
where <<Mb>> can be regarded as the rest mass of a black hole according to an
observer who is on its surface. Substituting for <<Mb>> in the relation
Rb 2G
= 2 0 and noting that D =D0max.Ds, gives:
M 0 .D c0
Rb 2G
= 20
<< M b >> .D0 max .Ds c0

Evaluation of L0PP1, the Length of the PP1 in Standard Space:
Rb 1
Using the relation = , if NPP1 = 1, K = 1 and curv = curvb0
h.( NPP1). curv c 2
0 K
1 then:
= ,
c02
h
Rb =
c03
Which is the radius, or simply the length of a PP1 in a state where the curvature of
1 c
space is 2 - which is a space whose D value is equal to D0 max = 0 . As in general,
c0 2G0
L PP1 h c
LPP1 = 0 , then given that LPP1 = 3 and D = 0 , we can write:
D c0 2G0
⎛ h ⎞⎛ c ⎞ h
L0 PP1 = (LPP1)(
. D ) = ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 2
⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0 .c0
h
Note: As black holes are made of PP1’s, then it can be said that represents the
c 03
length of the PP1’s which constitute the event horizon of a black hole in Ds = 1 space.
From the general relation L = L0/D, it is seen that for the length of the constituent
PP1’s of the surface of a black hole we can write:
h
L pp1 b = 3
c .D s
0
where Ds is the D value of the space in which the black hole is located.
Evaluation of L0e, the Unwound Length of an Electron:
m0e .c02
An electron, and equally a positron, is made up of NPPe = number of PP1’s,
h
which are attached to each other through their magnetic field and constitute what we
call a PP1 chain. Each electron and positron is made up of a coiled PP1 chain, where
the direction of coiling of the PP1 chain in an electron is opposite to that of a positron.
m .c 2 h
Since, for an electron, NPPe = 0e 0 and as L0 PP1 = , then L0e, the unwound
h 2G0 .c 02
length of an electron (or equally a positron) is equal to:
⎛ m0e .c02 ⎞ ⎛ h ⎞ m0e

L0e = (NPPe )(
. L0 PP1) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟=
2 ⎟
⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ 0 0 ⎠ 2G0
2G .c

Rb 1
Alternatively, we can utilise the prior relation = 2
, where
h.NPP1. curv c 0 K
m0 e .c02 1
NPP1 = NPPe = , curv = 2 and K = 1, which gives:
h c0
m0 e
Rb =
c0
c0 m
where Rb = Le when D = D0 max = ; that is, 0 e is the total uncoiled length of the
2G0 c0
PP1 chain constituting an electron on the surface of a black hole located in standard
space. Since the D value of the space on the surface of a black hole located in
c
standard space is equal to D0 max = 0 , the implication is that:
2G0
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛m ⎞ ⎛ c 0 ⎞ m0 e
L0e = Rb ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 0 e ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0
One could equally argue that the mass of an electron on the surface of a black hole
located in D = 1 space is equal to:
⎛ c ⎞
me = m0e .D = m0e .D0 max = m0 e .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
Substituting this for M in Schwartzchild’s relation gives:
R 2G0
=
⎛ m0e .c0 ⎞ c02
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
m0 e
⇒ R=
c0
But the radius R in this relation is the length of the chain of PP1’s which constitute an
electron on the surface of a black hole; thus, for its length in a D = 1 space we can
write:
L
Le = 0e
D
Hence,
⎛ m ⎞⎛ c ⎞
L0e = Le .D = Le .D0 max = ⎜⎜ 0 e ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
m
∴ L0e = 0e
2G0

m0 e
Dimensional Analysis of L0e = :
2G0
2
c04 ⎛ c02 ⎞
Since M u 0 = 2
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Ru 0 2 , and considering that the dimensions of mass are
4G0 ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
2
the kg and that of length, the meter, then on the basis of the relation M u 0 = Ru 0 , we
can write the following dimensional relation: kg = m2. As the dimensions of G are
m
m 3 kg −1s −2 , then for the dimensions of L0 e = 0 e , according to the dimensional
2G0
2
relation kg = m , we can write:
kg kg 2 s 2 m 4 s 2
= = = m s2
m 3 kg −1s − 2 m3 m3
m0 e
⇒ L0 e = m s2
2G0
The derived SI unit of all forms of energy is the joule, which is defined as the work
done by a force of one Newton during the displacement of one meter in the direction
of the force; that is 1 joule = 1 kg m2 s-2. Since a PP1 represents the quantum of
h
matter, then m0 pp1 = 2 must represent the quantum of mass in D = 1 space, where
c0
m0pp1 is the mass of a PP1 in a D = 1 space. Bearing in mind that the dimensions of
the Planck constant, h = 6.6261 x 10-34, which is the quantum of energy, are the joule
h
second, then for the dimensions of m0 pp1 = 2 we can write:
c0
(kg.m .s ).s
2 -2
= kg.s
(m.s ) -1 2
h
⇒ m0 pp1 = kg s
c02
If it is considered that one expects the dimensions of energy and mass in all the states
of matter to remain the same and be given by the Joule and Kg, respectively, then the
presence of the extra dimension ‘s’ in the quantum form of these units can be taken as
suggesting that in the quantum state, some dimensions do not mirror their
corresponding large scale dimensions. This implies that the presence of an additional s
in the dimensions of a unit must be taken to indicate that it is the quantum state of that
unit.
Comparing the dimensions of h = 6.6261 x 10-34 J s, the quantum of energy, and

h
m0 pp1 = 2 kg s, the quantum of mass, with the dimensions of the length of the PP1
c0

m0 e
chain, L0e = m s2, one can argue that it indicates that L0e must represent the
2G0
quantum of length. Since each electron and positron is made of a single PP1 chain –
that chain which we have styled the quantum PP1 chain – then in turn the electron and
the positron can, from the viewpoint of length, be regarded as quanta of length.
According to the fundamental tenets of P-Particle theory, all matter is made from
PP1’s; thus if there exists such an entity as a quantum of length – made from an
m0 e .c02
assembly of NPP = number of PP1’s – then all matter, in the final analysis,
h
must be made from the quantum of length. Therefore any particle in nature, except the
PP1, the fundamental constituent particle of the PP1 chain, must be made of n number
of quantum PP1 chains, where n is a positive integer. Since each quantum of length
represents an electron or a positron, then the extremely important conclusion is
reached that every form of particle in nature (other than the non-quantum PP1 chain
which is responsible for the weak field interaction, and for the necessity of whose
existence in the structure of particles we discussed earlier) must have only the electron
and the positron as the essential building blocks of its internal structure. Hence, from
the viewpoint of quanta of length, the internal structure of a general particle X can be
written as:
+ −
X → n1 e q + n2 e q + non-quantum PP1 chain (the weak field)
+ −
where e q and e q both represent quanta of length distinguished only in the direction
of the coiling of their respective chains. But these quanta are none other than the
+
electron and positron, where a positron is made of a single e q and an electron of a
−
single e q , so the internal structure can equally be formulated as follows:
+ −
X → n1 e+ n2 e + non-quantum PP1 chain (the weak field)
Since the natural unit of negative or positive charge is that possessed by the electron
or positron (or equally a proton) and given that n in the above relation is an integer,
then in accordance with this relation, it can be said that no particle in nature can carry
a charge of lower magnitude than that of an electron or a positron. Therefore, particles
such as quarks, which have a charge less than that of an electron, must be regarded as
theoretical particles which cannot exist in nature as their presence would otherwise
violate the abovementioned principles regarding the quantum of length and disagree
with the X relation above.

Some Additional Notes:
m0 e
1) Since a length equal to L0e = has a mass equal to m0e, then a length equal to
2G0
c .m
c0 must have a mass equal to 0 0 e = 2G0 .c0 . This is the mass of a length equal to c0,
L0 e
where the length is filled in its entirety with PP1’s such that all PP1’s are placed
exactly next to one another. If we represent this line, which has a length equal to c0
and mass equal to 2G0.c0 with the symbol <<c0>>, then L<<c0>> = c0, and M<<c0>> =
2G0.c0, where L<<c0>> and M<<c0>> are the length and mass of <<c0>>, respectively.
2) If we transfer the abovementioned structure whose length is L<<c0>> = c0 and mass

is M<<c0>> = 2G0.c0, to the surface of a black hole located in a D = 1 space, then as the
c
D value of the surface of the black hole is equal to D0 max = 0 , for the new values
2G0
of length (denoted by L<c>) and mass (denoted by M<c>), we can write:
L0 c0
L= ⇒ L<c > = = 2G0
D (c0 2G0 )
⎛ c ⎞
and M = M0.D ⇒ M <c > = (2G0 .c0 ).⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = c02
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
c0
3) If we extend <<c0>> by a factor equal to = D0 max – a process resembling the
2G0
extension of an elastic string – as this operation is identical to the transportation of
1 2G0
<<c0>> into a space with a D value of = , then its length increases to the
D0 max c0
L0 c0 c2
new value of L = = = 0 = Ru 0 , with its mass becoming M = M0.D
D (2G0 c0 ) 2G0
⎛ 2G ⎞
= M <<c 0>> .D = 2G0 .c0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 4G02 . If we denote this new length by the symbol
⎝ c0 ⎠
<<<c>>>, then L<<<c0>>> = Ru0 and M<<<c0>>> = 4G02.
c02
Since the collapse of the universe from a state where its radius equals Ru 0 = into
2G0
a state where its radius is equal to c0, leads to the creation of a black hole (because a D
R c
value equal to u 0 = 0 = D0 max causes matter located in a D = 1 space to become a
c0 2G0
black hole); then, bearing the above discussion about <c>, <<c0>> and <<<c>>>
in mind, we can say that the state of <<<c>>> with respect to <<c0>> is identical to
the state of <<c0>> relative to the state of <c>. Since the state of <c> can be related
to the state of the PP1’s of matter and <<c0>> can be related to the state of the

neutrinos in the space of the same universe, then we can say that in like manner
<<c0>> must correspond to the state of the PP1’s of matter and <<<c>>>
corresponds to the state of neutrinos of the space of the same universe. But <<co>>
corresponds to the state of the PP1’s of matter in the universe where D = 1 (this is
because the density of PP1’s in <<c0>> is identical to the density of PP1’s in the PP1
chain, which constitutes an electron, where Me = M0e), which implies that <<<c>>>
corresponds to the state of neutrinos in a D = 1 universe. This means that:
M c = M << c 0 >> = 2G 0 .c 0 and M c 0 = M <<< c 0>>> = 4G02
where Mc and Mc0 are the total mass of the neutrinos contained in lengths c and c0 .
(Note: c = 2G0 and c0 are the length of displacement of one photon in one second in a
c
D = 0 and D = 1 universe, respectively, where the D value in both is evaluated by
2G0
an observer who is in a D = 1 space).
4) If we assume that all of the neutrinos are made up of PP1’s, then for “NPP1 in c0”,
the total number of PP1’s in length c0, we can write:
4G02 4G02 .c02

NPP1 in c0 = =
⎛ h⎞ h
⎜ 2⎟
⎜c ⎟
⎝ 0⎠
So, the maximum energy contained in the length equal to c0 is:
⎛ 4G02 .c02 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.h = 4G02 .c02
⎝ h ⎠
Also, as NPP1 in c0 = vmax, where vmax is the maximum possible frequency for light,
4G02 .c02
then v max = .
h
h 4G02 .c02
Considering that L0 PP1 = and NPP1 in c0 = , then if we call the total
2G0 .c 02 h
length occupied by the PP1’s in c0, “c0 occupied”, we can write:
⎛ 4G 2 .c 2 ⎞⎛ h ⎞
c0 occupied = ( NPP1 in c0 )(
. L0 PP1) = ⎜⎜ 0 0 ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ = 2G0
⎝ h ⎠⎝ 2G0 .c0 ⎠
Thus, “ c0 unoccupied” represents that length of c0 which is unoccupied by the

neutrinos, i.e.:
c0 unoccupied = c0 - 2G0
Note:

c0 occupied2G0 1 c0 unoccupied h(c0 − 2G0 )

== and l = = 2 2
= 1.24104 × 10 − 22 , where
c0 c0 D0 max NPP1 in c0 4G0 .c0
l is the average distance between the neutrinos in a length c0. But the length c0
represents the length of displacement of a photon in one second – meaning that c0
represents a length in D = 1 space. This implies that the above value of l represents, at
the same time, the average distance between neutrinos in a D = 1 space.
5) The period of a PP1: Considering that it takes one second for a photon to move
4G02 .c02
through NPP1 in c0 = number of PP1’s, then for a single photon to move
h
1 h
through a single PP1, it takes a time equal to = = T0 PP1 seconds,
⎛ 4G02 .c02 ⎞ 4G02 .c02
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ h ⎠
where T0 PP1 is the period of a PP1 in a D = 1 space.
6) So,
⎛ 2 2
⎞ ⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
⇒ (NPP1 in c0 )(. TPP1 ) = ⎜⎜ 4G0 .c0 ⎟⎟.⎢⎜⎜ h
2 2
⎟⎟.D ⎥ = D
⎝ h ⎠ ⎣⎢⎝ 4G0 .c0 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Which means it takes D seconds for a single photon to move through NPP1 in c0
number of PP1’s, where D is the D value of the space in which the photon is moving
in.
L
But, according to L = 0 , due to the effect of D the length c0 undergoes contraction,
D
which means that the NPP1 in c0 number of neutrinos become closer to each other and
c
now occupy a length equal to c = 0 , hence:
D
NPP1 in c = NPP1 in c0
Thus,
(NPP1 in c )(. TPP1 ) = D
c0
Also as c = , then:
D
(NPP1 in c).(TPP1) = c0/c
c0
⇒ c=
(NPP1 in c )(. TPP1 )
7) As L<c > = 2G0 and M <c > = c 02 , then Schwartzchild’s relation can be written in the
following form:

R 2G0 L
= 2 = <c >
M c0 M <c >
8) According to (6), (NPP1 in c).(TPP1) = D, where D is the time taken for a photon to
move through NPP1 in c number of PP1’s. Now, if we consider that an electron is
made of PP1’s (which are essentially neutrinos), and that in order to create electrons
(or equally positrons), energy (photons) must move through neutrinos, then for t0e -
the total time taken to construct an electron in D = 1 space - we can write:
⎛ m .c 2 ⎞⎛ h ⎞ m0 e m
t 0e = ( NPP1 in e ). (T0 PP1 ) = ⎜⎜ 0 e 0 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 2 2
⎟⎟ = 2
= 0e
⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ 4G0 .c0 ⎠ 4G0 M c 0
But, in general, t = t0.D, hence:
⎛m ⎞
t e = ⎜⎜ 0 e2 ⎟⎟.D
⎝ 4G0 ⎠
Since the D value on the surface of a black hole located in a D = 1 space is equal to
c0
, then if we assume - strictly only in theory - pair production to be possible on
2G0
the surface of this black hole, the time taken for the creation of an electron and
positron must be equal to:
⎛m ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞ m0e .c0
t = ⎜⎜ 0e2 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 8G03
9a) If a body of mass m is to escape from a gravitational field, its kinetic energy
1 G.m.M
E k = m.V 2 must exceed its potential energy E P = − . Equating these two
2 r
2G.M r 2G
relations (and ignoring the minus sign) gives V 2 = . If V = c0, then = 20 ,
r M c0
which is identical to the Schwartzchild relation.
Now, if we follow the same procedure but this time with the relativistic values
G .m .M
E k = m0 .c 02 (D − 1) and E P = − 0 0 0 .D , we obtain:
r0
(D − 1) = G0 .M 0
D c02 .r0
D −1 1
Assuming that = , then:
D 2
G0 .M 0 1
=
c02 .r0 2

r0 2G
⇒ = 20
M0 c0
D −1 1
9b) The above condition = , implies D = 2.
D 2
c c
9c) As D0 max = 0 and c = 0 , then if D = D0 max , we have:
2G0 D
c0
c= = 2G0
⎛ c0 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
where c is the velocity of light on the surface of a black hole located in standard
space.
⎛ c ⎞ c
Furthermore, as G = G0.D, then if D = D0max ⇒ G = G0 ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 0 , which is the
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2
value of G on the surface of the black hole, where G = K and K is surface gravity.
So, in summary, the conditions on the surface of the black hole are:
c
(i) c = 2G0 ⇒ G0 = , and
2
c0
(ii) G = ⇒ c0 = 2G .
2
c0
Since the condition for the creation of a black hole is D = , substituting for c0
2G0
and G0 in this relation gives:
2G
D=
c
Assuming that G = c ⇒ D = 2 .
9d) Comparing the above result with (9b), we find that the condition for the creation
of the black hole is G = c , which means that on the surface of the black hole, the
value of G (in comparison with G0) increases, whereas the value of c (in comparison
to c0) decreases such that the two values measured on the surface of the black hole
show an identical value. The process of the increase in G and decrease in c can be
interpreted or regarded as an interchange between G and c in the system. This point
c
becomes clearer if we compare D = D0 max = 0 , the condition for the creation of a
2G0
black hole in a D = 1 space, extracted through relativistic procedures, with the above
2G
state where D = , which has been extracted through some new procedure. It
c

