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Sports Medicine

The Role of Imaging in Sports Medicine

Tom D Turmezei, David Yu and Robert W Kerslake

Department of Radiology, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Queen’s Medical Centre

Abstract
Imaging plays a vital role in the diagnosis and management of sporting injury. There are several factors unique to sports medicine that need to
be taken into account when considering imaging of the injured athlete, such as sporting technique and the biomechanical stresses associated
with any given activity. Close liaison between the referring physician and the reporting radiologist is vital not only for selecting the most
appropriate imaging technique, but also for accurate interpretation of imaging findings. We discuss the current status of imaging in sports
medicine, focusing on challenges to the referrer, challenges to the radiologist and the roles of the most commonly used modalities.
Interventional techniques and recent advances are also discussed for each modality. Finally, there is recognition that imaging needs to be
promoted in sports medicine research in order to help establish a firm evidence base for practice.

Keywords
Imaging, sports medicine, athletic injury, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging

Disclosure: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Received: 27 January 2010 Accepted: 12 April 2010 Citation: European Musculoskeletal Review, 2010;5(1):82–8
Correspondence: Tom D Turmezei, Department of Radiology, Queen’s Medical Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK.
E: tom@diagnosticradiology.eu

Imaging plays a vital role in the diagnosis and management of
sporting injuries. Early diagnosis can reduce rehabilitation time and
long-term disability, so developments in imaging have had the knock-
on effect of an improvement in the outcome of injury episodes.
Combined with increased understanding of the biomechanical factors
involved in athletic activity, advances in imaging have contributed to
earlier and more accurate diagnosis, but in doing so have uncovered
findings of undetermined saliency in a spectrum of ‘normal’ to
‘abnormal’ that pose a challenge to the interpreting radiologist. In this
article, we discuss the developing role of imaging in the management
of sports injuries and address specific challenges to the referring
physician and the reporting radiologist in this field, illustrated with
several pictorial examples.
Imaging of Sports Injury
In addition to episodes of acute trauma, sporting activity involves
repetitive actions that place specific biomechanical stresses on the
body according to the demands of the activity and the technique of
the athlete. It is essential for both the referring physician and the
reporting radiologist to be aware of these factors as they can be related
to recognisable patterns of injury, such as repetitive impact loading in
long-distance running that can lead to tibial stress fractures.1 Another
example is repetitive overarm throwing in baseball pitchers and javelin
throwers that can lead to superior labral anteroposterior (SLAP) lesions.
In such cases, it is important for both physician and radiologist to be
aware that throwing athletes exhibit a different pattern of shoulder
injury from the general population in the form of posterosuperior
glenoid impingement.2 The risk of a multiplicity of injuries occurring
from a single mechanism must also be recognised.
While injuries affect athletes at all levels, professionalisation has
contributed significantly to changes in imaging strategies.
Performance pressures have pushed for the earlier detection of injury
in order to limit time away from activity and to avoid disability and
deformity that may detract from career length, peak performance or
activity enjoyment. This has prompted imaging to be performed at an
early stage when clinical evaluation can be non-specific, and as a
result has led to unsuspected sub-clinical findings being revealed that
pose a direct question of relevance to the interpreting radiologist.
Challenges to the Referrer
Good working relationships are vital to ensure as much information as
possible is gleaned from imaging studies, starting with discussion with
the radiologist about the clinical assessment. This should include details
of the mechanism of injury, usual activity levels, previous injuries,
sporting technique and salient positive and negative examination
findings. Close liaison with a focus on the specific area of interest leads
to appropriate imaging being performed, sometimes with multimodality
assessment being required. The patient can then be reviewed with the
results and re-imaged should there be further indication.
The decision of when to image should ideally be guided by evidence-
based practice, but in many areas of sports medicine this is still to be
established.3 A sensible approach has been suggested by Orchard et
al.4 and Anderson et al.5 in terms of when to image:
• when a diagnosis is in question;
• to determine the extent of injury;
• with treatment failure;

