Plastic strain equations -basics

The objective is to develop relations between the total plastic strain εij, or the
incremental plastic strain dεij, and the applied stress σij. This requires the
specification of a yield criterion and the use of a plastic flow curve (PFC).

In order to provide a simple geometrical picture of the essential steps, principal

axes are used for both stress and strain.

The plasticity equations based on the Von Mises (VM) criterion are known as the
Levy Mises equations for incremental plastic strain. These equations must be
integrated to get the total plastic strain for the general case. Under certain
conditions (radial loading paths) total plastic strain equations can be obtained
directly. These are known as the Henky equations.

CN4 1
 Loading paths in stress space

σ1 = f1 (p)
σ 2 = f2 (p)
σ 3 = f3 (p)
p = loading parameter

The load path defines a trajectory of stress states σ through the elastic deformation
region up to a point (stress state) on the yield surface where an increment of plastic
strain dε is produced by yielding.

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 π-plane projection for the VM yield surface

σ eff = σ o (ε pl )
2
r= σo
3

 
ε= ∫
Load
dε
path

The deviatoric stress vector (stress state) σdev trajectory reaches the VM circle at 1 and
yielding occurs. As the stress states moves further along along the load path the strain
hardening effect σo(εpl) “expands” the VM circles 1-3 … as shown (isotropic strain
hardening). The stress point for continued yielding remains on the expanding VM circles
and the accumulated plastic strain ε produces more strain hardening.
CN4 3
Levy Mises plastic strain equations - basis

• VM yield criterion (∆V = 0)

• Isotropic strain hardening

• Principal axes for stress and plastic strain coincide

• Normality Rule

• Microstructural parameters are “state” variables

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Possible types of strain hardening effects

Istotropic: Tensile test = Compression test

Kinematic: Tensile test ≠ Compression test (Bauschinger effect)

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 Normality Rule - basis

The Normality Rule applies to all yield surfaces and it is central to developing the
plastic strain equations. The Normality Rule states that:

“The direction of the plastic strain increment dε at yielding must be

normal to the yield surface”.
The yield surface must also be convex (follows from the Normality rule).

The Normality rule can be rationalized based on these propositions (Added Notes CN4):

1)  Stable plastic deformation

2)  dε is uniquely defined by the state of stress σ at yielding

3)  plastic strain parameters are fixed at a given σo (microstructural state)

CN4 6
 Normality Rule and yield surfaces


dε dε ij

N N ij

∂f ∂f
Ni = N ij =
∂σ i ∂σ ij
f(σ i ) = σ o f(σ ij ) = σ o

Principal axes: σ1, σ2, σ3 6D axes: σij

CN4 7
“Geometric” derivation of the Levy Mises (LM) equations
using the π-plane projection for the VM yield surface

The Normality Rule requires

that σdev and dε be coaxial,
ie., dε is normal to the VM
circle. Thus:

σ dev
  
dε dε = dε1 , dε 2 , dε 3 = λσ dev

 
dε = dε12 + dε 22 + dε 23 = λ σ dev
2
r= σo
3 λ = scaling factor

CN4 8
 LM equations in terms of the principal stresses σ1, σ2, σ3

2λ ⎡ 1 ⎤
dε1 = λσ1dev =
3 ⎢⎣
σ 1 − ( σ 2 + σ )
3 ⎥
2 ⎦
2λ ⎡ 1 ⎤
dε 2 = λσ dev
2 =
3 ⎢⎣
σ 2 − ( σ 1 + σ )
3 ⎥
2 ⎦
2λ ⎡ 1 ⎤
dε 3 = λσ dev
3 =
3 ⎢⎣
σ 3 − ( σ 1 + σ )
2 ⎥
2 ⎦
ΔV
dε1 + dε 2 + dε 3 = =0
Vo

These equation have the same form as Hooke’s law for any value of λ. This implies
that the principal axes for the plastic strains and the stresses coincide.

CN4 9
Alternate derivation of the LM equations (general procedure)

 2
σ dev = r = σ0 VM yield surface
3

1

( )
f σ dev =
2⎣
(
3 ⎡ dev
σ1 ) + ( σ ) + ( σ ) ⎤⎦
2 dev 2
2
dev 2
3
2
= σo

∂f 3 σ dev
N i = dev = i
∂σ i 2 σ0

 
 3 σ dev
dε = βN = β β = dimensionless scaling factor
2 σ0

CN4 10
 Evaluate the scaling factors using a tensile test
The scaling factor is assumed to depend only on the microstructural state of the material, which is
fixed for a specified σo. That means any stress state on the VM circle (σeff = σo) can be used to
determine the scaling factor. Use the stress state for a tensile test and the PFC.