2G
shows that c0 and 2G0 in the former relation have changed into the latter form . If
c
we relate G, the gravitational constant, to the curvature of space, and c to time, then
the abovementioned phenomenon of the interchange of G and c which occurs on the
surface of a black hole can be regarded as an interchange between time and space.
Furthermore, as the dimensions of G are m 3 kg −1 s −2 , and that of c the m s −1 , then
considering that dimensionally, m2 = kg, we can write:
c m.s −1
⇒ =s
G m 3 .kg −1 .s − 2
Hence,
G 1
⇒
c s
which shows that in a black hole, the dimensions of time become inversed.
⎛F ⎞
Note (i): According to the relation m = ⎜⎜ 0 s ⎟⎟.Ds = m0 .Ds , where Fs is the force
⎝ c0 ⎠
c04
exerted by the gravitational field of space on a body, if m0 = M u 0 = , then:
4G02
⎛ c04 ⎞ ⎛F ⎞ F
⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟.Ds = ⎜⎜ 0 su ⎟⎟.Ds = su
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠ c0
⎛ c5 ⎞
⇒ Fsu = ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟⎟.Ds
⎝ 4G0 ⎠
⎛ c4 ⎞ 2
As Fexp u = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.Ds , then:
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
⎛ c4 ⎞
− ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.Ds2
Fexp u 2G0 ⎛ 2G ⎞
= ⎝ 5 ⎠ = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.Ds = − H a 0 .Ds = − H a
Fsu ⎛ c0 ⎞ ⎝ c0 ⎠
⎜ ⎟.Ds
⎜ 4G ⎟
2
⎝ 0 ⎠
⇒ Fexp u .c 0 = −2G0 .Ds .Fsu
− Fexp u .c0 ⎛ c ⎞ Fexp u 1 ⎛ Fexp u ⎞

⇒ Ds = = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. =− .⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2G0 .Fsu ⎝ 2G0 F
⎠ su H a 0 ⎝ Fsu ⎠
As m = m0.Ds, then:

m0 ⎛ Fexp u ⎞ m .c ⎛ F ⎞
m=− .⎜ ⎟⎟ = − 0 0 .⎜⎜ exp u ⎟⎟
H a 0 ⎜⎝ Fsu ⎠ 2G0 ⎝ Fsu ⎠
c04 c04
Since Fexp u 0 = M u 0.(−au 0 ) = .(− 2G0 ) = − , then for Fexp0 due to a body with
4Go2 2G0
rest mass m0, we can write:
Fexp body0 = m0 .(− 2G0 ) = −2G0 .m0
Fexp body0
⇒ m0 = −
2G0
Thus, substituting for m0 in the relation for m derived above, gives:
Fexp u
.(Fexp body0 ).
c0
m= 2
4G0 Fsu
Fexp u ⎛ 2G ⎞ c
(ii) = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.Ds and Ds = 0 , so:
Fsu ⎝ c0 ⎠ 2G0 .t
Fexp u ⎛ 2G ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞ 1
= ⎜⎜ − 0 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −
Fsu ⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 .t ⎠ t
where t is the age of the universe.
⎛ c ⎞ Fexp u 1 ⎛ Fexp u ⎞
(iii) The relation Ds = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. =− .⎜ ⎟⎟ can be used to define Ds.
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ Fsu H a 0 ⎜⎝ Fsu ⎠
Fexp u ⎛ 2G ⎞
(iv) We have seen that = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.Ds ,
Fsu ⎝ c0 ⎠
Fexp u 2G0
⇒ − =
Fsu .c0 .Ds c02
R 2G0
Comparing this result with Schwartzchild’s relation, = 2 , gives:
M c0
R Fexp u
=−
M Fsu .c0 .Ds
R.c0 .Ds Fexp u

⇒ =−
M Fsu

c0
But R = Rb = , hence:
Ds
⎛ c0 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.c0 .Ds
⎝ Ds ⎠ Fexp u
=−
M Fsu
Fsu .c02
⇒ M = Mb = −
Fexp u
c03 R Fexp u
Further, if we substitute M = M b = in the relation =− , we
2G0 .Ds M Fsu .c0 .Ds
obtain:
⎛ c2 ⎞ Fexp u ⎛ Fexp u ⎞
R = Rb = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. 2
= − Ru 0 .⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ Fsu .Ds ⎝ Fsu .Ds ⎠
Fexp u ⎛ 2G ⎞
Since = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.Ds , then,
Fsu ⎝ c0 ⎠
⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎛ 2G0 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ c0
Rb = ⎜⎜ − 0 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ − .Ds ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ =
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ Ds ⎠ Ds
R Fexp u
In the relation =− , if Ds = D0max then,
M Fsu .c0 .Ds
R ⎛ 2G ⎞ Fexp u
= −⎜⎜ 2 0 ⎟⎟.
M ⎝ c0 ⎠ Fsu
R 2G0
But as, according to Schwartzchild, = 2 , then this implies that when the
M c0
Fexp u
condition = −1 is satisfied, the Schwartzchild relation holds. But
Fsu
Fexp u ⎞
⎛ 2G F c
⎟⎟.Ds , so if exp u = −1 , then Ds = 0 = D0
= −⎜⎜ 0 max; meaning that the
Fsu ⎝ c0
⎠ Fsu 2G0
Fexp u
condition Ds = D0 max is identical to the condition = −1 .
Fsu

Ru 0 c02 c
a) But, according to Ru = = , when Ds = D0 max = 0 , Ru = c0.
Ds 2G0 .Ds 2G0
Which implies that for the case of the universe itself, when its radius collapses
to become equal to c0, then the Schwartzchild relation holds – in other words,
in this state, where Ru = c0, the space of the universe assumes the state of, and
can be considered to become, a black hole. Equally, when Ru = c0, the state of
the space of the universe, as defined by its D value, is identical to the space of
a black hole itself located in a D = 1 universe.
b) From (a) we infer Ru = c0 as being the condition for creating a black hole in
the universe.
c0
c) As t = , where t is the age of the universe, then using Ds = D0 max
2G0 .Ds
c
= 0 in this relation gives t = 1 second; the implication being that all the
2G0
black holes in the universe must have been made at t ≤ 1 second.
Since the state of the space of the surface of a black hole located in a D = 1 space is
identical to the state of the universe at t = 1 second, where t is the age of the universe,
then this can mistakenly be interpreted as suggesting the possibility of travel into the
past through a black hole. This is unacceptable as a valid interpretation, because
identity of the state of the space of the universe at t = 1 with that of the surface of a
black hole does not necessarily mean identity of their relevant entities.

The Impossibility of Time Travel:
(a) Using the relation su = su0/D, where su is the entropy of the universe and su0 is its
entropy at the present time, then as D = c0/(2G0.t),
2G0 .su 0 .t
su =
c0
As time is increasing, the implication is that the entropy of the universe is also
increasing. This indicates that the universe cannot be converted to its earlier
thermodynamic state. If we assume this result to be equally applicable to and hold for
all systems which are themselves inside the universe, then we can say that the idea of
a time machine, a machine which allows travel into the past, (i.e. where t assumes
smaller values) is essentially against the second law of thermodynamics.
(b) According to the relation Ds = c0/(2G0.t), where t is the age of the universe, if one
reduces t, the value of D will increase, implying the transfer of a body to an earlier
time; however, as E = E0.D, this means the movement of the body to a higher state of
energy. In other words, a free flow of matter into the past is impossible and is against
the law of conservation of energy.
(c) As Mu = Mu0.D and D = c0/(2G0.t), then:
c05
Mu =
8G03 .t
According to the above relation, as the universe becomes older, its total mass
continually decreases. Which means that with respect to its mass, the state of the
universe is not static but is constantly changing to new states and so never returns to
its earlier states. Therefore, the past, for the universe, is a state that no longer exists
and will not happen again. Since time travel can have meaning only if one were able
to go back to earlier states of the universe, which were the basis for past events, then
by reason of these states no longer existing, time travel must remain an impossible
task.
c0
(d) i)The age of the universe is given by the relation t = . Thus at t = 1, the D
2G0 .D
c0
value of the universe was D = = D0 max.
2G0
ii) The D value of the space on the surface of a black hole located in a D = 1 universe
c
equals D0 max = 0 .
2G0
iii) Comparing (i) and (ii) we observe that the state of the space of the universe on the
surface of a present-day black hole is identical with the state of the universe at t = 1
second. Thus, the motion of a body towards the surface of a black hole is identical to
the motion of a body into the past state of the space of the universe, where these states
are described by their corresponding D values. But the important point to realise here

is that the body, through its motion towards the surface of the black hole, meets
equivalent past states of the space of the universe only and does not meet past events.
Which implies that the motion of a body towards a black hole cannot be defined as
travel into the past. It is important to note that all of the abovementioned states can
equally be created through the process of accelerating the body, where the body itself
1
⎛ m2 ⎞ 2
with rest mass equal to m0 in theory becomes a black hole at V = ⎜⎜ c02 − 20 ⎟⎟ . [Note
⎝ Ru 0 ⎠
( )
1
- This relation is derived from the relation m0 = Ru 0 . c02 − V 2 2 encountered earlier].
(e) Considering that any body with rest mass m0 at the appropriate velocity, defined
1
⎛ m2 ⎞ 2
by the relation V = ⎜⎜ c02 − 20 ⎟⎟ , in theory becomes a black hole, and given that black
⎝ Ru 0 ⎠
holes are primordial, the implication then is that whilst a state equivalent to that of a
black hole can be recreated through the acceleration of a body, it does not imply that
by the creation of such a state one will have reached primordial time. This is, in
general, because any state has its own tc, time of creation, ∆t, the life span of the state
and te, the time in which the state ends its presence in the system, where ∆t constitutes
a set with elements {tc…….te}, called the elements of the time set. Systems can have
‘time interaction’, that is, meeting with each other, only when their time sets assume
intersection. This means that unless two or more systems have some common element
in their time system, they are unable to meet each other. The notion of the past
represents a time set for which none of its elements exist in another time set called the
present time set, where the latter set represents the time set of the observer. Future
time set represents a set whose elements are neither in the past time set nor in the
present time set and so is different from both. Since the prerequisite for the meeting of
two sets is the intersection of the sets, the implication is that the observer, whose
system can be defined by the present time set, cannot meet the past or the future.
Specifically regarding the future, we note that unless the future becomes the present,
that is, part of the present time set, one cannot meet it.
Note - Notions of past and future and the idea of time as having direction can be
regarded as elements of an ideal set. A set which is different from that set to which the
physical system belongs. This is used in order to give meaning to physical events
through a comparison of the behaviour of the system with its earlier records, which
helps the observer to formulate a picture of its likely future behaviour in his mind. In
other words, the concept of past and future can be regarded as the elements of an
idealised structure called thought. This has the clear implication that any idea related
to travel into the past, or travel into the future, must be related to a realm which is
altogether outside of and beyond physics and so cannot be achieved through physical
means.
Note that the argument of the impossibility of physical travel into the past or future
implies that all the physical systems in the universe act and exist in what is described
and known as present time. Therefore, only the sets of present time and existence and
not the sets of the past or the future intersect. Any relationship between the set of

existence and the sets of the past or the future must consequently be a non-physical or
purely thought-mediated one.
Conservation of the Output of Energy:
⎛ c4 ⎞ c dM u ⎛ c3 ⎞
(1) As M u = M u 0 .D = ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟⎟.D and D = 0 ⇒ = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D 2 . But,
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ 2G0 .t dt ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
2
m .c
NPP = 0 0 , where NPP is the total number of the constituent PP1’s of a body, so
h
c04 c06
if m0 = M u 0 = ⇒ NPPu = , which is the total number of PP1’s in the
4G02 4G02 .h
dM u ⎛ c3 ⎞ 2 energy
universe. As = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D is the output of the of the universe due to
dt ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ c 02
c06 energy
NPPu = 2
number of PP1’s, then the output of due to a single PP1 is
4G0 .h c 02
given by:
⎡ ⎛ c 03 ⎞ 2 ⎤ ⎛ c06 ⎞ ⎛ 2G .h ⎞
⎢ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.D ⎥ ÷ ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ = −⎜⎜ 30 ⎟⎟.D 2
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 4G0 .h ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠
So for the output of the energy we can write:
⎛ 2G .h.D 2 ⎞ 2 2G .h.D 2
W pp1 = ⎜⎜ − 0 3 ⎟⎟.c0 = − 0
⎝ c0 ⎠ c0
where Wpp1 is the output of energy of a single PP1, where the energy output is in the
c
form of microscopic gravitational waves. As D = 0 , where t is the age of the
2G0 .t
universe, then:
2
2G .h.D 2 ⎛ 2G0 .h ⎞⎛ c0 ⎞ c .h
W pp1 G − wave =− 0 = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = − 0 2
c0 ⎝ c0 ⎠⎝ 2G0 .t ⎠ 2G0 .t
⎛ 2G .h ⎞ Fexp u ⎛ 2G ⎞
Furthermore, as W pp1 G − wave = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ D 2 and = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D , then:
⎝ c0 ⎠ Fsu ⎝ c0 ⎠
2
c .h ⎛ Fexp u ⎞
W pp1 G − wave = − 0 .⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2G0 ⎝ Fsu ⎠
c0 .h
[Note that t in the relation W pp1 G − wave = − derived earlier is the age of the
2G0 .t 2
universe and must not be mistaken for the t mentioned in the following section. This

shows that the younger the universe, the greater the output of microscopic G waves by
each PP1 - recall that microscopic G waves are a non-quantum form of energy used
for the expansion of the universe.]
m0 .c02
(2) Now, since E = m0.c02.D and NPP = , then:
h
E = NPP.h.D
where E is the total energy of a body and NPP is the total number of PP1’s which
constitute that body. If NPP = 1, then:
E = h.D
where E in this relation is the total energy of each constituent PP1 of the body. But, in
E
general, W = , so as t = t0.D,
t
E h
W PP1 = =
t t0
h
⇒ W PP1 quantum = = constant
t0
But t0 = 1, hence:
W PP1 quantum = h = constant
⇒ h = h0 = constant
∴ W PP1 quantum = h = h0 = constant
Which implies that the output of quantum energy by a PP1 is constant. This means
that the law of conservation of energy for a PP1 must be extended so as to be the
‘conservation of the output of a PP1’. The importance of this conservation law is that
as a PP1 is the constituent of all types of particles, and hence matter in general, then it
becomes an all-embracing law in nature.
Let us consider the following:
i) E = m0.c02.D and t = t0.D, where t is the dilatation of time, thus

⎛t ⎞
E = m0 .c02 .⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ;
⎝ t0 ⎠
h0 .t
ii) In like manner, E = h0.D and so E = .
t0