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• in the presence of warning signs and symptoms;
• for objective documentation of disease, progression or resolution
(such as in medicolegal situations); and
• for pre-operative planning.4,5
In many clinical scenarios, the most suitable image modality is yet
to be determined. For example, the shoulder has historically
been imaged with plain radiography, ultrasound (US), computed
tomography (CT), CT arthrography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
and MR arthrography,2 with rotator cuff pathology being reliably
demonstrated with both US and MRI. The precise choice of modality
may also depend on local expertise, equipment, safety, financial
constraints and patient tolerance; therefore, it is important to discuss
options with the radiologist.
Challenges to the Radiologist
The greatest challenge to the reporting radiologist is to be able to
correctly identify imaging features that are associated with pain,
injury and disability, and thus related to relevant symptomatic
pathology in a spectrum of imaging findings. It is important that subtle
abnormalities that relate to an episode of injury are not overlooked,
while asymptomatic pathology should be underplayed (but not
ignored), especially if it does not require intervention. Increasing age
can also present difficulties in interpreting findings that in a younger
individual may be more confidently called pathology, such as with
degenerative change in the menisci of the knee, which can be
misinterpreted as a tear.6
The difficulty in defining the ‘normality’ of findings in the imaging of
athletes has led to recurring debate in the medical literature. There
appears to be a spectrum of appearances from completely normal
that ranges through anatomical/congenital variants, physiological
change to ‘normal for athletes’, sub-clinical pathology and  relevant
symptomatic and asymptomatic pathology. These are discussed with
examples below.
Medicolegal situations in which there is the requirement for objective
documentation of disease progression or resolution can also be
encountered.5 There is very little discussion on this topic in the
medical literature, yet it also poses a challenge to the radiologist, who
must consider the consequences of an unsuspected finding that has
not yet caused injury or detraction from performance.
Imaging Findings – What Is Normal?
Anatomical/Congenital Variants
Knowledge of underlying anomalies and variants that can predispose
to injury or pain on performance provides important information for
clinical management. For example, abnormal joint alignment and
congenital joint dysplasia are known risk factors for injury and can
lead to osteoarthritis.7 Tarsal coalition can present with hind-foot
pain, multiple sprains and subtalar joint stiffness as a result of
abnormal biomechanical stresses through the foot. While suspected
coalition can be shown with plain radiography (see Figure 1A), further
cross-sectional imaging with CT or MRI can be performed if the
diagnosis is equivocal. In such cases appropriate imaging can lead to
correct diagnosis and treatment with acceptable return to activity.8,9
Physiological Change
An MRI study of Olympic fencers has demonstrated that bone develops
trabecular adaptations and an increased marrow volume in response
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The Role of Imaging in Sports Medicine
Figure 1: Plain Radiography in the Assessment of
Ankle and Foot Pain
A B
A: Lateral radiograph of the ankle showing calcaneonavicular bony tarsal coalition in a
skeletally immature individual. Compare with B, in which there is no coalition.
B: Lateral radiograph of the ankle of a footballer taken in the assessment of an acute injury,
showing a bony spur on the superior aspect of the talar neck. These lesions are found in
both symptomatic and asymptomatic athletes.
Table 1: Specialist Areas of Computed
Tomography Application
Specialist Areas of Computed Tomography Application
Sternoclavicular joint dislocation
Femoral anteversion*
Leg length (use of the CT scout image only)
Spondylolysis assessment (see Figure 3)
Complex fracture assessment
Pre-operative planning
Imaging of operative metalwork
Head, body and spinal trauma
Guidance for deep body injections
*Found in developmental hip dysplasia, it limits the external rotation required in ballet,
for example.
to stress as a means of resisting increased load, providing an example
of physiological adaptation in elite athletes10 – further discussion on
adaptive bone stress is included below. Another example of
physiological change seen with imaging is muscle imbalance that can
develop with poor training technique or single-handness of an activity,
which can subsequently lead to overuse injury.11
‘Normal for Athletes’
Ankle ‘spurs’ are a common finding in athletes, being found on the
superior aspect of the talus in up to 60% of football players (see
Figure 1B). Such lesions are thought to be either osteophytes formed
from repetitive microtrauma or enthesophyte development from
recurrent capsular or ligamentous traction.12 However, anterior
tibiotalar spurs have also been found in a significant proportion
(45–59%) of asymptomatic athletes,13 and so may represent part of a
spectrum that is ‘normal for athletes’ at one end with painful
symptoms of anterior ankle impingement at the other.
Sub-clinical Pathology
MRI assessment of the shoulder in asymptomatic baseball pitchers
has been shown to demonstrate labral abnormalities that have thus
been assumed to be ‘non-clinical’.14 Impact and torsional loading of
joints has been implicated in the development of osteoarthritis in
athletes with undiagnosed joint injury, but not in those who have
undertaken moderate habitual exercise, by middle age.7 Osteophytes
and meniscal abnormalities have also been demonstrated in the
knees of asymptomatic volunteers.15
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Sports Medicine