σ1 ≠ 0, σ 2 = σ 3 = 0
 2 2
σ dev = r = σo = σ eff
3 3
1
dε1 = dε pl , dε 2 = dε 3 = − dε pl (ΔV = 0)
2
 3 3
dε = dε1 = dε pl
2 2
hence,

dε 3 dε pl 3 dε pl
λ =  dev = =
σ 2 σo 2 σ eff
3
and β = dε pl
2
CN4 11
 The LM equations and plastic flow curves
  3 dε pl  dev 3 dε pl 
dε = λσ dev =
2 σ eff
σ =
2 σ eff
( σ − σ m [111])

dε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤
dε1 =
σ ⎢⎣
σ 1 − ( σ 2 + σ )
3 ⎥
eff 2 ⎦
dε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤
dε 2 =
σ eff ⎢⎣
σ 2 −
2
( σ 1 + σ 3 ) ⎥⎦
dε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤
dε 3 =
σ ⎢⎣
σ 3 − ( σ 1 + σ )
2 ⎥
eff 2 ⎦
1
1 ⎡
σ eff = ( σ1 − σ 2 ) + ( σ1 − σ 3 ) + ( σ 2 − σ 3 ) ⎤ 2 = σ o
2 2 2

2⎣ ⎦
Strain hardening is incorporated via a PFC relation -> isotropic strain hardening

σ o = σ o (ε pl )
σ eff = σ o (ε pl ) = kε npl
σ eff = σ o (ε pl ) = k o + kε np
CN4 12
 Solution of plasticity problems

  3 σ dev (p) dε pl
ε= ∫
Load
dε = ∫
2 Load σ eff (p) dp
dp
path path

Numerical methods are required for engineering problems. The finite element method
(FEM) is the standard procedure. The FEM combines stress analysis, plasticity
equations like the LM equations and input data in the form of elastic constants, initial
yield stresses and plastic flow curves. The FEM method solves the equations using a
numerical meshing technique. Suitable axes are chosen to account for the spatial
dependence of the stresses and the boundary conditions. An incremental loading path is
used to reach the final solution for plastic strains and the “deformed” body.

In MSE 705 we do not cover stress analysis or numerical methods of solution for plastic
strain problems. The load path integral shown above is very cumbersome, even for the
simplest cases. However, there is a special case (radial load paths) where we can get
analytical solutions for the total plastic strains for certain problems. Some examples
following this approach are given next.
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 Radial loading paths - Hencky equations

σ1 = c1f(p)
σ 2 = c 2 f(p)
σ 3 = c 3f(p)
p = Load path parameter

f(p) is any arbitrary function of p and c1, c2 and c3 are constants. The load path is a straight
(radial) line. The integration of the LM equations is trivial since σdev/σeff is independent of p.


  3 σ dev dε pl 3 ε pl  dev
ε= ∫
Load
d ε =
2 σ ∫
eff Load dp
dp =
2 σ eff
σ
path path

CN4 14
 The Hencky equations

ε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤
ε1 =
σ eff ⎢⎣
σ 1 −
2
( σ 2 + σ 3 ) ⎥⎦
ε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤
ε2 =
σ ⎢⎣
σ 2 − ( σ 1 + σ )
3 ⎥
eff 2 ⎦
ε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤
ε3 =
σ eff ⎢⎣
σ 3 − ( σ 1 + σ )
2 ⎥
2 ⎦
1

σ eff =
1 ⎡
2⎣
( 2 2
⎦ ( )
σ1 − σ 2 ) + ( σ1 − σ 3 ) + ( σ 2 − σ 3 ) ⎤ 2 = σ o ε pl
2