As the relation W PP1 quantum = h = h0 = constant, which represents the constancy of the
output of quantum energy by matter, was derived by using (i) and (ii), and since it is
the effect of the dilatation of time that results in the constancy of W PP1 quantum , one can
therefore argue that the dilatation of time in a system is simply essential in order to
preserve this new conservation law.
Comparing results from (1) and (2) we note that:
⎛ c .h ⎞
− ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟
⎟
W pp1 G − wave 2G .t ⎠ = −⎛⎜ c 0 ⎞ 1 ⎛ F0 su ⎞ 1
= ⎝ 0 ⎜ 2G ⎟⎟. 2 = ⎜ ⎟.
W pp1 quantum h ⎜F ⎟ t2
⎝ 0 ⎠t ⎝ 0 exp u ⎠
2
F c Fexp u 1 W pp1 G − wave F ⎛ Fexp u ⎞
Since 0 su = − 0 and = − , then = 0 su .⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ .
F0 exp u 2G0 Fsu t W pp1 quantum F0 exp u ⎝ Fsu ⎠
W pp1 G − wavec0
When t = 1, =−
, which means that when the age of the universe was
W pp1 quantum 2G0
one second, the output of each constituent PP1 of the universe in the form of
c .h
microscopic gravitational waves was equal to 0 joules per second. Since the total
2G0
M u 0 .c02 c06
number of PP1’s which constitute the universe is equal to = , then the
h 4G02 .h
amount of energy released in one second in the form of microscopic G waves when
the universe was only one second old was equal to:
⎛ c 6 ⎞ ⎛ c .h ⎞ c 7
W = ⎜⎜ 02 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 0 3
⎝ 4G0 .h ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 8G0

Starting Point of the Conservation Law for the Output of a PP1:
As a quantum of energy, h, is created through the PP reaction, where:
PP1 ↔ PP0 + h
which is essentially a periodic reaction (where the number of cycles can be one or
more), then it becomes apparent that this conservation law itself stems from the
relation T = T0.D, where T is the period of a PP1. If we consider that, in general, the
dilatation of time is due to the effect of the gravitational field, then as GG = G0G.D,
⎛ T ⎞
where GG is the gravitational field, so T = T0.D becomes T = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.GG . This means
⎝ G0 G ⎠
that the effect of the gravitational field on the internal structure of the PP1 is to cause
a change in the latter’s period in such a way that the period behaves according to the
relation T = T0.D - an effect which is itself a manifestation of the conservation law for
the output of energy for a PP1. In other words, the conservation law for the output of
⎛T ⎞
energy by a PP1 leads to the relation TPP1 = ⎜⎜ 0 PP1 ⎟⎟.GG which implies T = T0.D in
⎝ G0 G ⎠
general, and which manifests itself as the dilatation of time. Alternatively, we could
write:
W = E/t
where W is output, but E = m0.c02.D and m0 = NPP1.m0PP1 = N.(h/c02). Thus E =

N .h.D N .h
N.h.D ⇒ W = = = a constant for each particular body, where N = NPP1.
t 0 .D t0
This implies the conservation law for the output of energy of a PP1 is at work, which
itself indicates the necessity of the dilatation of time under all conditions where the
mass of a body, according to m = m0.D, increases (such as with motion or an increase
in the gravitational field of space). In other words, in order for the output of a body to
remain constant if its mass according to m = m0.D increases (with its energy
consequently also increasing), then its time must be dilated.
Note a: On the basis of the above argument, we can say that time travel is simply
against this conservation law and violates it. This is because the body, itself made of
N number of PP1’s, will have less mass than that which it must actually have; this is
because in the past, the universe had a higher value of D for its space than at present,
so its energy may finish, say, in one second, whereas the time of that space demands
more energy. In other words, as time is dilated in that space, there is a need for more
energy, meaning that time travel leads to a situation where h < h0 and hence
contravenes the law which demands that WPP1 = h = h0.
In summary, any body which is undergoing acceleration is experiencing its state of

energy in the past. But for time travel this is insufficient, because the whole of the

universe must regain that experience, something which is not possible. This is because
physically it means a collapse of the universe, plus a different behaviour of the system
in comparison with its past behaviour - a behaviour which essentially means the
implementation of a second law of thermodynamics which is opposite in direction to
the known second law.
The past is something which no longer exists and thus in order to travel towards it, it
must be re-created. But a re-created past is not the past itself - it is a created past in
the present. This highlights an important point that time in its essence has an
independent nature distinct from that of matter. Matter only shapes itself in time,
which could be quicker or slower. That is, it is not a universal time which becomes
fast or slow, it is matter and so the clocks which are made up of this matter and which
have to behave according to the conservation law for the output of energy, on which
basis the relation WPP1 = h = h0 must hold at all times.
dM u ⎛ c03 ⎞ 2
Note: As = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.D - meaning that at the present time, i.e. when D = 1, a
dt ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
c3
mass equivalent to 0 changes into microscopic gravitational wave energy - and
2G0
π .c06
since Vu 0 = , where Vu0 is the present-day volume of the universe, then the
6G03
3G02
implication is that each second an energy equal to E = in the form of
π .c0
⎛ 3G02 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ π .c ⎟
microscopic G waves, which is equivalent to ⎝
0 ⎠
= 21,403.42 number of quanta
h
of photon energy, is added to each unit of volume in the universe. Which indicates
that, theoretically, there is sufficient G wave energy in the universe in each unit of
volume to change into photon energy, which manifests itself in the form of the
microwave background radiation. Microscopic background radiation itself simply
represents the temperature of those parts of the universe occupied by these waves and
so must be regarded as a manifestation of the temperature of these regions of the
universe.

The Inflation of the Universe as an Inevitable Event and its Cause:
c07 c 05
Since at t = 1, W = and the total mass of the universe is (with its energy
8G03 8G03
c07
value given by ), then we can write:
8G03
Eu at t = 1 = Wtotal G-wave at t = 1
The suggestion of this is that at t = 1 the entire mass of the universe must have
changed into energy.
Now, the process of the creation of the universe requires matter to be in its mass state.
As our new version of the second law of thermodynamics – which states that matter
has a tendency to change its state from that of mass into energy - effectively does not
c07
permit all of this energy (that is Eu = , which is created due to the effect of Fexp u
8G03
at t = 1, which we have referred to previously) to change into mass, then it becomes
apparent that during the early stages of its life, the universe must have followed some
alternative route of development. Determination of this alternative pathway must be
regarded as the solution to the above problem – namely, that at t = 1, due to the effect
of Fexp u all the matter of the universe changed from its mass state into the energy state
– then we can say that the alternative route must actually constitute the solution itself.
2
W pp1 G − wave c ⎛ Fexp u ⎞ ⎛ 2G ⎞
From the relation = − 0 .⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D 2 we see that in order to
W pp1 quantum 2G0 ⎝ Fsu ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠
reduce Wpp1 G-wave, which constitutes the solution to the problem, one must reduce
Fexp u or, equally, the D value of the space of the universe at t = 1. From this we
conclude that the D value of the space of the universe during the very early stages of
its life must have been low.
The magnitude of the D value of space at t = 1:
⎛ c4 ⎞ ⎛ c4 ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞ c5
According to the relation Mu = ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟⎟.D = ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 03 , the mass of the
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ ⎝ 4G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 .t ⎠ 8G0 .t
5
c
universe at t = 1 must have been 0 3 . The necessity of having this amount of mass
8G0
at t = 1 becomes clear if we appreciate that any alteration in this value would have to
c4
mean a change in the present-day value of Mu, given by 0 2 , and the universe’s
4G0
c 1
present age, given by 0 = , both of which we assume to be correct. If the
2G0 H a 0
c 05
presence of such an amount of matter of mass in the system at t = 1 is a
8G03

prerequisite condition, then we are left with only two options as to the solution of the
problem outlined earlier:
c 05
(i) A condition where Fexp u > 0 and so must necessarily mean Mu at t = 0 > :
8G 03
c 05
Let us assume that Mu at t = 1 > such that when one deducts the effect of Fexp u on
8G 03
c5 Fexp u 1
this mass, the remaining mass becomes equal to 0 3 . As = − and as, at
8G 0 Fsu t
c 05 c 05
t = 1 (where Mu = ), Fexp u = Fsu , then the implication is that when Mu > ,
8G 03 8G 03
c05
Fexp u > Fsu ; or, in general, when M u ≥ , Fexp u ≥ Fsu . Since when Fexp u ≥ Fsu
8G03
the entire mass of the system changes its state into that of energy, then it is clear that
we must dismiss this procedure because it does not lead to the solution of the
problem.
c 05
ii) A condition where Fexp u = 0 and so Mu at t = 0 = :
8G 03
⎛ 2G .h ⎞
a) Wpp1 G-wave = − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D 2
⎝ c0 ⎠
⎛ c ⎞
4
b) Fexp u = − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D 2
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
⎛ 2G ⎞
c) From (b) we have, D2 = − ⎜⎜ 4 0 ⎟⎟.Fexp u .
⎝ c0 ⎠
Hence,
⎛ 4G02 .h ⎞
W pp1 G − wave = ⎜⎜ 5 ⎟⎟.Fexp u
⎝ c0 ⎠
If Fexp u = 0, then according to (c), Wpp1 G-wave = 0 and this, according to (a), also means
that D = Ds = 0. As the potential solution described in section (i) above does not
work, then the condition Ds = 0 must be regarded as the only way to stop the effect of
Fexp u at the dawn of the life of the universe, where it would otherwise cause the total
mass of the universe to change its state into energy. Since the new version of the
second law of thermodynamics prohibits this energy from assuming its original mass
state – which would otherwise make the creation of a universe like the one we know
impossible (simply because for creating the universe, matter needs to be in its mass
state in order to form particles) – then it becomes clear that the condition of Ds = 0 at
the very early stages of the life of the universe must be regarded as an essential
prerequisite in the process of the creation of our universe.

The consequence of Ds = 0 on the evolution of the early universe:
According to the relation Vexp = V0 exp/D = c0/D, where Vexp is the velocity of the
expansion of the universe, if D → 0, then Vexp → ∞. The condition Ds = 0 must
therefore have resulted in an extremely high velocity of expansion of the universe in
the very early stages of its life. If we assume that the D value of the space of the
universe then increased to some value greater than zero (which is an essential
requirement, because the D value of the present-day universe is greater than zero),
then this is equivalent to saying that the universe underwent a period of inflationary
expansion during its earliest stages.
The condition that provides a D = 0 state for space:
Since ρpp1 = ρ0 pp1.D4, where ρpp1 is the density of neutrinos in space, then we can
write that if D = 0, ρpp1 = 0; in other words, the density of neutrinos at this stage was
zero.
The expansion of the universe (that is, its inflation) under conditions where ρpp1 = 0
means the creation of a universe whose space does not contain neutrinos in its early
life. However, if we consider that, currently, neutrinos are uniformly distributed in the
universe – a situation which cannot have occurred unless one were to assume that the
neutrinos started their expansion, and so the process of their distribution in space,
simultaneously with that of matter – it becomes clear that upholding the condition
ρpp1 = 0 is in fact an impossible task unless we introduce a new facet to the neutrino’s
structure. Given that we already have a successful model for the neutrino which has
worked well thus far, then clearly this novel element must apply only to the early
neutrinos. This can be achieved if we assume the following:
i) The big-bang does indeed represent the point at which our universe came
into existence.
ii) Thus, the neutrinos present at this stage must also have been newly created
at the point of the big-bang.
iii) Since each neutrino is formed from a single quantum of E, M and G, (i)
and (ii) now allow us to argue that the G field in a neutrino developed at a
slightly later time in comparison with when the E and M fields started to
function as a field.
Given these assumptions, it is possible to satisfy both conditions - ρpp = 0 and D = 0

(where ρpp here concerns the density of fully developed neutrinos) – and hence solve
the problem with which we were faced. Thus, the above assumptions must be correct
and be introduced into the system, which can be summarised as follows: the universe
is a created entity which was still in the process of creation when it started to expand.
Thus the phenomenon of inflation can be viewed as having been a part of an
embryonic period of the universe, i.e. while the fields we know today were still in the
process of formation. The reason for these preceding statements is that they allow a
difference to have existed between the development of the G field and that of the E
and M fields such that the G field was created slightly after the E and M fields in the
P-Particle. We can therefore write: tE = tM and tE > tG, where tE, tM and tG are the age

of the electric, magnetic and gravitational quanta in any PP1. Since the difference
between tE, or equally tM, with tG is extremely small, then we can write:
tE = tM ≈ tG
The Value of D in a Singularity:
We have seen that Db = (c0.Ds)/2G0 = Dmax, which is the value of D on the surface of
the event horizon. Hence:
Db c
= 0
Ds 2G0
Considering that, in theory only (but not practically), a black hole can itself be
assumed to be a universe with black holes at its geometrical center, then as its
Ds = c0/2G0, we have:
Db c
= 0
(c0 2G0 ) 2G0
c02
⇒ Db =
4G02
where Db here is the theoretical D value of a point close to the center of a black hole.
This result can be verified as follows: Consider a black hole with radius Rb = c0. Now
if this black hole starts to shrink such that its radius becomes equal to 2G0, then
c c c
according to Rb = 0 , 2G0 = 0 ⇒ Ds = 0 . But as D = D0 max.Ds, the D value
Ds Ds 2G0
⎛ c ⎞⎛ c ⎞ c2
of the surface of this black hole is given by D = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 0 2 - which
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 4G0
implies that the theoretical D value of a point at a distance 2G0 from the center of a
c2
black hole is 0 2 . We note that:
4G0
i) The theoretical D value of the very center of a black hole, termed the
singularity, tends to infinity;
ii) Since the density of neutrinos inside a black hole is zero, then the actual D
value of all points inside the black hole, including that of its center, is equal to
zero.
iii) Since GG = G0G.D, where GG is the gravitational field, then as D = 0, GG
(the gravitational field inside a black hole) is zero.
iv) In contrast, as the D value of the surface of a black hole is equal to
Dmax = D0 max.Ds, then the value of the gravitational field on the surface of a
black hole is equal to GG = G0G.Dmax.
v) Comparing the results of (iii) and (iv), we note that
GG surface – GG inside = GG surface = G0G.Dmax, where GG surface and GG inside are the
gravitational field of the surface of and inside a black hole, respectively. This

makes it clear why a black hole does not collapse in on itself and hence why it
does not assume the state known as a singularity.
M b 0 .c02 c05
If we consider that NPPb = = , where NPPb is the total number of
h 2G0 .h
PP1’s that constitute the body of a black hole, then, assuming that all these PP1’s are
concentrated at the black hole’s center (which is equivalent to the assumption that the
mass of the black hole is concentrated at its center thus constituting what is called a
singularity), for the output of the microscopic G wave energy due to these PP1’s, we
can write:
⎛ 2G0 .h.D 2 ⎞ ⎛ c05 ⎞
W = (WPP1 G − wave ).NPPb = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −c04 .D 2
⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 .h ⎠
c02
But D = Dsingularity = , thus:
4G02
2
⎛ c02 ⎞ c08
(
W = − c .⎜⎜4
0 )2
⎟ =−
⎟
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ 16G04
⎛ 2G0 .h ⎞ 2 Ru 0 2G0 .h ⎛ Ru20 ⎞

Note – Since WPP1 = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.D and D = , then WPP1 = − .⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ c0 ⎠ Ru c0 ⎜⎝ Ru2 ⎠
c03 .h M .h
− 2
= − b20 , and so the energy output WPP1 increases with Ru (i.e. becomes
2G0 .Ru Ru
less negative); such an increase in energy with respect to Ru is characteristic of an
attractive force and is analogous to the case of gravitational potential energy, where the
latter is negative and increases with distance between two bodies.
⎛ c3 ⎞ 2 c5 E
As E 0b = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.c0 = 0 and W = , then:
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0 t
⎛ c05 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
E ⎜ 2G ⎟ 8G 3
t= = ⎝ 0 ⎠
= 30
W ⎛ c08 ⎞ c0
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 16G 4 ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠
The implication is that even if one were to suppose that the total mass of a black hole
was originally located at its center, the entire mass of the black hole in a period of time
E 8G03
equal to t = = 3 would change into microscopic gravitational waves. Thus, the
W c0
mass of a black hole cannot maintain its presence at the center of the black hole,
meaning that a singularity is impossible.