Figure 2: Plain Radiography in the Assessment of Tendon Rupture and Avulsion

A B C

A: Lateral radiograph of the knee in a 41-year-old male with sudden loss of function and painful clicking while running. The high-lying patella indicates complete patellar tendon rupture.
Further imaging with dynamic ultrasound (US) can give useful information on the gap distance between tendon ends and the presence of contralateral tendinopathy that may predispose
to further injury.18
B: Anterior–posterior (AP) radiograph of the pelvis in an adolescent female with sudden pain and loss of function in the left posterior thigh while exercising. There has been avulsion of the
left hamstring insertion at the ischial tuberosity; avulsion injuries of this type are most common in the unfused skeleton. Understanding the timing of such injuries is also important, because
a more chronic injury can have an aggressive appearance similar to Ewing’s sarcoma, which occurs in the same age group.19
C: Lateral radiograph of the middle finger of a 50-year-old male after a hyperflexion injury with a residual mallet finger deformity. Imaging shows an abnormality at the dorsal base of the
distal phalanx, indicating an avulsion fracture of the extensor tendon attachment. If there is mallet finger deformity with normal radiographic appearance, US or magnetic resonance imaging
may be indicated for further assessment of extensor tendon congruity.

Figure 3: Spiral Multidetector Computed Tomography Acquisition Computed Tomography of the Lumbar Spine in a
21-year-old Right-arm Cricket Bowler

A B C

A. Multiplanar reconstruction (MPR) technology allows for re-formatting along the axis of the pars interarticularis without the need for reverse-gantry scanning. There is a small spondylolytic
defect in the right L4 pars interarticularis with a more pronounced defect on the left at the same level. These defects are well demonstrated by CT1 and are characteristically seen in young
fast bowlers.22
B. Parasagittal MPR through the right pars interarticularis demonstrating the spondylolytic defect seen in A.
C. Parasagittal MPR through the left pars interarticularis demonstrating more pronounced spondylolysis compared with the right-sided defect. These appearances suggest that the left defect
is the older of the two. MRI was used to obtain further information on the age of these lesions (see Figure 4).

Relevant Symptomatic Pathology
The aim is for the radiologist to correctly identify this, especially if it is
a finding that could be considered sub-clinical if the athlete was
asymptomatic. Importantly, recognised patterns of change related to a
specific activity should not be dismissed as ‘normal for the athlete’ if
they are symptomatic, as has been demonstrated with spondylolysis
and spodylolisthesis in the spine in elite female gymnasts.16
Asymptomatic Pathology
Gross pathology of osteoarthritis, rotator cuff disease and
intervertebral lumbar disc protrusions have all been demonstrated in
asymptomatic individuals and may not be relevant to the injury
episode at the time of imaging.5 The incidence of asymptomatic
pathology has also been shown to increase with age, as in meniscal
tears demonstrated on MRI of the knee, for example.17 This is
important because lesions that are not symptomatic should not
necessarily be treated clinically.
Plain Radiography
Apart from soft-tissue injuries, such as muscle tears and superficial
tendinopathy (when US is more appropriate), first-line imaging for
sports injuries is nearly always with plain radiography, which provides
a lot of information for minimal radiation exposure. Omitting plain
radiography in the initial assessment can also lead to errors in
diagnosis.5 Plain radiography is cheap, quick and readily available and
gives low radiation exposure. Disadvantages of this technique include
the production of a flattened 2D image; although radiographs have
been historically associated with poor soft-tissue information, recent

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The Role of Imaging in Sports Medicine

Figure 4: Parasagittal Magnetic Resonance Images of the Same Patient as in Figure 3