σ o = σ o (ε pl )
σ eff = σ o (ε pl ) = kε npl
σ eff = σ o (ε pl ) = k o + kε np

CN4 15
 Example 1: find the F vs L relation for a tensile test

σ eff = σ1 ΔV = 0 ⇒ AL = A o L o
L ε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤
ε1 = ln
L
=
σ ⎢⎣
σ 1 −
2
( σ 2 + σ 3 ) ⎥⎦
o eff
1 1 1
1 ⎛ σ1 ⎞ ⎛ F ⎞ ⎛ FL ⎞
[ 1 ] ⎜⎝ Ak ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ A L k ⎟⎠
n n n
ε1 = ⎜ ⎟ σ = =
F = force = load parameter σ1 ⎝ k ⎠ o o
n
F
σ1 = = f(F), σ 2 = σ 3 = 0 (radial) Ao L o k ⎛ L ⎞
F= ln
A L ⎜⎝ L o ⎟⎠
1
ε1 = ε pl , ε 2 = ε 3 = − ε1 (∆ V = 0) dF L
2 = 0 ⇒ max = e n
dL Lo
PFC : σ eff = σ o = kε npl
L
ε max = ln max = n
Lo

CN4 16
 Stable vs unstable plastic straining

1) σ o = kε npl
Maximum uniform
ε max = n
plastic strain:
εmax = ln (Lmax/Lo ) = n 2) σ o = k o + kε npl
ε max ≠ n

CN4 17
 Thin wall pressure vessels
Principal stresses and true strains for thin wall (r/b >> 1) spherical and cylindrical pressure
vessels are shown. r = radius, L = length, b = wall thickness and p = internal pressure.
Subscripts “o” denote initial values. σ3 ≈ 0 is the principal stress normal to the wall. σ1 and
σ2 are axial and/or hoop (circumferential) principal stresses.

pr pr pr pr
σ1 = σ 2 = σ3 ≅ 0 σ1 = σ2 = σ3 ≅ 0 σ1 = 0 σ 2 = σ3 ≅ 0
2b 2b b b
r b L r b L r b
ε1 = ε 2 = ln ε3 = ε1 = ln ε 2 = ln ε 3 = ln ε1 = ln ε 2 = ln ε 3 = ln
ro bo Lo ro bo Lo ro bo
V = 4πr 2 b = Vo = 4πro2 b o V = 2πrLb = Vo = 2πro L o b o V = 2πrLb = Vo = 2πro L o b o

CN4 18
 Example 2: plot the p vs r relation for plastic expansion of a
closed-end cylindrical pressure vessel. Find εmax and pmax
Values: Lo = 200 cm, ro = 20 cm, bo = 1 cm, k = 800 MPa and n = 1/2. p is the loading parameter
and σ1 = 0.5 f(p), σ2 = f(p) = pr/b and σ3 = 0 f(p), -> radial loading. Use the Hencky equations.

L ε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤ dp r n
ε1 = ln =
L o σ eff ⎢⎣ σ 1 −
2
( σ 2 + σ 3 ) ⎥⎦ = 0 ⇒ L = L o dr
= 0 ⇒ ln max =
ro 2
n
b o ⎛ ro ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
n+1 2
3 p ⎛ 2 ⎞
σ eff = σ 2 = σ o = kε npl = ⎜ ⎟ ln
2 k ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ro ⎝ r ⎠ ⎜⎝ ro ⎟⎠
ΔV = 0 ⇒ ro b o = rb Substituting :
1
r ε pl ⎡ 1 ⎤ 1 ⎛ σ eff ⎞ ⎡ 3 ⎤ 3 1

( )
n
p ⎛ 2 ⎞ b o ⎛ ro ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
2
ε 2 = ln = ⎢⎣ σ − σ + σ =
⎥⎦ σ ⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠ ⎢⎣ 4 σ 2 ⎥⎦
2 2

ro σ eff = ⎜ ⎟ ln
k ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ro ⎝ r ⎠ ⎜⎝ ro ⎟⎠
2 1 3
2 eff
1 1

3 ⎛ 3 pr ⎞ 3 ⎛ 3 pr ⎞
n 2 n 1
r
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ r⎞
2
ln = = 2
ro 2 ⎜⎝ 2k b ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ 2k ro b o ⎟⎠ p = 66.18 ⎜ o ⎟ ⎜ ln ⎟
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ ro ⎠
MPa
n
⎛ r⎞
n+1
⎛ 2 ⎞ kro b o ε max = 0.25 p max = 20.1 MPa
p=⎜ ⎜⎝ ln r ⎟⎠
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ r2 o

CN4 19
Maple - plot

CN4 20
 Tresca yield criterion and plastic strain equations

The Tresca yield criterion is generally

not used to develop plastic strain
equations. You can see from the π-
plane projection and the Normality
Rule that dε and σdev are no longer 
coaxial. The plastic strain equations σ dev
would have to account for the angle
between the vectors. It is also
necessary to deal with the vertices of 
the hexagon - the normal vector is not
dε
defined at these points.

N

CN4 21