A Relation for the Value of D at the Surface of a Black Hole:
We encountered the relation Db = (c0.Ds)/2G0 giving the value of D on the surface of

a black hole earlier. As Rs = c0/Ds, then:
c02
Db =
2G0 .Rs
According to Schwartzchild, Rs/Mb = 2G0/c02, substituting this for Rs in the above

relation gives:
c04
Db =
4G02 .M b
But Mu0 = c04/4G02, thus:
M u0
Db =
Mb
As Mu0 = c04/4G02 = Ru02, this can also be written as:
2
Ru 0
Db =
Mb
2
⇒ M b .Db = Ru 0 = M u 0

Discussion about the Einstein Field Equations:
Einstein’s field equations can be schematically written in the following form:
R* = - 8π.K.T*
where R* is called a reduced curvature tensor, which is derived from the full curvature
tensor R**, and T* is the energy momentum tensor. K is the factor of proportionality
equal to G0/c03 and its importance lies in the fact that it provides a link between the
geometrical quantities represented by R* and T* which represents energy momentum.
(1) Now, substituting K = G0/c03 into the above relation gives:
R* = - 8π.(G0/c03).T*
(2) But Mb0 = c03/2G0 ⇒ K = G0/c03 = ½Mb0, thus:
− 4π .T ∗
R∗ =
M b0
(3) As T* is energy momentum, then T* = m0.c02.D and, for the particular case when
D = 1, T* = m0.c02. Thus,
∗ − 4π .m0 .c02
R = for D = 1
M b0
(4) If m0 = m0 max = Mb0, then:
R* = − 4π .c 02
Since m0 = m0 max in this relation, then R* = R*max; so R*max.= - 4π.c02, when D = 1.
(5) However, the radius of Mb0 is equal to Rb0 = c0, thus:
R* = - 4π.Rb02
⇒ R*max = - S0
when D = 1, where S0 is the surface area of a black hole in standard space.
(6) The relation in (3) can be written in the following form:
⎛ 2G ⎞
R* = − 4π .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.m0
⎝ c0 ⎠

Assuming that m0 = m0 max and equating this relation with that in (5), which can itself
be written as R*max = - 4π.Rb02 = - 4π.c0.Rb0, then:
• - 4π.c0.Rb0 = - 4π.(2G0/c0).m0
⇒ Rb0/m0 = 2G0/c02
which is the Schwartzchild relation for the particular case when D = 1, and which
implies the general Schwartzchild relation r/m = 2G0/c02, indicating that the black
hole lies at the heart of Einstein’s field equations and which is an indication of the
great importance of these bodies.

Meaning of the Relation Mb = c03/(2G0.Ds):
In general, c03/2G0 is the maximum possible relativistic mass of a body in the universe
and holds for any value of Ds. This means that the relativistic mass of a body,
irrespective of the value of Ds, cannot exceed the value of c03/2G0, since this value
represents an upper limit for the relativistic value of mass and even for the non-
relativistic value of mass, but only when Ds = 1 in space. The reason for this is due to
the way that mass actually comes about, in the sense of its origin, i.e. it is related to
the origin of mass in physics in general, as well as the effect of the law of
conservation of energy, both of which have been discussed earlier. As, in general, m =
m0.D, where m is the relativistic mass, then considering that c03/2G0 is the upper limit
for relativistic mass, we can write: m = c03/2G0 = m0.D, where D = Ds, the D value of
space. Since in this relation, m is the upper limit for relativistic mass, then m0 in this
relation must represent the “upper limit for non-relativistic mass, when D = Ds”.
Solving this relation for m0 gives m0 = c03/(2G0.Ds), but since
Mb = c03/(2G0.Ds), then m0 = Mb. This means that Mb is the upper limit for the non-
relativistic mass of a body in general, where its value is determined by Ds, i.e. by that
term which describes the state of the space of the universe and which is itself
described by the relation Ds = c0/(2G0.t), where t is the age of the universe.
Since the relativistic mass of a black hole has a constant value always equal to
c03/2G0, the clear implication is that a black hole cannot contain any other black hole
within itself.

The Velocity of Expansion of a Black Hole:
As R = c0/D, where R is the radius of a Schwartzchild black hole, then Vb = d/dt(R) =

d/dt (c0/D), where Vb is the velocity of expansion of a black hole; but Ds = c0/(2G0.t),
hence:
d
Vb = (2G0.t)
dt
⇒ Vb = 2G0
Alternatively, we can state that, according to Schwartzchild,
R/M = 2G0/c02
2G0 .M
⇒ R=
c02
But, according to Hubble’s law, V = H.R, thus:
⎛ 2G .M ⎞ ⎛ 2G0 .Ds ⎞ ⎛ 2G0 .M ⎞ 4G02 .M .Ds

V = H .⎜⎜ 02 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ =
⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠ c03
As M = Mb = c03/(2G0.Ds), then:
Vb =2G0
Note that in both cases the solution Vb = 2G0 represents a special solution and is true
only when D = 1. The reason for this is that black holes are themselves within and a
part of the universe, so Vb must have an identical mathematical structure with the
relation for the velocity of the expansion of the universe Vexp u = c0 /D. Since this
argument implies
Vexp u/Vb exp = constant, and as for Ru = c02/(2G0.Ds) we have Vexp u = c0/Ds, then for
Rb = c0/Ds, the velocity of the expansion of a black hole we must have:
Rb .Vexp u
Vb exp =
Ru
⎛ c0 ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟.⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ds ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Ds ⎟⎠
⇒ Vb exp =
⎛ c02 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G 0 .D s ⎠
2G0
⇒ Vb exp =
Ds

Note: The relation for Vb exp was derived as follows:
c0 c02
We know that Rb = and Ru = . Thus,
Ds 2G0 .Ds
Rb 2G0 1
= = = constant
Ru c0 D0 max
Ru
⇒ Rb =
D0 max
d d ⎛ Ru ⎞
Vb exp (Rb ) dt ⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟
1
Now, = dt . ⎝ 0 max ⎠= , therefore:
d
Vexp u
(Ru ) d (Ru ) D0 max
dt dt
Vb exp Rb
=
Vexp u Ru
Rb .Vexp u
⇒ Vb exp =
Ru
Theoretical Density of Matter Inside a Black Hole:
4
(1) As V = π.R3 and R = c0/Ds, where R is the radius of a non rotating black hole,
3
then:
4 ⎛ c3 ⎞
Vb = π .⎜⎜ 03 ⎟⎟
3 ⎝ Ds ⎠
(2) According to Schwartzchild, R/M = 2G0/c02, hence:
c02 .R
M =
2G0
(3) Since ρb = Mb/Vb, then:
3Rb .Ds3
ρb =
8π .G0 .c0

3Ds2
(4) But Rb = c0/Ds, thus ρb = .
8π .G0
(5) Since Vb = 2G0/Ds ⇒ Ds = 2G0/Vb, then substituting for Ds in the relation

obtained above in (4) gives:
3G0
ρb =
2π .Vb2
If we consider that in an expanding universe, the value of Ds continually decreases,

then according to ρb = 3Ds2/(8π.G0), the density of matter within a black hole must
also continually decrease. At the same time, Dmax = (c0.Ds)/2G0, where Dmax is the
value of D on the surface of the black hole, which means that the value of D in this
region is c0/2G0 times greater than Ds. Therefore, on the surface of a black hole, the
relation c = c0/Ds, where c is the local velocity of light, becomes:
c0 2G0
c= =
⎛ c0 .Ds ⎞ Ds
⎜ 2G0 ⎟⎠
⎝
Comparing this relation with Vb = 2G0/Ds, it is seen that Vb = c, implying that the
velocity of the expansion of a black hole is equal to the velocity of light at its surface.
This means that for the density of a black hole, we can write: ρ = 3G0/2π.c2 (note that
c here is not c0 ).
As ρc = 3G0/(2π.c02), where ρc = ρ0 is the critical density of the universe, i.e. its

density when D = 1, then:
ρ b c02 c02
= =
ρ c Vb2 c 2
[Note that the relation ρb = 3Ds2/(8π.G0) implies the general relation ρ = ρ0.D2, where
D = Ds.]

Dmax and its Implications:
The value of D on the surface of a black hole is called Dmax, where

Dmax = (c0.Ds)/2G0. This relation can be derived as follows:
Surface gravity K is given by K = c04/(4G0.Mb). As Mb = c03/(2G0.Ds), then:
K = c0.Ds/2
But, K = G and G = G0.D, hence:
G = (c0.Ds)/2 = G0.D
∴ D = (c0.Ds)/2G0
which we have called Dmax. This value consists of two separate parts: a constant
component c0/2G0 and Ds. The Ds is the D value of space in which the black hole is
located, whilst the constant value, c0/2G0, can be referred to as D0max, because
Dmax = (c0.Ds)/2G0 and when D = 1, Dmax = D0max = (c0/2G0).D0max is created by what
we have already referred to as the non-relativistic mass of the black hole, which we
defined by Mb = c03/(2G0.Ds). It is important to bear in mind the point that Mb is non-
relativistic with respect to the space of the universe in which the black hole is located.
This means that as, in general, m = m0.Ds then, as we saw earlier, in this relation we
can regard Mb = c03/(2G0.Ds) as being equivalent to m0. So, in this respect Mb can be
regarded as the non-relativistic mass of the black hole, which we denote by the
symbol <Mb>. Thus <Mb> = Mb = c03/(2G0.Ds).
Returning to the preceding discussion, we observed that in Dmax = (c0.Ds)/2G0, the

value of Ds is the magnitude of the D value of the space in which the black hole is
located. Since the origin of D is the gravitational field of matter, then for any kind of
D to be present at all there must be a material source. Now in the relation Dmax =
(c0.Ds)/2G0, the term Ds is related to the space of the universe, where the origin of Ds
is the gravitational field of the universe’s matter; the remainder of Dmax is c0/2G0
which must be related to the matter of the black hole itself, the latter being <Mb> =
c03/(2G0.Ds), i.e. the source of D0max is the matter <Mb> itself, which is in turn created
by the curvature of <Mb>. Now that we have related D0max to <Mb>, then in
accordance with the general relation m = m0.D, we can write:
m0 .c0 .Ds
<Mb> = m0.Dmax =
2G0
If we denote this new value of m0 by <<Mb>>, then we have:
⎛ c .D ⎞
<Mb> = <<Mb>>.Dmax = <<Mb>>. ⎜⎜ 0 s ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
But <Mb> = c03/(2G0.Ds), hence:

c03 ⎛ c .D ⎞
= <<Mb>>. ⎜⎜ 0 s ⎟⎟
2G0 .Ds ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
c02
⇒ <<Mb>> = 2
Ds
As Ds = c0/(2G0.t), where t is the age of the universe, then:
<<Mb>> = 4G02.t2 and
d
<<Mb>> = 8G02.t
dt
Substituting t = c0/(2G0.Ds) in this gives:
d 4G .c
<<Mb>> = 0 0
dt Ds
Considering that d/dt(Mb) = d/dt(<Mb>) = c 02 , then:
d
< Mb >
dt c02 c0 .Ds Dmax
= = =
d
<< M b >> ⎛⎜ 4G0 .c0 ⎞ 4G0 2
⎜ D ⎟⎟
dt ⎝ s ⎠
Furthermore,
< Mb > c .D
= 0 s = Dmax
<< M b >> 2G0
where <<Mb>> is the rest mass of the black hole according to an observer who is in
c
D = 0 space, that is, an observer who is on the surface of the black hole, whilst
2G0
c03
<Mb> = is the rest mass of the black hole according to an observer who is in
2G0 .Ds
a D = 1 space.

Evaluation of Surface Gravity, K:
From Schwartzchild’s relation we know that R = (2G0.Mb)/c02, where R is the radius

of a Schwartzchild black hole. Using the Newtonian relation for gravitational force,
F = (G0.m.m’)/r2, if m’ = Mb then the gravitational force between a black hole and a
mass m, which is located on the surface of the black hole is equal to F = (G0.Mb.m)/r2.
Since r here is the radius of the black hole, then:
m.c04
F=
4G0 .M b
But F = m.a, so:
c04
a= =K
4G0 .M b
G0 ⎛ c04 ⎞
⇒ a=K= .⎜ ⎟⎟
M b ⎜⎝ 4G02 ⎠
As Mu0 = c04/4G02, then:
G0 .M u 0 c04
a =K = =
Mb 4G0 .M b
Using Mb = c03/(2G0.Ds) in this relation for K yields:
K = (c0.Ds)/2
But Dmax = (c0.Ds)/2G0, thus:
K = G0.Dmax
Since in general G = G0.D, then:
K=G
This result is clarified if we use the relation K = c04/(4G0.Mb) and take Mb to be Mb =

Mu0 = c04/4G02 ⇒ K = G0, where G0 here is the surface gravity of the universe. But,
since the space of the universe is homogeneous, then G0 is the surface gravity of any
point in the space of the universe. Thus, in general:
c04 c .D G .M
K= = 0 s = 0 u 0 = G0 .D = G
4G0 .M b 2 Mb

The Internal Structure of a Black Hole:
It was seen earlier that ρb = 3Ds2/(8π.G0), and that R = c0/Ds, where R is the radius of
a Schwartzchild black hole. Substituting for Ds yields:
3c02
ρb =
8π .G0 .R 2
This relation is, however, only of theoretical value because it assumes that matter is
uniformly dispersed inside the black hole, which is something that does not actually
reflect the true state of matter inside the black hole.
The universe itself can, in general, be regarded as a black hole. Thus, given that: the D
value of space outside the universe is zero, the density of the universe is uniform on a
grand scale with ρu0 =3G0/(2π.c02) at all its points, and that black holes undergo
expansion like the universe; the implication is that if the D value of the space into
which they are expanding (Ds) was zero, their density would, like that of the universe,
be uniform and could be determined by the above relation. In other words, the above
relation for the density of black holes could have been true if the value of Ds were to
equal zero. However, considering that Ds > 0 and that the D value on the surface of a
black hole is equal to Dmax = (c0.Ds)/2G0, and that m = m0.D, then the clear
implication is that despite the phenomenon of ‘cut-off’ explained earlier, there is an
extremely strong interaction between the neutrinos of space (since ρneutrinos =
ρ0 neutrinos.D2) and the surface of the black hole which acts to attract the neutrinos of
space towards its surface. As soon as the neutrinos come into contact with the surface
of the black hole, however, they are deflected and forced away from the surface -
hence the cut-off phenomenon, which is actually a manifestation of the principle of
the conservation of energy at work for the case of a black hole. What is important in
this argument is, as we saw, the extremely high value of D on the surface of the black
hole, which, in agreement with the relation m = m0.D, manifests as this strong
interaction with the neutrinos of space. The implication of this being that all the
matter of the black hole must be concentrated at its surface. (The matter which is
concentrated on the surface does not collapse because the D value inside the black
hole is zero, which implies that the value of the gravitational pull of the matter
towards the center of the black hole, given by the general relation Fg = F0g. D 2 , where
Fg is gravitational force, is zero. Note that the statement that the D value of the
internal space of a black hole being zero is equivalent to stating that the inner space of
a black hole has collapsed towards and onto its surface. The reason why it does not
collapse into the center of the black hole lies in the fact that the D value of the space
which is outside the surface of a black hole is greater than zero - which is in turn
equivalent to saying that it interacts with the neutrinos which are outside of its
surface).
The above indicates that black holes must be envisaged as expanding bodies which
are completely hollow and where their entire mass is concentrated on the event
horizon. This picture is one that totally rejects the idea of the existence of a singularity
in a black hole. The image given above for the structure of the black hole must not
surprise us, however, since if matter concentrates at the center of the black hole, then,
according to the relation D = 1/[1 - (2G0.M/c02.R)]1/2, as one reduces R, the D value of