A B C D

(A) T1 and (B) short tau inversion recovery (STIR) parasagittal images show bony oedema (low signal on T1 and high signal on STIR) in the right L4 pars interarticularis, the less pronounced of
the defects on computed tomography (CT). The L4 vertebra is identified with an asterisk (*). (C) T1 and (D) STIR parasagittal images show bony sclerosis (low signal on T1 and STIR) in the right
L4 pars interarticularis, the more pronounced of the defects on CT.
These findings confirm that the left defect is chronic while the right defect is most likely subacute, an early stress fracture in the stages of bony adaptation. Unilateral L4 injuries are
particularly common in fast bowlers, especially on the side opposite to the bowling arm, with the phase of injury determinable by the presence of oedema around the defect on STIR
imaging. Bilateral and multilevel defects are nonetheless still frequent.22,30

Figure 5: Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the Assessment of Internal Knee Derangement

A B C

A: Sagittal 3T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of a normal right knee with an intact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). 3T imaging has significant advantages in lesion detection, while also
providing greater spatial resolution and shorter acquisition time. It is now applied unequivocally to the knee, but is not universally established for all body parts.
B: Sagittal 3T MRI of the right knee in a 21-year-old male patient who sustained a valgus/rotational injury during wake-boarding. There is loss of integrity of the ACL, in keeping with a
complete acute tear. Higher-field-strength imaging has been shown to improve the diagnostic accuracy of MRI for ACL rupture.29
C: Coronal 3T fat-saturation MRI of the same patient as in B, showing a peripheral full-thickness vertical tear through the lateral meniscus (arrow). The patient had also injured the medial
meniscus and the posterolateral corner (not shown), emphasising the importance of being aware of the possibility of multiple abnormalities from a single-injury episode.

advances in digital imaging have provided much improved soft-tissue
detail and contrast.
Beyond the assessment of acute bony trauma, plain radiography is
valuable in the assessment of prostheses, accessory ossicles, soft-
tissue calcification, heterotopic ossification, bone stress (such as in
osteitis pubis), tendon rupture and avulsion (see Figure 2), bony
coalition (see Figure 1A), degenerative joint disease, tumours and
suspected foreign body. The finding of a normal plain radiograph also
adds value through the exclusion of such conditions.5
Computed Tomography
Although CT is the main source of iatrogenic radiation dose in the
general population and therefore not an insignificant cancer risk,20 it
is nonetheless valuable in the assessment of bony pathology and
traumatic injuries to the head, spine and body. Specialist areas of CT
application are listed in Table 1.
Strengths of CT include the fact that it is quick and readily available.
Advances in computer algorithm processing and image reconstruction
have reduced artefacts caused by metallic prostheses, while

