Graphs where v is initial speed 2 2

x-t m = velocity. FC = ( R − m g) = m v P = E = V I = I 2R = V
v-t m = accel. A=displac. Collisions r t R
a-t A = Δvel. p = mv 2
= m g+ m v
(kgms-1)
f-t m = accel. A=impulse hence, R Using a multimeter
f-x A = work/energy
vector (remember direction) r Voltage – leads connect in parallel across 2
I = ΣF∆t = m∆v = ∆p (N s) since R>mg he feels ‘heavier’ points whose voltage we wish to measure
Newton’s laws m1u1 + m2 u 2 = m1v1 + m2 v 2 Current – leads connect in series with
1st: Every object continues to be at rest or Weightlessness only really exists when component
elastic  momentum & energy conserved
continues w. constant velocity unless it reaction forces vanish (g=0), when (a=g) Resistance – one end of component
experiences an unbalanced force (law of (freefall) reaction forces also vanish giving disconnected from rest of circuit. leads
Work, Energy & Power
inertia) impression of apparent weightlessness connect in parallel
Must use component of F parallel to x
2nd: Accel of a body exp unbalanced force F perpendicular to x does no work
v = 2πR
directly proportional to net force, inversely switch-on voltage – forward-bias voltage
proportional to mass Work = ∆ E = 1 mv2 − 1 mu2 T that gives normal operating current through
3rd: Forces always occur in pairs. When one
2 2 diode
body exerts a force on another body there is = Fx = T cosθ × x v 4π 2 R
2
limiting resistor – when LED starts
an equal force in opposite direction a= = = 4π 2 Rf 2 conducting, its resistance drops sharply.
R T2 The current is likely to get so high that it
At constant velocity. FD = FF Power  rate work is done Fg is grav. force, g is grav.field.strength damages the LED. The resistor limits the
P = w ork = Fx = F v Fg =
mv 2 4π 2 Rm GMm
= = = mg
max current that can flow.
Frame of reference tim e t saturation – collector current has reached
vel.B relative to A = vel.B – vel.A
(where v is constant) R T2 R2 max value, cannot change further
g is measured in (N kg-1) cutoff – transistor stopped conducting
Inclined planes current due to base voltage falling too low
Mechanical energy: E K + E P GMT 2 R3
R= 3 T = 2π biasing (voltage amplifiers) – add a DC
Elastic PE = work = energy absorbed 4π 2 GM current to ensure the AC voltage is greater
(area under F-x graph) 3 than 0 at all times
GM R GM
Circular Motion
V = =
R T 2
4π 2 When average of signal is not zero, there is
geostationary  T = 86400 s mixture of AC & DC:
Centripetal forces
Since accelerating, must be an unbalanced
ΣFdownslope = mg sin θ − FF forcecentripetal force acting towards
Energy in circular orbits
- EP & EK constant
FN = mg cos θ centre circle. Must be supplied by real forces
- No work done = no ΔE
eg. moon-gravity, car-friction, train-reaction
a = g sin θ force from rails
In Lifts Energy changes moving thru changing
gravitational field
a ↓: ( mg − R ) = ma Decoupling capacitors – block DC
Area = work done = ΔE
a ↑: ( R − mg ) = ma components of the input & output signals.
(Nm or J)
VB needs to be kept at particular values of
DC. Allowing other Dc values to add to this
Projectiles Electronics
might cause incorrect biasing. High
Horizontal distance for flights that start & Series Parallel
frequency AC passes much more easily than
end at same height use: I = I1=I2 I = I1+I2
low. The larger the capacitor, the easier for
V=V1+V2 V=V1=V2
R = v sin 2θ
2
AC current to pass through
g
Diodes: Allows current to flow one way but
VCC − 0.7 - limiting resistor prevents too much current - Similar to ordinary transistors, except they
not the other. In reverse bias resistance is RB = through LED, too much power to LED will are controlled by light falling on collector-
very high IB cause it to blow base junction region rather than by an
Forward bias: - can emit in many colours & infra-red external current into the base
VCC − VOUT
RC = region - IB generated when light detected at base
IC - much more efficient than incandescent terminal (conventional – generated from
lamps because they switch on much faster, input voltage in circuit)
VCC − VOUT
IC = operate on much lower voltages(and power)
RC & operate for many more hours before Intensity modulation (amplitude)
failure Modulation is altering the intensity of a
beam of light in a way that transfers
information. The information is encoded in
Capacitor: LDRs the time variation of the intensity.
A device used to store charge. - convert light energyelectrical energy
- relatively slow to respond to changes
R= 1 Bandwidth refers to the range of
2πf - semiconductor frequencies passed with limited attenuation
and is measured in Hz, MHz, bps, etc
Thermistor:
Photodiodes (requires power source) Skin effect
resistance normally falls with increasing T
Copper (electrical signals) have a skin effect
Transistor amplifiers at high frequencies (high bandwidth) so it
- VIN required is AC signal biased with DC limits the amount of information that can
Photodiodes are affected by light.
to ensure correct voltage transmit before being lost or distorted
Can be used two ways -- in a photovoltaic
- Small changes in IB causes large changes in V B = V BE +V E (here it becomes a current source when
Structures
IC illuminated (solar cell), or photoconductive
V E = I C ×R E
V B = V BE = 0.7V role. To use a photodiode in its
Strength: max stress
I C = VB − 0.7
photoconductive mode, the photodiode is
IC ≈ I E I C >> I B reverse-biased; the photodiode will then
Toughness: area under graph (strain energy)
I C = I B × gain
RE allow a current to flow when it is
Brittle: no plastic region (fracture just past
the elastic limit)
illuminated.
VCC − VOUT Stiffness: Larger Y’s mod.
IC = - respond rapidly to light changes
Flexible: Low Y’s mod
RC - convert light energyelectrical energy
Ductile: large plastic region
(reverse bias)
R2
V B = VCC × - as light intensity ↑, current ↑
m1 x1 + m2 x 2
R1 + R2 - sensitive detectors of changes in light X CM =
VCE =VOUT −V E intensity m1 + m2
(forward bias)
− RC - solar cells
VGAIN = - zero current means max voltage
Yield point  end of elastic region
RE - zero voltage means max current Fracture point  end of plastic region
- max power point is b/w these two
VOUT =V S −VC I-beams
Photonics - 20% efficient in conversion of light energy
VC =VCC −VOUT to electrical energy I-beams provide larger surface areas to
LEDs sections of beam which will be under most
- convert electrical energylight energy stress. Decreases stress, reduced weight.
Phototransistors (don’t require power
-emit light when current passes
source)
Struts (columns): compression
Ties (cables): tension

Pre-stressed concrete
If steel rods put under tension whilst beam is
made, rods exert permanent compressive
force on concrete. Hence when beam is
loaded, although compression on lower
surface reduced, it still remains in
compression – never enters the weak tensile
condition

Arches
The weight of the materials and curved
shape keep the individual blocks in
compression. It has the property that it
transfers the arch forces into nearly vertical
components at the support pillars. Arches
need buttressing at the ends in order to
balance any horizontal force components.