the inner space of the black hole is seen to increase. Considering that the D value on
the surface of the black hole is equal to Dmax = (c0.Ds)/2G0, then this means that as one
approaches the center of the black hole, the D value of the inner space of the black
hole continues to exceed Dmax. As m = m0.D, then this clearly represents a value for
the total mass of the black hole in excess of its permitted value determined by Mb =
c03/(2G0.Ds) = <<Mb>>.Dmax = (c02/Ds2).[(c0.Ds)/2G0], which implies a breach of the
law of conservation of energy in the region of the ‘inner space’ of the black hole, with
the clear indication that in Schwartzchild’s relation, R/M = 2G0/c02, the value of R is
simply the radius of the body. But the term ‘body’ has no meaning unless one relates
it to the mass of the body – i.e. in this relation, R represents the radius of the mass,
and hence the body. Thus the distance of the mass, and so the body, from the center of
the structure must be R. Once again there is the clear implication from this that if
matter assumes concentration at the center of the structure, i.e. at the center of the
sphere to form what is called a singularity, then R = 0. As a result of this we obtain:
0/M = 2G0/c02. This indicates that if the Schwartzchild relation is forced into what we
call a singularity, the relation will break down, and therefore it does not allow the
existence of a singularity. In conclusion, therefore, the Schwartzchild relation is one
that, through maintaining a particular geometry with regard to the mass of the body -
i.e. the fact that the total mass of the black hole is concentrated on its surface area (the
event horizon) - is in fact upholding the conservation law for energy. The creation of a
singularity is thus seen to be against the conservation law for energy, with the
concentration of matter in the event horizon of the black hole simply a means for the
avoidance of the creation of a singularity.
It must be emphasized that all the matter of the black hole is confined to its event
horizon, with not even a single constituent particle of the black hole allowed to go any
further towards its center than the limit of its own event horizon, simply because the
conservation law would then be violated. In addition to the above reasoning, one can
also argue that all of the neutrinos which reach the surface of a black hole are
scattered back into space and that this is responsible for the cut-off phenomenon of
black holes; a phenomenon which is described by infinite curvature of space - that is,
a full (or total) reflection of neutrinos on the surface of the black hole. Since, due to
the great ability of neutrinos to penetrate into matter, for a complete scattering of
neutrinos, the presence of an extremely high density of matter is necessary, and as,
R 2G0
according to the relation = 2 , the site of reflection is the surface of the black
M c0
hole itself, where its radius is given by R, then the implication is that the matter of the
black hole must in its entirety be concentrated on its surface.

The Curvature of Space and its Relationship with the Curvature Parameter K:
In physics, Ω is defined as Ω = ρ /ρc, where ρ is the actual density, ρc is the critical

density and where Ω = 1 is said to correspond to a flat space.
We know that ρc = ρ0 is the density of the space of an observer, where D = 1, which

means that D = 1 corresponds to a flat space. Considering that in general relativity K
= 0 corresponds to flat space and that in addition, according to the relation curv =
(K.D2)/S02, when K = 0, curv = 0, then in general:
D = 1 → K = 0 → Flat space (Euclidian space)
But when D = 1, Mu = Mu0 = c04/4G02; thus D = 1 space is a space in which there is

matter. In other words, D = 1 is not an empty space. Considering that mass creates a
gravitational field or, in the language of general relativity, it creates a curvature in
space, then the implication is that in a D = 1 space, curv > 0, which directly conflicts
with the statement given above that D = 1 → curv = 0.
The reason for this apparent contradiction is that the curvature of space, through its
attachment to K, has become an observer-related property, whereas D, which although
in its nature is close to the concept of curvature (as demonstrated by the relation curv
= (K.D2)/S02) is nevertheless, due to the lack of such an attachment, more if not totally
independent from the observer. This implies that D = 1 → K = 0 → Euclidian space
→ curv = 0, is an observer-related relation and is correct only when we are aware of
this point.
The real meaning of this is that it is not actually the case that the space of the observer
is flat and its curvature is zero, but rather that it is perceived by the observer to be the
case. The reason for this being so is that all instruments through which the observer
attempts to prove that his space is not flat will, due to the effect of the curvature of his
space on these instruments and their consequent distortion, make him fail in his task,
and thus result in the erroneous perception that he is living in a flat space.
In reality, if we ignore K in the relation curv = (K.D2)/S02 (or simply assume that
when D = 1, K = 1, something that according to the preceding argument is not
allowed, since we saw that D = 1 → K = 0, and hence the correct procedure is actually
to term it ignoring K), then for the magnitude of the curvature of space of the observer
(where D = 1, that is, for our space) we have:
−2
1 ⎛ c2 ⎞ 1
curv for D = 1 = 2 = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟
⎟ = = Λ0
S 0 ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ M u0
where Λ0 is the cosmological constant in standard space.
Using the relation D = c0/(2G0.t), where t in this relation is the age of the universe, we
note that when D = 1, t0 = c0/2G0 = 1/Ha0, where t0 and Ha0 are the present-day age of
the universe and the present-day Hubble’s constant respectively. The implication then
is that D = 1 corresponds to the present age of the universe.

According to D = c0/(2G0.t), as D > 1 corresponds to the past and D < 1 corresponds

to the future state of the universe, then it is clear that as D = 1 → K = 0, then D > 1 →
K = 1 and D < 1 → K = -1. That is, in general,
D > 1 → K = 1; D = 1 → K = 0; D < 1 → K = -1
But K = 1 corresponds to a closed space, K = 0 to a flat space and K = -1 to an open

space, which finally gives us the following results:
K = 1 → D > 1 → closed space
K = 0 → D = 1 → flat space
K = - 1 → D < 1 → open space
Since we have argued earlier that the curvature of the space of the universe is, due to
the effect of the second law of thermodynamics – and assuming that a negative
curvature corresponds to an ever-expanding universe - negative and so the value of
the parameter K for the past, present and future states of the universe must always
equal – 1, then the above relations regarding the relation of the parameter K with the
states of the universe must be regarded as observer-related relations which are purely
academic and bear no true relation with reality.

Density of the Universe:
For Vu0 we can write:

3
4 4 ⎛ c2 ⎞ π .c06
Vu 0 = π .Ru30 = π .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟ =
⎟
3 3 ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 6G03
Since ρu0 = Mu0/Vu0, then:

2
3G0 ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 2G0 ⎞
ρ0 = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2π .c0 ⎝ 8π .G0
2
⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠
But Ha = Ha0.D = (2G0/c0).D. When D = 1, Ha = Ha0 = 2G0/c0, thus:
3H a20
ρ0 =
8π .G0
which is equal to the currently accepted value for ρ0. As ρ0 corresponds with K = 0,
and since we have seen that ρ0 corresponds with D = 1, then:
D=1⇒ K=0
which is further proof that K = 0 space is the space of the observer. Furthermore, as
ρ = 3Ha2/(8π.G0) and as H = Ha0.D, then the implication is that ρ = ρ0.D2 ⇒ D2 =
ρ/ρ0. But Ω = ρ/ρ0, hence Ω = D2.
When ρ = ρ0, then Ω =1; but, by definition, when ρ = ρ0, D = 1; thus Ω0 = 1 when D
=1.
Considering that the values of K of 1, 0 and - 1 correspond to Ω > 1, Ω = 1 and Ω < 1,
respectively, then:
D>1⇒K=1
D=1⇒K=0
and D<1⇒K=-1
Furthermore, as D = c0/2G0.t, then we can conclude that: K = 1 corresponds to t < t0

(the past age of the universe); K = 0 corresponds to t = t0 (the present age of the
universe); and
K = -1 corresponds to t > t0 (the future of the universe).
Strictly speaking, as t = t0 could be any time, and since any observer who is born in
the universe regards his time as t0, the implication is that the description of the
behaviour of the system with the parameter K is a ‘self-time’-centered description,
which in a certain sense bears similarity with the pre-Copernican era, when the earth
was regarded as being the center of the universe.
In conclusion, current descriptions regarding the future behaviour of the universe

which are based on the K value seem to be insufficient, and there is therefore a clear

need for its replacement with a system independent of the parameter K. This is seen to
be particularly the case when it is considered that the solution of the problem
regarding the future behaviour of the universe is not separate from its behaviour in the
past and present, and that the continuous expansion of the universe is due to the effect
of the second law of thermodynamics, an intrinsic property of the universe’s system.
Arguments Concerning the Einstein-Friedmann Equation:
S& 2 K .c02 8π .G0 .ρ

Using the Einstein-Friedmann relation 2 + 2 = and dividing both sides
S S 3
by Ha02, gives:
S& 2 K .c02 8π .G0 .ρ
2 2
+ 2 2
=
S .H a 0 S .H a 0 3H a20
8π .G0 .ρ
But Ω = ρ/ρ0 = , thus:
3H a20
S& 2 K .c02 ρ
+ = =Ω
S .H a 0 S .H a 0 ρ 0
2 2 2 2
S& 2 H a2 S& 2
As Ha = S& / S , then 2 2
= 2 , but since Ha = Ha0.D, then 2 2 = D 2 . Thus,
S .H a 0 H a 0 S .H a 0
K .c02
D2 + =Ω
S 2 .H a20
Since we have seen that Ω = D2, then this implies that K = 0.
The important point regarding the above relation is that it is a general relation, and
this is because it is extracted from the Einstein-Friedmann equation, itself a general
relation.
As ρ = ρ0.D2 and ρ0 = 3G0/(2π.c02), then ρ = (3G0/2π.c02).D2. Substituting for ρ in

the Einstein-Friedmann relation gives:
S& 2 K .c02 4G02 .D 2

+ 2 =
S2 S c02
But H = Ha0.D = (2G0/c0).D, thus:

S& 2 K .c02
+ 2 = (H a 0 .D )
2
2
S S
Since S& 2 /S2 = Ha2 = (Ha0.D)2, then:

K .c02
=0
S2
with the important implication that the Einstein-Friedmann equation is confined to the
K = 0 solution. But K = 0 corresponds to D = 1 and, according to ρ = ρ0.D2, to ρ = ρ0,
which implies that the equation is valid only for the evaluation of ρ0.
Furthermore, using the relation derived above,
S& 2 K .c02
+ 2 = H a20 .D 2
S2 S
and substituting S = S0/D and rearranging gives:
S& 2 = Ha02.S02 - K.c02
As S0 = Ru0 = c02/2G0 and Ha0 = 2G0/c0, this gives:
S& 2 = c02 - K.c02
Thus, when K = 0 ⇒ S& = c 0 , when K = 1 ⇒ S& = 0 and when K = -1 ⇒ S& = c0 . 2 .
The solution for K = 1 cannot be accepted because it implies a static universe; in

similar manner, the solution for K = -1 is unacceptable since it implies a velocity
which exceeds c0 -something which is not allowed in relativity. The solution K = 0 is
acceptable, however, because its solution does not exceed the limit allowed. Since we
have seen that the solution for K = 0 is correct and that K = 0 corresponds to D = 1
space, then the velocity of the expansion of the universe equals c0. That is,
V0 expansion u = c0
(1) Evaluation of the Einstein-Friedmann Equation for Density:
S& 2 K .c02 8π .G0 .ρ S&

(a) Using the relation + = and substituting = H a = H a 0 .D
S2 S2 3 S
⎛ 2G ⎞ S& 2 K .c 2 8π .G0 .ρ
= ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D in the relation 2 + 2 0 = , where Ha is Hubble’s constant and
⎝ c0 ⎠ S S 3
c02
S= , and simplifying gives:
2G0 .D
3G0 .D 2 3G0 .K .D 2
ρ= +
2π .c02 2π .c02

3G0
Thus; If D = 1 and K = 1, ρ =
π .c02
If D =1 and K = - 1, ρ = 0
3G 0
If D = 1 and K = 0, ρ =
2π .c02
S& c
Note: Since H a = and Vexp = 0 = c , then if we consider that, according to
S D
Einstein,
c02
c = c0 = constant and that S = Ru = , then we can write:
2G0 .D
S& c0 ⎛ 2G0 ⎞
Ha = = = ⎜ ⎟⎟.D
S ⎛ c02 ⎞ ⎜⎝ c0 ⎠
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 .D ⎠
Since Ha in the above relation is derived on the basis of Einstein’s assumption that c =
⎛ 2G ⎞
c0 = constant, then H a = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D must be regarded as an Einsteinian relation. This
⎝ c0 ⎠
is the reason why we have used this relation in the evaluation of the Einstein-
S&
Friedmann equations. Note that in the evaluation of Ha, defined by H a = , if we use
S
c 2G
S& = 0 , then this yields Ha = 0
= constant, which must be regarded as the P-
D c0
Particle system’s value for Hubble’s constant.
M u M u 0 .D M u 0 .D 4 3G0 .D 4
(b) Considering that ρ u = = = = , then when D = 1,
Vu ⎛ Vu 0 ⎞ Vu 0 2π .c02
⎜ 3⎟
⎝D ⎠
3G0
ρ = ρu0 =
2π .c02
(c) We can obtain the same result by using the theoretical values for Mu at t = 1 and Vu at
t =1
⎛ c05 ⎞
⎜ 3⎟
M u at t =1 ⎜ 8G ⎟ 3c 02
ρ u at t =1 = = ⎝ 0 3⎠ =
Vu at t =1 ⎛ 4π .c0 ⎞ 32π .G03
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

⎛ 3c 02 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
ρ ⎜⎝ 32π .G0 ⎟⎠
3 4
c04 ⎛ c ⎞
⇒ = = = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = Dat4 t =1
ρ0 ⎛ 3G0 ⎞ 16G0 ⎝ 2G0 4
⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2π .c 2 ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠
i) The results from (b) and (c) both imply that ρ = ρ 0 .D 4 .

ii) The result from (a) implies that ρ = ρ 0 .D 2 + ρ 0 .K .D 2 . Since the result ρ = ρ 0 .D 4
can be regarded as correct – with its significance to be explained shortly – then, given
that it is only when K = 0 and D = 1 that the result from (a) agrees with that of
ρ = ρ 0 .D 4 , then the implication is that the Einstein-Friedmann equation for density is
valid only for the special case where K = 0 and D = 1; that is, only for the present-day
state of the universe and not for its past or future states.
(2) Evaluation of the Einstein-Friedmann Equation for Pressure:
(d) Using the relation:

2S&& S& 2 K .c02 8π .G0 .P
+ 2 + 2 =−
S S S c02
d
and substituting S&& = 0 (because S& = Vexp u = c0 = constant ⇒ S&& = Vexp u = 0 ),
dt
S& ⎛ 2G ⎞ c02
= H a = H a 0 .D = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D and S = and simplifying yields:
S ⎝ c0 ⎠ 2G0 .D
G0 .D 2 G0 .K .D 2
P=− −
2π 2π
G0
Thus: If D = 1 and K = 1 ⇒ P = −
π
If D = 1 and K = -1 ⇒ P = 0
G
If D = 1 and K = 0 ⇒ P = − 0
2π
(e) For Pu we can write:

⎛ c4 ⎞ ⎛ c4 ⎞
− ⎜⎜ 0 .D 2 ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ 0 .D 2 ⎟⎟
− Fexp u ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ G0 .D 4
Pu = = = =−
Au 4π .Ru
2
⎛ c02 ⎞
2
2π
4π ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 .D ⎠
G0
Thus, when D = 1, Pu = − .
2π
i) The result from (e) implies Pu = Pu0.D4.