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Sports Medicine
Figure 6: Ultrasound in the Assessment of Muscle Injury Using Panorama Sweep Technology
Panorama from a longitudinal sweep of the extensor compartment of the anterior thigh of a 21-year-old cricketer who had sustained a direct blow to this region six weeks prior to
examination. There is an area of heterotopic calcification (myositis ossificans) in the deep tissues of the anterior thigh that is casting acoustic shadowing (*), a finding related to a previous
injury episode. Distally there is fibre discontinuity with fluid-filled clefts in the vastus lateralis muscle (arrow), a finding related to the most recent injury.
multidetector CT (MDCT) has become standard practice, revitalising
the use of CT in musculoskeletal imaging. MDCT technology has
allowed for reduced scan times, better spatial resolution and greater
tissue contrast, while also enabling 3D reconstruction and multiplanar
reformatting (MPR) that has negated the need for image acquisition in
non-axial planes, such as in reverse-gantry scanning for detection of
spondylolysis (see Figure 3).21
CT-guided intervention is useful for areas of the body that are too
deep or awkward for US penetration, such as in facet joint, sacroiliac
joint, pudendal nerve and iliopsoas tendon injection. CT arthrography
can also be used for joints, such as the shoulder and knee, where its
accuracy is as good as that of MRI for the assessment of meniscal
pathology.21 It provides a useful alternative for those who are
unsuitable for MRI.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Due to its non-ionising nature, multiplanar acquisition capability,
excellent anatomical detail and superb soft-tissue imaging
characteristics, MRI has moved to the forefront of imaging in sports
medicine. Muscles, tendons, ligaments, bursae, cartilage, bone
marrow and growth plates are all excellently visualised with this
technique. It has become the gold standard modality in the
investigation of overuse injury, virtually eliminating the role of bone
scintigraphy,11 and it has also been instrumental in increasing our
understanding of painful hip conditions such as labral tears and
chondral injuries.23
MRI has played an important role in developing understanding of the
relevance of bone stress reaction because of its ability to identify
bone marrow oedema. Bone is a dynamic structure that responds to
biomechanical stresses with functional adaptations that depend
on strain rate and magnitude and are thought to have a strong
genetic influence. Early bone stress is generally thought to be a
protective adaptation; however, continued bone stress can lead to
microtrabecular damage that outweighs the repair process,
progressing to early stress fracture, complete fracture and, with
continued activity, to chronic non-union such as spondylolysis in the
spine (see Figures 3 and 4).1
Bone stress reactions have been demonstrated on MRI in the ankles
and feet of asymptomatic individuals,24 while they have also been
86
shown on MRI in the ankles and feet of volunteers whose normal
biomechanical forces were altered by the use of a unilateral
orthosis.25 Sub-clinical bone stress injury has also been demonstrated
on MRI in the feet of ballet dancers, in whom it correlated with ankle
pain.26 Bone marrow oedema can in fact be demonstrated in a
multiplicity of locations with the caveat that we still do not know what
the norm is for certain athletic groups, and so its clinical significance
on MRI within the spectrum of imaging findings in sporting injury is
under continuous debate.27
In terms of the clinical application of MRI, good technical
understanding and clinical integration between physician and
radiologist is integral in order for the right MR technique to be
performed. For example, proton density fast spin-echo sequences are
especially accurate for meniscal and cruciate pathology in the knee
(see Figure 5), while fat suppression techniques such as short tau
inversion recovery (STIR) and fat saturation imaging are excellent for
identifying bone oedema (see Figure 4) and cartilage abnormalities.28
Advances in gradient-echo MR sequences, such as steady-state free
precession imaging, have allowed for faster and higher spatial
resolution 3D volume acquisition with fewer of the artefacts that
previously detracted from this technique. 28 This can be used
effectively in MR arthrographic assessment of shoulder instability.
Direct MR arthrography has nearly completely replaced diagnostic
arthroscopy in the management pathway of shoulder and knee
disorders, while indirect MR arthrography, in which intravenous
injection of contrast medium gradually perfuses into the joint space
over time, may have some future application in the imaging of small
joints such as the wrist and ankle.31
A specific advantage of MRI over US is in its ability to image multiple
pathologies at once, such as shoulder rotator cuff injury with a
concomitant labral tear, which can thus reduce the possibility of
failed shoulder surgery. However, MRI is a confined examination
(more so than CT) and can induce claustrophobia, as well as placing
a limit on the size of subject that can be examined. Recent advances
have seen the introduction of less restrictive open MRI scanners,
sometimes in the enterprising role of interactive and interventional
MR imaging.32 In the former, joints can be imaged under direct stress
or dynamically, while in the latter MR is used to guide injection
(although this does require specialist MR-compatible equipment).
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The Role of Imaging in Sports Medicine

Open MRI certainly allows imaging in positions not possible in Figure 7: A Spectrum of Ultrasound Findings in the
conventional scanners. Achilles Tendon

Upright positional MRI has been used to demonstrate the effect of A B

load-bearing on the lumbar spine,33 and may find further application
in the evaluation of the load-bearing biomechanics of body
positioning in sport. Other areas of research with MR have involved
the use of 7T scanning, for example in the assessment of trabecular
bone microarchitecture in the knees of Olympic fencers, as
described above.10

Ultrasonography
In recent years, US has been increasing in popularity in sports C D
imaging.34 It is appropriate as the first-line imaging for muscle tears
and superficial tendinopathy and also has an important role in the
assessment of general tendon disorders.18,35–37 Other areas of US
application include groin injuries, entheseal injuries, ligamentous
disease, avulsion fractures, stress fractures, foreign bodies and
synovitis.38 Small and superficial soft-tissue masses and ganglia are
also well suited to US examination.

Like MRI, US has the advantage of being a non-ionising technique with E F

excellent soft-tissue imaging characteristics. A unique feature of US is
its capacity for realtime, dynamic imaging that can demonstrate
features such as tendon glide, subluxation, soft-tissue impingement
and hernia protrusion.36 Conversely, the dynamic nature of imaging
means that its full value can only be appreciated by the
ultrasonographer at the time of examination.

