Packet switching

Packet switching refers to protocols in which messages are broken up

into small packets before they are sent. Each packet is transmitted
individually across the net and may even follow different routes to the
destination. Thus, each packet has header information about the source,
destination, packet numbering etc. At the destination, the packets are
reassembled into the original message.

Refers to protocols in which messages are divided into packets before

they are sent. Each packet is then transmitted individually and can even
follow different routes to its destination. Once all the packets forming a
message arrive at the destination, they are recompiled into the original
message.

There are two important benefits from packet switching.

1. The first and most important benefit is that since packets are short,
the communication links between the nodes are only allocated to
transferring a single message for a short period of time while transmitting
each packet. Longer messages require a series of packets to be sent, but
do not require the link to be dedicated between the transmission of each
packet. The implication is that packets belonging to other messages may
be sent between the packets of the message being sent from A to D. This
provides a much fairer sharing of the resources of each of the links.
2. Another benefit of packet switching is known as "pipelining". Pipelining
is visible in the figure above. At the time packet 1 is sent from B to C,
packet 2 is sent from A to B; packet 1 is sent from C to D while packet 2
is sent from B to C and packet 3 is sent from A to B and so forth. This
simultaneous use of communications links represents a gain in efficiency.
The total delay for transmission across a packet network may be
considerably less than for message switching, despite the inclusion of a
header in each packet rather than in each message.

Buffers

a buffer is a region of memory used to temporarily hold data while it is

being moved from one place to another. Typically, the data is stored in a
buffer as it is retrieved from an input device (such as a Mouse) or just
before it is sent to an output device (such as Speakers). However, a
buffer may be used when moving data between processes within a
computer. This is comparable to buffers in telecommunication. Buffers
can be implemented in either hardware or software, but the vast majority
of buffers are implemented in software. Buffers are typically used when
there is a difference between the rate at which data is received and the
rate at which it can be processed, or in the case that these rates are
variable, for example in a printer spooler or in online video streaming.

A buffer often adjusts timing by implementing a queue (or FIFO)

algorithm in memory, simultaneously writing data into the queue at one
rate and reading it at another rate.

Buffers are often used in conjunction with I/O to hardware, such as disk
drives, sending or receiving data to or from a network, or playing sound
on a speaker. A line to a rollercoaster in an amusement park shares many
similarities. People who ride the coaster come in at an unknown and
often variable pace, but the roller coaster will be able to load people in
bursts (as a coaster arrives and is loaded). The queue area acts as a
buffer: a temporary space where those wishing to ride wait until the ride
is available. Buffers are usually used in a FIFO (first in, first out)
method, outputting data in the order it arrived.

A temporary storage area, usually in RAM. The purpose of most buffers

is to act as a holding area, enabling the CPU to manipulate data before
transferring it to a device.

Because the processes of reading and writing data to a disk are relatively
slow, many programs keep track of data changes in a buffer and then
copy the buffer to a disk. For example, word processors employ a buffer
to keep track of changes to files. Then when you save the file, the word
processor updates the disk file with the contents of the buffer. This is
much more efficient than accessing the file on the disk each time you
make a change to the file.

Note that because your changes are initially stored in a buffer, not on the
disk, all of them will be lost if the computer fails during an editing
session. For this reason, it is a good idea to save your file periodically.
Most word processors automatically save files at regular intervals.

Buffers are commonly used when burning data onto a compact disc,
where the data is transferred to the buffer before being written to the
disc.

Routers
A router is a device that forwards data packets across computer
networks. Routers perform the data "traffic directing" functions on the
Internet. A router is connected to two or more data lines from different
networks. When data comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the
address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination.
Then, using information in its routing table, it directs the packet to the
next network on its journey or drops the packet. A data packet is
typically passed from router to router through the networks of the
Internet until it gets to its destination computer unless the source IP is on
a private network

When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers

exchange information about destination addresses, using a dynamic
routing protocol. Each router builds up a table listing the preferred
routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A
router has interfaces for different physical types of network connections,
(such as copper cables, fiber optic, or wireless transmission). It also
contains firmware for different networking protocol standards. Each
network interface uses this specialized computer software to enable data
packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission system to
another.

Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of

computer devices known as subnets, each with a different sub-network
address. The subnets addresses recorded in the router do not necessarily
map directly to the physical interface connections. A router has two
stages of operation called planes