⎛G ⎞
ii) From (d) we find that when K = 0, P = −⎜ 0 ⎟.D 2 = P0 .D 2 . Since we regard the
⎝ 2π ⎠
result obtained in (e) (to be discussed in section (5) later) to be correct, then as it is
only when D = 1 and K = 0 that the result from (d) concurs with that obtained by the
relation
Pu = Pu0.D4, then we can state that the Einstein-Friedmann equation for pressure
yields a valid answer only for the specific case where D = 1 and K = 0 – in other
words, for the present-day value of P only, and not for values of P belonging to the
past or future states of the universe.
(3) Evaluation of the Density of a Black Hole:
R 2G0 R.c02
(f) As = 2 ⇒M = , then:
M c0 2G0
⎛ R.c02 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
M 2G 3c02
= ⎝
0 ⎠
ρb = =
V ⎛ 4π .R 3 ⎞ 8π .G0 .R 2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
c0
But in a black hole, R = , hence:
D
3D 2
ρb =
8π .G0
If D = 1, then:
3
ρ b = ρ b0 =
8π .G0
Thus,
ρ b = ρ b 0 .D 2
S& 2 K .c02 8π .G0 .ρ S& 2 K .c02 ρ

Comparing this with 2 + 2 = , we find that 2 + 2 = b = D 2 .
S S 3 S S ρ b0
(4) Evaluation of the Pressure due to a Black Hole:
c02
(g) Since au 0 = −2G0 and as this is an acceleration for a length equal to Ru 0 = ,
2G0
then for a length equal to Rb0 = c0, the acceleration must be equal to
c .2G 4G 2
ab 0 = − 0 2 0 = − 0 . But, assuming that Fexp u is a real force, we can write:
⎛ c0 ⎞ c0
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2G ⎟
⎝ 0⎠
⎛ c4 ⎞ 2 ⎛ c4 ⎞
Fexp u = − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D = M u .au = (M u 0 .D ).au = ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟⎟.D.au
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ 4G0 ⎠

⇒ au = -2G0.D
As au takes the form of k.D, where k = au0, then for ab we can write ab = k’.D, where
k’ = ab0, so:
⎛ 4G 2 ⎞
ab = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D
⎝ c0 ⎠
Since Fexp = m.a, then:

⎛ c 3 ⎞ ⎛ 4G02 ⎞
Fexp b = M b .ab = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟.D = −2G0 .c02
⎝ 2G0 .D ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠
But this is only Fexp b on the condition that the D value of its space is equal to one. If
we consider that, in general, Fexp = F0exp.D2 and that D0max = c0/2G0, then:
2
⎛ c ⎞ c04
Fexp b ( 2
0 )
= − 2G0 .c .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = −
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0
F
Using P = , where P is pressure, gives:
A
⎛ c4 ⎞ ⎛ c4 ⎞
− ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
Fexp b ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ c02 .D 2
Pb = = = =− .
Ab 4π .Rb2 ⎛ c0 ⎞
2
8π .G0
4π .⎜ ⎟
⎝D⎠
If D = 1, then:
c02
Pb = Pb 0 = −
8π .G0
⇒ Pb = Pb 0 .D 2
1 8π .G
Furthermore, substituting =− 2 0 in the relation
Pb 0 c0
2S&& S& 2 K .c02 8π .G0 .P
+ 2 + 2 =− , gives:
S S S c02
2S&& S& 2 K .c02 P
+ 2 + 2 = b
S S S Pb 0
But Pb = Pb 0 .D 2 , thus:
2S&& S& 2 K .c02
+ 2 + 2 = D2
S S S

c04
Note: The relation Fexp b =− = constant obtained above can also be derived as
2G0
follows:
c 03
We know that F0exp = − Λ 0 .c 02 .r0 .m0 . If r = rb0 = c0 and m0 = Mb0 = , as
2G0
4G02
Λ0 = , then:
c04
F0exp = -2G0.c02
c 03
But this is the F0exp of a body with M = on the condition that the D value of its
2G0
surface equals D = 1. As the D value of the surface of this body is actually equal to
c0
D0max = and since, in general, Fexp = F0exp.D2, then:
2G0
2
⎛ c ⎞ c4
Fexp b = − 2G0 .c .⎜⎜ 0
2
0
⎟⎟ = − 0
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0
c 03
Since the relativistic mass of a black hole is equal to = constant, then we can
2G0
consider this relation to be a general one representing Fexp b for any black hole,
irrespective of the D value of space of the universe which it is located in.
Alternatively, we can argue that:
c03 c 03
Mb = = = c02 .t
2G0 .D ⎛ c ⎞
2G0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 .t ⎠
c 03
But we know that Mb relativistic = = constant, implying that Mb = c02.t is the non-
2G0
relativistic mass of a black hole. Therefore, given that Vb0 = 2G0, then:
Pb0 = Mb0.Vb0 = (c02.t).(2G0) = 2G0.c02.t
c 03
Since Mb relativistic = = constant, and hence Eb = constant, this allows us to state
2G0
that
Pb = Pb0, thus:

Fexp b = −
d
dt dt dt
( )
(Pb ) = − d (Pb 0 ) = − d 2G0 .c02 .t = −2G0 .c02
But Fexp b = -2G0.c02 is the Fexp of a black hole where its mass equals c02.t, which is
the non-relativistic mass of a black hole (non-relativistic because it does not have a
constant value), then Fexp = -2G0.c02 = F0exp. As, in general, Fexp = F0exp.D2 and since
D0max = c0/2G0, then Fexp b is given by:
2
⎛ c ⎞ c4
Fexp b = − 2G0 .c .⎜⎜ 0
2
0
⎟⎟ = − 0
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 2G0
Since Fexp represents the rate of change of mass of a body into energy, and as the
c 03
relativistic mass of a black hole is in fact given by Mb = = constant, then clearly
2G0
c04
in practice Fexp b = 0. Thus the relation Fexp b = − only has theoretical importance
2G0
as far as the body of the black hole itself is concerned. It does have important
implications for bodies approaching a black hole, however, because as the body
moves closer to the black hole, the rate of change of its mass into energy will
increase. In other words, if the black hole did not represent the mass maxima body,
that is, a body with constant mass, the whole of its mass would in a duration of only
one second, change into energy. The result showing that Fexp b must be equal for all
black holes regardless of the D value of the space they are in can be understood if we
take note that since the relativistic masses of all black holes are equal, then the
assignment of non-identical Fexp b values to the black holes, (that is if Fexp b ≠
constant) raises - on the assumption that a black hole was able to change its mass into
energy - the possibility of the creation of different amounts of energy in a period of
one second by black holes or by bodies in general (i.e. a total change of the mass of a
body into energy in a period of one second) with identical relativistic masses; which
implies a clear violation of the law of conservation of energy.
(5) Conclusion:
(i) From (f) and (g) we realize that the Einstein-Friedmann equations for ρ and P are
essentially evaluations of the ρ and P of a black hole and that for a black hole the
following relations hold according to them: ρ b = ρ b 0 .D 2 and Pb = Pb 0 .D 2 .
(ii) From (a) and (b) we find that the Einstein-Friedmann equation for ρ can be used
for the universe only on the condition that D = 1, and K = 0; meaning that this relation
yields a correct answer for ρ u 0 only.
(iii) Similarly, from (d) and (e) it is seen that the Einstein-Friedmann equation for P
can only be used to evaluate Pu when D = 1 and K = 0. Thus, this relation gives a
correct answer for Pu 0 only.
(iv) From (b), (c) and (e) we realize that valid relations for ρ and P are
ρ u = ρ u 0 .D 4 and Pu = Pu 0 .D 4 , respectively. These are distinct from the relations
ρ b = ρ b 0 .D 2 and Pb = Pb 0 .D 2 , the relations for the density and pressure of a black

hole respectively, derived in (f) and (g). The reason for the difference between the
relations for black holes and the universe is that in the case of the black hole, its
relativistic mass is constant during the entire course of its life - that is,
d
(M b relativistic ) = 0 - whereas the relativistic mass of the universe changes with time,
dt
dM u ⎛ c3 ⎞
the latter point being described by the relation = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D 2 . The fact that the
dt ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
Einstein-Friedmann equations can be used to evaluate ρ u 0 and Pu 0 only, means that
these relations have a very limited application in the case of the universe.
[N.B. According to the above argument we can write ρ neutrino = ρ 0 neutrino .D 4 .]
Inclusion of the Cosmological Constant, Λ, in the Einstein-Friedmann Equation:
The Einstein-Friedmann equation for ρ with the inclusion of the cosmological

constant takes the following form:
S& 2 K .c02 Λ 8π .G0 .ρ

+ 2 − =
S2 S 3 3
We have seen that:
S& 2 K .c02 8π .G0 .ρ

2
+ 2 = = H a20 .D 2 .
S S 3
which implies that the inclusion of the cosmological constant in this relation gives:
S& 2 K .c02 Λ
2
+ 2 − = H a20 .D 2
S S 3
S& 2 ⎛ c02 ⎞ Λ
But = H 2
a0 .D 2
, which implies that K .⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = .
S2 ⎝S ⎠ 3
Thus:
K = 0 ⇒ Λ = 0,
3c02
K=1⇒ Λ= 2
S
− 3c02
and K = -1 ⇒ Λ =
S2
It was seen earlier that only the solutions for K = 0 are acceptable in the Einstein-
Friedmann equations, whilst those for K = 1 and K = -1 must be discarded. However,
use of K = 0 in the above Einstein-Friedmann equation yields Λ = 0 . Now,

i) In general, since equations allow the inclusion of any term provided that the value
of the inclusion term is zero, then if we consider that the Einstein-Friedmann
equations have solutions only for the condition D = 1 & K = 0, the implication is that
for the condition
D = 1 & K = 0, the value of the inclusion term is zero, i.e. Λ = 0 . This is simply
because any other values for these conditions (other than the conditions D = 1 & K =
0), are incorrect. So we can write:
K=0 ⇒ Λ=0
ii) On the other hand, as the equations for the conditions K = 1 and K = -1 give
incorrect solutions, then – as in any other case where the inclusion of an additional
term can convert a previously incorrect equation into a valid one – one can argue that
inclusion of the cosmological constant into the equations allows the possibility of
obtaining solutions with K = 1 and K = -1. In other words, if solutions for the
conditions K = 1 and K = -1 are sought after, then one must include the additional
term in the equation with the requirement that its value is not zero. Thus, for K = 1
and K = -1, Λ ≠ 0 .
In conclusion, the correct procedure is to include the cosmological constant into the
equations, provided that: for D = 1 & K = 0, Λ = 0 ; and that for K = 1 & K = -1,
Λ ≠ 0.
Some Additional Notes:
dM u ⎛ c03 ⎞ 2
a) = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.D
dt ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
⎛ c4 ⎞ 2
b) Fexp u = − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
⎛ dM u ⎞
c) From (a) and (b) we find that: Fexp u = c0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
⎛ 4G 2 ⎞ 2 Λ
d) Λ = Λ 0 .D 2 = ⎜⎜ 40 ⎟⎟.D ⇒ D 2 =
⎝ c0 ⎠ Λ0
⎛ c4 ⎞ Λ ⎛ dM u ⎞
e) From (b), (c) and (d), Fexp u = − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. = c0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ Λ 0 ⎝ dt ⎠
f) Using (d) and (e) gives:
⎛ 2G ⎞ dM u ⎛ 2G ⎞ ⎛ 4G02 ⎞ dM u 1 ⎛ dM u ⎞
Λ = −⎜⎜ 3 0 ⎟⎟.Λ 0 . = −⎜⎜ 3 0 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟. =− .⎜ ⎟
⎝ c0 ⎠ dt ⎝ c0 ⎠ ⎝ c0 ⎠ dt Eu at t =1 ⎝ dt ⎠

c07 ⎛ c05 ⎞ 2
where Eu at t = 1 = = ⎜ ⎟.c0 = M u at t =1 .c02 , and where Mu at t = 1 is the total mass
8G03 ⎜⎝ 8G03 ⎟⎠
of the universe at the age of one second.
g) Since, according to the theory of relativity, G = G0 = constant, then as M = M0.D

⎛G ⎞
= M 0 .⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , this implies that Mu = constant. Thus, from (f), the implication is that in
⎝ G0 ⎠
relativity the relation Λ = 0 must hold, and confirming that in the Einstein-Friedmann
equations Λ = 0 . As, when Λ = 0 , D = 1 and K = 0, then on this basis it can be
generally stated that relativity has a solution for K = 0 only. At the same time, it
implies that this theory, on its own, is insufficient for the extraction of a correct value
⎛ c04 ⎞ c
for Λ . Furthermore, as Mu = ⎜⎜ ⎟.D and c = 0 , then:
2 ⎟
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ D
c04 ⎛ c0 ⎞ c05 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Mu = .⎜ ⎟ = .⎜ ⎟
4G02 ⎝ c ⎠ 4G02 ⎝ c ⎠
dM u c05 d ⎛ 1 ⎞
⇒ = . ⎜ ⎟
dt 4G02 dt ⎝ c ⎠
Using this in the relation for Λ obtained in (f) gives:
2G0 d ⎛ 1 ⎞
Λ=− . ⎜ ⎟
c02 dt ⎝ c ⎠
This indicates that the relations “ Λ = 0 , Mu = constant and c = c0 = constant” are all
interrelated.
Therefore:
c = c0 = constant ⇒ Mu = constant,
and equally, c = c0 = constant ⇒ Λ=0
which means that the origins of the constancy of mass of the universe and Λ = 0 in
the theory of relativity lie in the very cornerstone of this theory, namely the
assumption of the constancy of the velocity of light.
K .D 2 Λ 0 .S 02 .curv
h) As Λ = Λ 0 .D 2 and curv = , then Λ = . If Λ = 0 , then curv = 0;
S 02 K
but curv = 0 ⇒ K = 0, that is, a flat space. So, according to (g) we can state that:
c = c0 = constant ⇒ Mu = constant, Λ = 0 , curv = 0 & K = 0
where K = 0 ⇒ flat space

This emphasizes the point that c = c0 = constant provides solutions only for the case
when space assumes a flat state. Since flat space, represented by K = 0, corresponds to
D = 1, and given that D = 1 is the space of the observer, then it can be said that the
theory of relativity provides solutions for the space of the observer. Since the state of
the space of the observer represents the present-day state of the universe, then we can
conclude that the theory cannot be used for describing past or future states of the
universe. Furthermore, implicit in this is that it is all a consequence of the theory’s
assumption that c = c0 = constant; hence c = c0 belongs solely to the space of the
observer, that is, the present-day state of the universe only.
⎛ Λ 0 .S 02 ⎞
i) In addition, as Λ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.curv , then:
⎝ K ⎠
If K = 1 ⇒ Λ = Λ 0 .S 02 .curv
If K = -1 ⇒ Λ = − Λ 0 .S 02 .curv
2G0 d ⎛ 1 ⎞
But Λ = − . ⎜ ⎟ , implying that solutions for the conditions K = 1 and K = -1
c02 dt ⎝ c ⎠
are possible only when c ≠ constant, further reinforcing the abovementioned point.
2 c0 curv m0 .c03 curv

j) Etotal = m0.c0 .D and D = = S0 . , hence Etotal = = m0 .c02 .S 0 . .
c K c K
Since a change in the state of motion of a body – due to the effect of the change in the
kinetic energy of the body – causes a change in Etotal for that body, then the last
equation for Etotal implies:
(1) A change in the state of motion of a body causes a change in the value of
curv;
(2) Equally, it also causes a change in the value of c;
(3) From (1) and (2), the implication is that the state where c = c0 = constant
(which implies curv = curv0 = constant), must be identified as a state
where all the frames of reference are, with respect to each other, in a non-
accelerated state;
(4) But curv0 is the curvature of the present-day space of the universe;
(5) So, if c = c0 in all regions of the universe, then this means that all bodies
have uniform motion with respect to each other;
(6) Considering that curv = curvb represents the present-day state of the
universe, then as curv must undergo change if the universe is to expand or
c c K
collapse, and given that c = 0 = 0 , then the implication is that in
D S 0 curv
order to prove that c ≠ c0, the observer must somehow travel into the past
or future, whilst simultaneously retaining his presence in the present state
of the universe, in order to compare the results of his experiments
measuring the velocity of light. Since such a simultaneous presence in the
present and in the past or future is an impossible task, then clearly the

c0
relation c = must be regarded essentially as an ‘intellectual’ relation –
D
one which can never be verified ‘directly’.