High-frequency transducers (9–17MHz) have improved spatial

resolution significantly, while miniaturised, albeit less powerful,
portable scanners are suitable for examining patients immediately
after injury or even on the field of play.18,38 New ‘sweep’ technologies
can provide extended panoramic views (see Figure 6) as well as 3D
reconstructions, while the power Doppler mode allows for sensitive
vascular assessment (see Figures 7E and 7F). Insurmountable
obstacles to US include its inability to assess bone, marrow and
cartilage disease. The lack of information in depth is another
defining limitation.
The most frequently cited criticism of US is that inexperience can
lead to loss of sensitivity in the detection of subtle abnormalities. 38
Like MRI, good technical understanding and clinical integration is
essential, however, the additional aspect of ‘driving’ the
machine to produce optimum image quality also has to be
considered, emphasising the importance of training and experience
for safe and accurate examination. 38 This is especially relevant as
the increasing availability and practicality of US has led to its
regular use by practitioners across a number of specialist fields
outside radiology.
US has an important role in guiding intervention, such as for the
injection of local anaesthetics and corticosteroids into joints, tendon
sheaths and bursae. US-guided joint injection can be performed
in preparation for MR or CT arthrography and also to guide aspiration
of collections, cysts and ganglia. Recent advances in US research
include realtime sonoelastography, which may offer further
insight into mucoid degeneration in tendon disorders, and the
use of contrast agents to demonstrate low-volume blood flow in
tendon neovascularity.40
G H
(A) Longitudinal and (B) transverse ultrasound (US) of a normal Achilles tendon.
(C) Longitudinal and (D) transverse US of an Achilles tendon with moderate tendinosis.
There is mild fusiform enlargement of the tendon with preservation of the
fibrillar microarchictecture.
(E) Longitudinal and (F) transverse assessment with power Doppler function shows
intratendon neovascularity. The precise pathophysiology of neovascularity in abnormal
tendons is not understood, but it is not seen in normal tendons.18
(G) Longitudinal and (H) transverse US of an Achilles tendon with a partial tear. The tendon
has a narrowed configuration with some continuity of fibres noted. Fluid (asterisk) is
interposed between the torn tendon edges, and a clump of calcification is also noted (arrow).
Dynamic examination is also important in determining appropriate management, since
non-apposition of the tendon edge with passive plantarflexion may require surgical
management.36 Chronic tendon abnormalities can persist on imaging, even with good
functional recovery, and so imaging findings should be interpreted with reference to
careful clinical assessment.39
Conclusion
While the principles of imaging in general radiology also apply for
imaging in sports medicine, there are factors unique to the imaging
of athletic injuries that must be considered by those directly
involved in their care. These include the biomechanical stresses of
different activities, the technique of the individual athlete and the
increasing motivation to return to activity earlier. Both the sports
physician and radiologist require a good understanding of these
factors in order to initiate appropriate imaging, accurately diagnose
and treat athletic injury. Close liaison is vital to enable appropriate

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Sports Medicine
and focused imaging and to help the radiologist in the challenge of
interpreting relevant symptomatic findings in a spectrum through
anatomical/congenital variants, physiological change to ‘normal
for athletes’, sub-clinical pathology and relevant symptomatic and
asymptomatic pathology.
Plain radiography remains an essential first-line tool for most injuries.
CT, although best avoided in younger athletes because of the high
radiation load, still has several targeted roles. MRI and US are
non-ionising techniques with excellent soft-tissue imaging
characteristics that are ideal for the imaging of sports injury, with
choices between the two often depending on cost, local expertise
and equipment. Bone scintigraphy is now virtually redundant as MRI
provides more information with far greater anatomical detail and
without the risks associated with ionising radiation.
Interventional techniques in sports imaging are continually
developing, with MR arthrography now having nearly replaced
diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder and knee. The non-ionising
aspect and broad reproducibility of MRI will also continue to
make it an exciting research tool in sports imaging. Finally,
imaging must be encouraged in the research activities of sports
medicine in order to develop a greater understanding of changes in
athletes that span from physiological to pathological, and hence
create a solid platform for the practice of evidence-based medicine
in the future. n
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David Yu is training in radiology at Nottingham
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and the Royal London School of Medicine and Dentistry,
having also completed an intercalated BSc in
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EUROPEAN MUSCULOSKELETAL REVIEW
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