Calculation of the Value ρ with the Inclusion of the Relation Mu = Mu0.D,

dM u c5
Leading to the Relation = − 30 2 :
dt 8G0 .t
Using the relation Mu = Mu0.D, if at a time tx in the past, D = Dx = c0/2G0, then:
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c04 ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞ c05
(M u ) X = M u 0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ 4G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 8G0
Ru 0 Ru 0 ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞
As Ru = , then (Ru ) X = = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = c0
D ⎛ c0 ⎞ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
4 4
Hence, (Vu ) X = π .(Ru ) X = π .c03 .
3
3 3
Therefore,
(M u ) X 3c 02
(ρ u ) X = =
(Vu ) X 32π .G03
3G0
Since ρ u 0 = , where ρu0 is the present density of the universe, if we assume that
2π .c02
c
(ρ u )X = ρ u 0 .D n , then as D = 0 :
2G0
n
⎛ c ⎞
(ρ u ) X = ρ u 0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ 2G0 ⎠
⎛ c0
⎜⎜
n
⎞ (ρ )
⎟⎟ = u X
⇒
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ρ u0
(ρ u ) X ⎛ 3c02 ⎞ ⎛ 3G0 ⎞ c04

But = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜
3 ⎟
⎟⎟ =
ρu0 ⎝ 32π .G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2π .c0
2
⎠ 16G0
4
n
⎛ c0 ⎞ c4
⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0 4
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 16G0
∴ n=4
Thus,
ρ u = ρ u 0 .D 4

A Theoretical Evaluation of the Upper Limit of the Inflationary

Radius of the Universe:
For an inflationary universe - that is, a universe which underwent a period of rapid
expansion after the big-bang - assuming that the D value of space after the big-bang has
a value close to one, then we can assume that au = 2G0 = au0, where au is the acceleration
of the universe. On this basis we can write:
S&& = R
&& = 2G
0
⇒ S& = R& = ∫ 2G0 .dt = 2G0 .t + k
But t0 = c0/2G0 and R& 0 = c 0 , where R& 0 = V0 exp , the velocity of the expansion of the
universe when D = 1. Hence,
c0 = 2G0 .c0/2G0 + k
⇒ k=0
Now, R = ∫ R& .dt = ∫ 2G0 .t.dt = G0 .t 2 + q .
c02 c
But Ru 0 = and t 0 = 0 , hence:
2G0 2G0
2
c02 ⎛ c ⎞
= G0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ + q
2G0 ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
c02 R
⇒ q= = u0
4G0 2
2
⎛ c ⎞ c2
Considering that G0 .t = G0 .⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 0
2
0 is the measure of the total non-
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ 4G0
inflationary expansion of the universe from t ≈ 0 up to the present time t0 = c0/2G0,
then the implication is that q is the initial radius of the universe, that is, the
instantaneous radius of the universe at t ≈ 0 , which we may call the radius of the
universe due to the initial inflation.
So, for the approximate (approximate because we have assumed au = 2G0 = au0)
future development of the radius of the universe we can write:
1 && 2
Ru = Ru 0 + V0 .t + Ru .t
2
c02
⇒ Ru = + c0 .t + G0 .t 2
2G0

where the starting point of t is taken as being at the present time.
Ru 0 R c2 ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎛ c2 ⎞
Since Ru = ⇒ D = u 0 , then if Ru = q = 0 ⇒ D = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 2 ,
D Ru 4G0 ⎝ 2G0 ⎠ ⎝ 4G0 ⎠
where D = 2 is the D value of the space of the universe at the end of its instantaneous
inflationary period, that is at t ~ 0.
Non-theoretical Evaluation of the Radius of the Universe

at the End of the Inflationary Period:
Star clusters in galaxies allow us to date galaxies. The oldest clusters are globular
clusters aged around 14 billion years old (± 2 billion years). Since we consider black
holes to be primordial entities, if we assume that immediately after the inflationary
period galaxies, via a process of accumulation of the early matter of the universe
around the black hole, began to take shape, then as D = c0/(2G0.t), if t is the age of the
oldest galaxy (14 x 109 years = 4.41797 x 1017 seconds), for the D value of the
universe at the time when the inflationary period had just ended, we can write:
c0
D= = 5.085
(2G0 ) x (4.41797 x1017 )
Thus,
Ru 0 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ c02 ⎞
Ru = =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎟
D ⎝ 5.085 ⎠⎜⎝ 2G0 ⎠
where Ru is the radius of the universe as a result of the period of inflation. Therefore
the radius of the universe at t ~ 0 was approximately Ru0/5.

Dark Matter:
Stars are the centers of creation of neutrinos. Those neutrinos whose escape velocity
G .M
is less than V 2 = 0 , where M is the mass of the galaxy, cannot leave the galaxy
r
and thus remain within it, causing the density of neutrinos inside galaxies to be higher
than that outside the galaxies. In theory the condition for a body to be stable in its
orbit is for the centrifugal force to be equal to the gravitational force, that is:
⎛m⎞ ⎛m⎞
V 2 .⎜ ⎟ = G0 .M .⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝r⎠ ⎝r ⎠
⎛M ⎞
⇒ V 2 = G0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
As this relation is non-relativistic, then it can be said that in the above relation V = V0,
M = M0 and r = r0. Since, in general, V = V0/D then:
V02 G0 .M 0
V = 2 =
2
D r0 .D 2
ρ neutrino
Introducing the relation D 4 = into this gives:
ρ 0 neutrino
G0 .M 0 ρ 0 neutrino
V2 = .
r0 ρ neutrino
From this it is seen that the effect of a reduction in the density of the neutrinos of
space is to lead to an increase in the velocity of the bodies in that space. This is, as
shown in the former relation, due to the change in the D value of space, and so can be
regarded as a relativistic effect which, like all other relativistic effects is, in the final
analysis, due to the effect of the law of conservation of energy in the system.
According to the above argument, the density of the neutrinos inside galaxies is
higher than that outside the galaxies. On this basis we can say that the velocity of
bodies which are on the borders and outside of galaxies must be higher than their
expected Newtonian values. Experimentally, there is evidence now to support the
view that the velocity distribution of matter on the outer portion of galaxies remains
flat, i.e. V remains constant, whereas the change in stellar luminosity from the center
is exponential in fashion. This means that around galaxies, the velocity of rotation of
the body exceeds the expected Newtonian value, and it is this phenomenon which
results in the creation of the flat rotation curve. This phenomenon can again,
according to the above general relativistic relation for V, be explained simply by
assuming that at the borders of galaxies the density of neutrinos continually decreases
with increasing distance from the galaxy’s center. This implies that most of the
moving neutrinos created in galaxies do not actually reach the border of their own
galaxy. The lower density of neutrinos in these border regions causes, as is shown in
the above relation, an increase in the velocity of the bodies in these regions. This
appears to be in agreement with the logical expectation that as one moves away from

the border regions of a galaxy, one must find that the density of matter, and so
neutrinos, decreases.
The problem of dark matter in the clusters of galaxies can, in the same way as that of
the dark matter in the borders of the galaxies, be solved by applying the above
relativistic relation to the velocities of bodies in the cluster of galaxies.
Note (i): The above argument implies that the density of neutrinos in between the
galaxies is less than the density of these particles within the confines of each galaxy.
1
⎛ ρ ⎞4 G
Note (ii): Considering that in the universe, ⎜⎜ neutrino ⎟⎟ = , then since the
⎝ ρ neutrino .0 ⎠ G0
implication of the above argument is that the value of G inside the galaxies is higher
than the value of G outside the galaxies, one can equally argue that the problem of
dark matter stems from the wrong assumption that the gravitational constant, G0, is
the same throughout the universe, and that it has an identical value both within and
outside of the galaxies. This latter point can also be demonstrated by the simple
relation below:
G0
G = G0 .D = 1
⎛ 2G0 .M ⎞2
⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ c0 .R ⎠
to not be true because according to this, a reduction in the radius, R, of a body leads to
an increase in the value of the G of its space. This implies that the value of G inside a
galaxy is higher than that outside it, simply because theoretically each galaxy can be
assumed to be the product of the contraction of some previously uniformly distributed
ideal matter in the universe. In other words, a galaxy can be regarded as a region with
⎛ D2 ⎞
a contracted R or more accurately, since G = G0.D and curv = K .⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⇒
⎝ S0 ⎠
1
⎛ curv .S 02 ⎞ 2
G = G0 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and as we know that the curvature of space inside a galaxy is
⎝ K ⎠
higher than that outside it, then the value of G inside a galaxy must be higher than that
outside the galaxy. Furthermore, since, in general,
⎛ curv .S 0 ⎞
2 4
ρ neutrino = ρ 0 neutrino .D 4 = ρ 0 neutrino .⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ in the universe, then the implication is
⎝ K ⎠
that not only the value of G, but also the density of neutrinos themselves inside a
galaxy is greater than that outside it.

The Thermodynamics Laws for a Black Hole According to Current

Theories:
(1) The zeroth law: “In a stationary situation or equilibrium, the surface gravity K of
a black hole over the event horizon remains constant”.
R 2G0 2G0 .M
Now, according to Schwartzchild, = 2 ⇒ R= . But A = 4π.R2, so:
M c0 c02
⎛ 4G 2 .M 2 ⎞
A = 4π .⎜⎜ 0 4 ⎟⎟
⎝ c0 ⎠
c04
where A is the surface area of a black hole. As K = , where K is surface
4G0 .M
gravity, then the above relation for A can be written as:
⎛M ⎞ ⎛M ⎞
A = 4πG0 .⎜ ⎟ or K = 4πG0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝K⎠ ⎝ A⎠
G0 .M
⇒ K=
R2
R 2G0 c02 c
but = 2 , thus K = , but R = 0 , hence:
M c0 2R DS
c 0 .D S
⇒ K=
2
Since the value of Ds tends to zero in an expanding universe, then the implication
from this result is that the surface gravity of an isolated black hole will, due to the
effect of the expansion of the universe, continue to decrease, which does not agree
with the zeroth law.
(2) The first law of thermodynamics for a black hole states that: “In transformation
from one state to a nearby state the energy of the system changes by
c2 δA
δE = 0 .K . + W , where A is the surface area of the horizon and W is the total of
G0 8π
any work done in changing the rotation of the black hole, and any work done on any
matter that may be outside the black hole.”
c05
Considering that Eb = = constant, where Eb is the total energy of a black hole,
2G0
then a black hole cannot assume changes in the state of its energy, which means that
the first law does not apply to black holes.
(3) According to second law: “During any process in an isolated system, the total
area of all horizons is non-decreasing”.

In order to understand the implication of this law we note that:

c
R= 0
DS
⎛ c02 ⎞ 1
So A = 4π .R = 4π .⎜⎜ 2
2
⎟⎟ . But D = 1
, so Ab becomes:
⎝ DS ⎠ ⎛ V ⎞ 2 2
⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ c0 ⎠
⎛ V2 ⎞
Ab = 4π .c02 ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ c0 ⎠
As A0b = 4π .c02 , then:

⎛ V2 ⎞
Ab = A0b .⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ c0 ⎠
Ab V2
or = 1 − 2 , which shows that the greater the velocity of a black hole, the smaller
A0b c0
c05
is its area. But we know that Eb = = constant, which implies that the energy of a
2G0
black hole does not have any relation to its area - a relation whose existence is
essential if the above second law is to be acceptable. This is because in an isolated
system, black holes can accelerate and move towards each other. This results in a
reduction in the surface area of each and every one of them in accordance with the
2⎛ V2 ⎞
⎜
relation Ab = 4π .c0 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ , without any change in the value of the energy of any one
⎝ c0 ⎠
of them or the whole of the isolated system. In other words, without violating the
condition of the system being isolated, interaction between black holes leads to a
reduction in the total area of all the horizons, something which is not in concordance
with the second law.
(4) The third law states that “It is impossible by any finite sequence of steps to bring
the surface gravity to the value zero”.
c2
We saw earlier that K = 0 . Squaring both sides and rearranging gives:
2R
π .c04
K2 =
4π .R 2
π .c04
⇒ K2 =
A
π .c04
∴ A=
K2

According to this relation, when K = 0, A → ∞; but A = 4π .R 2 , implying that Rb must

c2
also tend to infinity. However, Ru 0 = 0 , where Ru0 is the present radius of the
2G0
universe, meaning that the radius of the universe has a limited value. K = 0 implies the
creation of a black hole whose radius exceeds that of the universe; since the velocity
of the expansion of the universe is c0 and since c0 is the upper limit for velocity (in
other words, the radius of a black hole can never ‘catch up’ with the radius of the
universe), then it is clear that it is impossible to bring the surface gravity down to the
value zero, which is in agreement with the third law.
c 0 .D S M
Alternatively, since K = and DS = u , then:
2 M u0
c0 .M u ⎛ 2G02 ⎞
K= =⎜ ⎟⎟.M u .
2M u 0 ⎜⎝ c03 ⎠
When K = 0, then Mu = 0. But Mu = 0 implies a universe without matter, a condition

which is impossible. This means that K can never equal 0, i.e. the relation K > 0
always holds.

The Universe of the Observer:
The D value of space of an observer according to that observer is equal to one. The
1
reason for this being so is that, in general, D = 1
, where as an observer
⎛ V ⎞ 2 2
⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ c0 ⎠
regards his own velocity with respect to his own space to be zero, then in this relation
V = 0 ⇒ D = 1. We have defined D = 1 space as being the standard space and clearly
the essential element in this definition is that the observer must be static with respect
to his own space.
Considering that Ru = Ru0/D, then since the value of D for the observer is a constant
value always equal to one, then the radius of the universe according to that observer is
c2
always equal to Ru 0 = 0 = constant. This means that if the observer could
2G0
‘directly’ measure the radius of his universe, he would, in spite of the expansion of his
c2
universe, always find it to be the same and equal to 0 . This is essentially because
2G0
the observer’s units of measurement are all part of his universe, with all of them
assuming simultaneous and proportional changes with the universe itself. It is on this
basis that all the values given below (and many more besides) which in fact seem to
constitute all of the ‘constant’ values - except for that of h, Planck’s constant, whose
constancy leads to the conservation of the output of energy of the P-Particle, and Ha
2G
= 0 = H a 0 - assume constant values for the observer in this space, in spite of their
c0
actual change in time. This means that the observer does not identify any change in
them, during the entire course of the life of his space (which is actually limited, whilst
according to him is infinite) provided that he measures them through ‘direct
procedures’ (and not indirect methods, such as through theoretical inference). The
c02
constant values are all those values that have the subscript zero, e.g. Ru 0 = ,
2G0
c04 3G0 G
M u0 = , ρu0 = , Pu 0 = − 0 and others.
4G0 2
2π .c0
2
2π
Of special interest is the identity of D = 1 space with a flat space. The reason
for this being so is that, once again, despite the fact that the D = 1 space (the space of
the observer) is curved, because all of the instruments for the verification or otherwise
of this also become curved in proportion to that space, then the D = 1 space appears
and behaves as a flat space according to the observer.

Some Additional Relations:
c0
As M u = M u 0 .D and as D = , then:
2G0 .t
⎛ c4 ⎞ ⎛ c0 ⎞ c5
M u = ⎜⎜ 0 2 ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 03
⎝ 4G0 ⎠ ⎝ 2G0 .t ⎠ 8G0 .t
Hence:
dM u c05
=− 3 2
dt 8G0 .t
dM u 1
∴ ÷ Mu = −
dt t
1 2G0 .D
As = , then:
t c0
⎛ dM u ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ = −⎛⎜ 2G0 ⎞
⎟⎟.D
Mu ⎜ c
⎝ 0 ⎠
dM u ⎛ 2G ⎞
⇒ = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.M u .D
dt ⎝ c0 ⎠
⎛ c04 ⎞
But M u = M u 0 .D = ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟.D , hence:
⎝ 4G0 ⎠
dM u ⎛ c03 ⎞ 2
= − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.D = − M b 0 .D 2
dt ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
c0 dD c0 c0
But D = ⇒ =− 2
. As t = , then:
2G0 .t dt 2G0 .t 2G0 .D
dD ⎛ 2G ⎞
= −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.D 2
dt ⎝ c0 ⎠
So,
⎛ c ⎞ dD
D 2 = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ dt
dM u
Substituting for D2 in the relation for gives:
dt

dM u ⎛ c04 ⎞ dD
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟.
dt ⎝ 4G0 ⎠ dt
⎛ c04 ⎞
But we know that uM = M u0 .D = ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟.D , differentiating both sides with respect to
⎝ 4G0 ⎠
t gives:
dM u ⎛ c04 ⎞ dD
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟.
dt ⎝ 4G0 ⎠ dt
dM u ⎛ c04 ⎞ dD
Meaning that the two sides of the equation = ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟. are equal, thus
dt ⎝ 4G0 ⎠ dt
confirming that the calculation is correct.

Entropy of the Universe:
Due to the effect of the continuous expansion of the universe, there is a constant
change of some of its mass into energy. This energy is an unusable energy, however,
because if it were to do some work, its state would then change from that of an energy
state to a mass state. Mass, in contrast to energy, has a gravitational field. The
consequence of this is that if these energies start to change into the mass state, then
the total gravitational field of the universe will increase. As Gg = G0g.D, where Gg is
the gravitational field, then an increase in Gg means an increase in the D value of
space. Since Ru = Ru0/D, this leads to a reduction in the radius of the universe. Thus, if
these energies are converted into mass, that is, if they do work, and so become a
usable form of energy, then the universe starts to collapse. Since we know that the
universe is expanding and that it will expand forever, then we infer that these energies
do not actually do any work and so are unusable energies. The reason for them not
being able to do work is that they are originally in the form of extremely weak
gravitational waves. Constructive interference of these waves results in the creation of
background radiation, which has the lowest temperature in the universe. In other
words all the matter of the universe constantly emits a very weak gravitational wave,
where the energy of each single wave is far less than the energy of the quantum of
energy, h. We know this because matter is made up of PP1’s, where the total energy
of a PP1 is equal to h. This means that the gravitational waves created by a PP1 must
be less than h. If this were otherwise, i.e. if the gravitational energy emitted by each
PP1 was equal to h joules for example, then since all the PP1’s of the universe are
continuously emitting gravitational waves (which is equivalent to stating that all
matter in the universe is constantly emitting gravitational waves), the entire mass of
the universe would in an instant have to change into energy, with no trace left of any
mass having been in it. This implies that the D value would have become zero. As a
result of this, according to Vexp = c0/D, the universe would expand in an instant with a
velocity close to infinity and, according to Ru = Ru0/D, would have Ru → ∞. Note that
this argument clearly implies that h is the quantum of electromagnetic energy, i.e. the
lowest value for electromagnetic energy, but not necessarily the lowest possible value
of energy as a whole, since, as was seen, the energy of a single microscopic
gravitational wave is far below h. The reason why the electromagnetic wave has a
quantum nature is due to the effect of the PP reaction, which cannot be induced by
energies less than h joules. The gravitational waves referred to above, on the other
hand, are not in the form of quanta of energy, since alone these waves are unable to
induce PP reactions in the neutrinos (because the threshold energy for each PP
reaction in a neutrino is equal to h joules). It is possible, however, by means of
constructive interference of these gravitational waves, to induce the PP reaction. The
net effect of this constructive interference is to allow a change in the gravitational
energy of these waves into the form of weak electromagnetic energy, hence the
creation of microwave background radiation from these microscopic gravitational
waves. (These extremely weak gravitational waves cannot be detected directly,
because the lowest energy sufficient for triggering an interaction with matter is h joule
seconds. But, as these waves interfere with each other, and when the energy of their
constructive interference happens to reach the threshold h from time to time, a PP
reaction is created in a neutrino which happens to be at that point at that time - a PP
reaction in neutrinos meaning the creation of a quantum of light, a photon, which is
transmitted through other neutrinos and which propagates itself at the velocity of
light. This means that when the interference at some point in space happens to be

constructive and results in sufficient energy (at least h joules) then, through the
participation of a neutrino, a quantum of electromagnetic energy is created, where the
total sum of these quanta in general constitutes an unusable energy (‘unusable’
because their energy is still very low) known as the microwave background radiation.
Due to the continuous expansion of the universe, more and more of this unusable
energy is created. If we consider that the universe is a closed system, because its total
mass-energy is constant, then since entropy is a measure of the unavailability of
energy in a system to do work, and as in a closed system an increase in entropy is
accompanied by a decrease in energy availability, the entropy of the universe can be
related to the measure of conversion of its mass into energy. But we have seen that all
dM c 3 .D 2
of this energy is unusable energy, which means that the relation =− 0 must
dt 2G0
be regarded as one which has close links with entropy.
dM u c 3 .D 2 2G ⎛ dM u ⎞ s
As =− 0 , then D 2 = − 3 0 .⎜ ⎟ . Given that su = u 0 , where su is the
dt 2G0 c0 ⎝ dt ⎠ D
entropy of the universe and su0 is the entropy of the universe when D = 1, then:
su20
su2 =
D2
⎛ c3 ⎞
su20 .⎜⎜ − 0 ⎟⎟
⇒ su2 = ⎝ 2G0 ⎠
dM u
dt
− c03 .su20
⇒ su2 =
⎛ dM u ⎞
2G0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
⎛ c ⎞ dD
Alternatively, as D 2 = −⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟. , then:
⎝ 2G0 ⎠ dt
su20 2G0 .su20

su2 = = −
D2 ⎛ dD ⎞
c0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
su 0 c
Also, as su = and D = 0 , then:
D 2G0 .t
⎛ 2G ⎞
su = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟.su 0 .t
⎝ c0 ⎠

4G02
Where t is the age of the universe. Considering that Λ 0 = 4 , where Λ 0 is the
c0
cosmological constant of standard space, then:
s u2 = Λ 0 .s u20 .c 02 .t 2
Further Relations:
su 0
Since we have related entropy with the expansion of the universe, then as su = ⇒
D
su 0 R
D= . But D = u 0 , thus:
su Ru
su 0 Ru 0
=
su Ru
su 0 .Ru s .R ⎛ 2G ⎞
⇒ su = = u 0 2 u = ⎜⎜ 2 0 ⎟⎟.su 0 .Ru
Ru 0 ⎛ c0 ⎞ ⎝ c0 ⎠
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2G
⎝ 0⎠
4G02
As Λ 0 = , then:
c04
s u2 = Λ 0 .s u20 .Ru2
2G0 .su20
We have seen that su2 = − ; combining this with the relation just derived
⎛ dD ⎞
c0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
gives:
2G0 .su20
Λ 0 .su20 .Ru2 = −
⎛ dD ⎞
c0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
2G0
⇒ Ru2 = −
⎛ dD ⎞
c0 .Λ 0 .⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
4G02
But Λ 0 = 4 :
c0

c03 M b0
⇒ R =−
2
u =−
⎛ dD ⎞ ⎛ dD ⎞
2G0 .⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
M b0 dD
⇒ 2
=−
Ru dt
dD
Since has a negative sign (meaning that the D value of space is constantly
dt
decreasing) and as Mb0 is a constant, then we can infer that the radius of the universe
must continually increase.

Evaluation of su0:
If a closed system expands adiabetically under constant pressure with energy

4
E = ε 0 .V , where ε is energy density, and a volume of V = π .R 3 , then the second
3
law of thermodynamics defines the change in the entropy of particles in equilibrium at
temperature T by the equation:
1
ds =
k .T (dε 0 .V + P.dV )
where k is Boltzmann’s constant. By integrating both sides of the equation and

remembering that ε 0 = ρ .c 02 , we find that the entropy can be defined by:
.(ρ .c 02 + P )
V
s=
k .T
If V = Vu0, ρ = ρu0, P = Pu0, and T = 2.73 Kelvin (the present value of temperature of
the microwave background radiation), then s = su0. Hence,
⎛ ⎛ c02 ⎞ ⎞⎟
3
⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 4 ⎜⎝ 2G0 ⎟⎠ ⎟ ⎡⎛ 3G ⎞ 2 ⎛ G0 ⎞⎤
su 0 = ⎜ π. ⎟.⎢⎜⎜ 0
⎟.c0 − ⎜
⎟ ⎟⎥
⎜3 k .2.73 ⎟ ⎣⎢⎝ 2π .c02 ⎠ ⎝ 2π ⎠⎦⎥
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
6
c0
⇒ su 0 =
6 × 2.73.k .G02

Dimensional Analysis:
c0 m.s −1 kg
As D = , then the dimensions of D are given by 3 −1 − 2 = 2 . However,
2G0 .t m .kg .s .s m
when observing the role of D in many relations such as G = G0.D ⇒ D = G/G0 or
ε
ε = ε0.D ⇒ D = and so on, it becomes clear that the dimensions of D must in fact
ε0
kg
be zero - i.e. D is dimensionless. Since the dimensions of D given above are 2 , then
m
in order for D to become dimensionless the following must hold:
kg
=1
m2
i.e. kg = m2. Thus, in writing the dimensions for different physical values, ‘kg’ can be
cancelled with ‘m2’. If this procedure is pursued, the following results can be
obtained:
(a) For the dimensions of the mass of the universe we can write:
M u0
c4
= 02 ⇒
(m.s )−1 4
=
kg 2
4G0 (m .kg
3 −1
.s − 2 )
2
m2
Since dimensionally kg = m2, then for the dimensions of Mu0:
kg 2 c04
= kg ⇒ M u0 = kg
m2 4G02
c02 m 2 .s −2 kg
(b) Ru 0 = ⇒ 3 −1 − 2
=
2G0 m .kg .s m
As kg = m2, then kg/m = m2/m = m, then the radius of the universe is c02/2G0 meters.
m 3 .kg −1 .s −2 m2
(c) Ha0 = 2G0/c0 ⇒ −1
= , but m2 = kg, so:
m.s kg.s
2G0 -1
H a0 = s
c0
The importance of this particular dimension becomes clear when we note that the age
of the universe is given by t = 1/Ha0, whose dimensions must be seconds. Clearly
these dimensions can be reached if, dimensionally speaking, kg = m2.
(d) S&&u 0 = 2G0 , where S&&u 0 is the acceleration of the universe when D = 1. This is
dimensionally m3.kg-1.s-2 ⇒ m3.m−2.s−2 = m.s−2

(e) The velocity of the expansion of the universe is given by: Vexp. = c0/D ⇒ m.s-1/1,
because D itself is dimensionless, and thus the dimensions of the velocity of the
expansion of the universe become the expected m.s-1.
The importance of understanding the dimensional relation Kg = m2 becomes apparent

m
if we note that for the relation L0e = 0e - where L0e is the total uncoiled length of
2G0
the PP1’s which constitute the PP1 chain that makes up the body of an electron and
m0e is the mass of an electron, both for standard space - the dimensions can be written
as:
kg kg 2 m4
3 −1 − 2
= 3 −2
= 3 −2
= m.s2
m .kg .s m .s m .s
m0 e
We can therefore write L0 e = = 6.8260 × 10 − 21 m.s 2 . If it is considered that the
2G0
dimensions of the quantum of energy, h, Planck’s constant, are the joule second, then
the indication is that one can assume that the number 6.8260 × 10 −21 , which is the total
length of the chain of PP1’s that constitute the body of an electron, is in fact the
“quantum of length for matter”, when D = 1. Furthermore, since this chain is made of
NPP1 in e = M0e/M0PP1 = M0e/(h/c02) = (M0e.c02)/h number of PP1’s, then it can be
said that “the quantum of length is made up of (M0e.c02)/h number of PP1’s”. From
this we reach an implication of extreme importance which is that all particles in
existence must be made of this quantum of length, which we shall denote by <L>. In
other words, for the structure of any particle in nature we can now write x = n.<L>,
where x is a general particle and n is the total number of PP1 chains constituting that
particle.
We know that by using a single chain of length <L>, one is able to construct an
electron, which is in the form of a coil of length <L>. [Note: As we will see, each
electron and positron is made up of a single coiled chain of PP1’s whose uncoiled
length is <L>; the distinction between the two particles lies only in the direction of
winding of their coil, where in one the coiling is in a clockwise fashion and in the
other it is in an anti-clockwise fashion. This results in two separate structures whose
sole difference lies in the manifestation of their charge – hence the identity of the
electron and positron in all respects except for the sign of their charge. Note that the
immediate implication of this argument is that the reason the electron and positron are
always created in pairs must be, besides maintaining the conservation of charge, also
be due to the conservation of angular momentum.] The final conclusion reached,
therefore, is that excluding P-Particles (i.e. neutrinos), the smallest particles in nature
must be the electron and positron. These are both made up of a quantum of length
<L>. Most significant of all, we can say that all particles other than the electron and
positron, must be made up of n1 number of electrons and n2 numbers of positrons.
This is because of the fact that “all particles have to be made up from the quantum of
length”. Thus, for the internal structure of a general particle x we can write:
x = n1 + n2 + w

where n1 and n2 represent the number of electrons and positrons respectively, and w
represents its weak field structure which, as we saw earlier, is made of the non-
quantum form of the PP1 chain.

P-Particle Theory: A Neutrino-Based TOE

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www.foundationphysics.

The gravitational luminosity of bodies due to the expansion of the 8

Gravitational luminosity of an accelerated black hole 11

The gravitational wave in a black hole 12

Conditions for the creation of gravitational waves 19

The D value of a general point P in a space at a distance equal to r 20

Interaction of two black holes 22

Constancy of the relativistic mass of black holes 24

Interaction of bodies with a black hole 26

Nature of the gravitational waves 27

The magnitude of the gravitational wave in neutron decay 29

Kinetic energy and the momentum of black holes 31

Extraction of the relation Dmax = D0 max.Ds 33

c as an upper limit for velocity 34

The mass of a body 40

The quantum form of the Schwartzchild relation 42

Evaluation of L0pp1 - the length of the PP1 in standard space 44

Evaluation of L0e – the unwound length of an electron 44

The impossibility of time travel 57

Conservation of the output of energy 59

Starting point of the conservation law for the output of a PP1 62

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The inflation of the universe as an inevitable event and its cause 64

The value of D in a singularity 67

A relation for the value of D at the surface of a black hole 69

Discussion about the Einstein field equations 70

The velocity of expansion of a black hole 73

Theoretical density of matter inside a black hole 74

Dmax and its implications 76

Evaluation of surface gravity, K 78

The internal structure of a black hole 79

Density of the universe 83

Arguments concerning the Einstein-Friedmann equation 84

Inclusion of the cosmological constant, Λ, in the Einstein-Friedmann 92

Calculation of the value ρ with the inclusion of the relation Mu = Mu0.D 97

A theoretical evaluation of the upper limit of the inflationary radius 98

Non-theoretical evaluation of the radius of the universe at the end of the 99

Dark matter 100

The universe of the observer 105

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Entropy of the universe 108

Further relations 110

Evaluation of su0 112

Dimensional analysis 113

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c02 .c02 c04

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The Gravitational Luminosity of Bodies due to the Expansion of the Universe:

As Ek = m0.c02.(D - 1), where Ek is kinetic energy, then:

Since D = m/m0, then equating these two relations for D gives:

We have seen that D = c0/(2G0.t) = 1/(Ha0.t), hence:

But t = 1/(Ha0.D). Substituting for t gives:

As L = dE/dt = m0.c02.(dD/dt), then:

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Since L = m0.c02.(dD/dt) and dD/dt = - c0/(2G0.t2), then:

which proves the point.

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where Lb is the gravitational luminosity of a black hole due to acceleration.

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Gravitational Luminosity of an Accelerated Black Hole: