Introduction :

Heat exchanger is a generic term applied

to a wide range of mechanical systems,
which are designed for the purpose
of exchanging thermal energy between
two streams of fluids separated by a solid
surface.

Some heat exchangers are used as heat

sinks including automotive inter coolers,
containment air coolers, cooling towers,
automotive radiators, and power plant
condensers.

Some other heat exchangers are used as a

heat source including boilers, radiators for
space heating, and steam generators.

For example, a nuclear plant utilizes many

heat exchangers.
In a typical plant, feed water heaters are
employed in the balance of plant to
improve
plant thermal efficiency.
Also, other heat exchangers, such as the
component cooling water and shutdown
cooling (also known as the residual heat
removal) system, provide a heat sink for
the reactor during the shutdown period.

Finally, the service water heat exchanger

provides a heat sink for the balance of
plant equipment. Heat exchangers have a
hot side and a cold side separated by
tubes or plates. Heat transfer between the
fluids in each side takes place through
the surface dividing the hot side and the
cold side.

Heat transfer may take place between

liquid and liquid, liquid and gas, and gas
and gas. Heat exchangers may also carry
two-phase flow resulting in boiling or in
condensation. Heat exchangers may be
operating at steady-state or transient
conditions. Due to such design Variations,
heat exchangers require careful analysis
in design optimization as well as in
performance evaluation.
 TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Introduction
A heat exchanger is a component that allows the
transfer of heat from one fluid (liquid or gas) to
.another fluid

:Reasons for heat transfer include the following

.To heat a cooler fluid by means of a hotter fluid .1

To reduce the temperature of a hot fluid by means .2
.of a cooler fluid
.To boil a liquid by means of a hotter fluid .3
To condense a gaseous fluid by means of a cooler .4
.fluid
To boil a liquid while condensing a hotter gaseous .5
.fluid
Regardless of the function the heat exchanger fulfills,
in order to transfer heat the fluids involved must be at
different temperatures and they must come into
thermal contact. Heat can flow only from the hotter to
.the cooler fluid
In a heat exchanger there is no direct contact between
the two fluids. The heat is transferred from the hot
fluid to the metal isolating the two fluids and then to
.the cooler fluid

Types of Heat Exchanger Construction

Although heat exchangers come in every shape and
size imaginable, the construction of most heat
exchangers falls into one of two categories: tube and
shell, or plate. As in all mechanical devices, each type
.has its advantages and disadvantages

Tube and Shell

Figure 1 Tube and Shell Heat Exchanger

The most basic and the most common type of heat
exchanger construction is the tube and shell, as shown
in Figure 1. This type of heat exchanger consists of a
set of tubes in a container called a shell. The fluid
flowing inside the tubes is called the tube side fluid
and the fluid flowing on the outside of the tubes is the
shell side fluid. At the ends of the tubes, the tube side
fluid is separated from the shell side fluid by the tube
sheet(s). The tubes are rolled and press-fitted or
welded into the tube sheet to provide a leak tight seal.
In systems where the two fluids are at vastly different
pressures, the higher pressure fluid is typically
directed through the tubes and the lower pressure
fluid is circulated on the shell side. This is due to
economy, because the heat exchanger tubes can be
made to withstand higher pressures than the shell of
the heat exchanger for a much lower cost. The support
plates shown on Figure 1 also act as baffles to direct
the flow of fluid within the shell back and forth across
.the tubes

:Plate
A plate type heat exchanger, as illustrated in Figure 2,
consists of plates instead of tubes to separate the hot
and cold fluids. The hot and cold fluids alternate
between each of the plates. Baffles direct the flow of
fluid between plates. Because each of the plates has a
very large surface area, the plates provide each of the
fluids with an extremely large heat transfer area.
Therefore a plate type heat exchanger, as compared to
a similarly sized tube and shell heat exchanger, is
capable of transferring much more heat. This is due to
the larger area the plates provide over tubes. Due to
the high heat transfer efficiency of the plates, plate
type heat exchangers are usually very small when
compared to a tube and shell type heat exchanger with
the same heat transfer capacity. Plate type heat
exchangers are not widely used because of the inability
to reliably seal the large gaskets between each of the
plates. Because of this problem, plate type heat
exchangers have only been used in small, low pressure
applications such as on oil coolers for engines.
However, new improvements in gasket design and
overall heat exchanger design have allowed some large
scale applications of the plate type heat exchanger. As
older facilities are upgraded or newly designed
facilities are built, large plate type heat exchangers are
replacing tube and shell heat exchangers and
.becoming more common

Figure 2 Plate Heat Exchanger

:Types of Heat Exchangers
Because heat exchangers come in so many shapes,
sizes, makes, and models, they are categorized
according to common characteristics. One common
characteristic that can be used to categorize them is
the direction of flow the two fluids have relative to
each other. The three categories are parallel flow,
.counter flow and cross flow
Parallel flow, as illustrated in Figure 3, exists when
both the tube side fluid and the shell side fluid flow in
the same direction. In this case, the two fluids enter
the heat exchanger from the same end with a large
temperature difference. As the fluids transfer heat,
hotter to cooler, the temperatures of the two fluids
approach each other. Note that the hottest cold-fluid
temperature is always less than the coldest hot-fluid
.temperature

Figure 3 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

Counter flow, as illustrated in Figure 4, exists when
the two fluids flow in opposite directions. Each of the
fluids enters the heat exchanger at opposite ends.
Because the cooler fluid exits the counter flow heat
exchanger at the end where the hot fluid enters the
heat exchanger, the cooler fluid will approach the inlet
temperature of the hot fluid. Counter flow heat
exchangers are the most efficient of the three types. In
contrast to the parallel flow heat exchanger, the
counter flow heat exchanger can have the hottest cold-
fluid temperature greater than the coldest hot-fluid
.temperature

Figure 4 Counter Flow Heat Exchange

Cross flow, as illustrated in Figure 5, exists when one

fluid flows perpendicular to the second fluid; that is,
one fluid flows through tubes and the second fluid
passes around the tubes at 90° angle. Cross flow heat
exchangers are usually found in applications where
one of the fluids changes state (2-phase flow). An
example is a steam system's condenser, in which the
steam exiting the turbine enters the condenser shell
side, and the cool water flowing in the tubes absorbs
the heat from the steam, condensing it into water.
Large volumes of vapor may be condensed using this
.type of heat exchanger flow

Figure 5 Cross Flow Heat Exchanger

:Comparison of the Types of Heat Exchangers

Each of the three types of heat exchangers has
advantages and disadvantages. But of the three, the
counter flow heat exchanger design is the most
efficient when comparing heat transfer rate per unit
surface area. The efficiency of a counter flow heat
exchanger is due to the fact that the average T
(difference in temperature) between the two fluids
over the length of the heat exchanger is maximized, as
shown in Figure 4. Therefore the log mean
temperature for a counter flow heat exchanger is
larger than the log mean temperature for a similar
parallel or cross flow heat exchanger. (See the
Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow
Fundamentals Handbook for a review of log mean
temperature). This can be seen by comparing the
graphs in Figure 3, Figure 4, and Figure 5. The
following exercise demonstrates how the higher log
mean temperature of the counter flow heat exchanger
results in a larger heat transfer rate. The log mean
temperature for a heat exchanger is calculated using
.the following equation
/ ∆Tlm = ((∆T2 - ∆T1) / (ln (∆T2T1))∆
(2-1)

Heat transfer in a heat exchanger is by conduction

and convection. The rate of heat transfer, "Q", in a
heat exchanger is calculated using the following
.equation

Q = U A Tlm∆
o o

(2-2)

(Q = Heat transfer rate (BTU/hr

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (BTU/hr-ft2-
o

(°F
(A = Cross sectional heat transfer area (ft2
o

(∆ Tlm = Log mean temperature difference (°F

Consider the following example of a heat exchanger

operated under identical conditions as a counter flow
.and then a parallel flow heat exchanger
T = Represents the hot fluid temperature
1

T = 200°F
1in

T = 145°F
1out
Uo = 70 BTU/hr-ft2-°F
A o = 75ft2
T2 = Represents the cold fluid temperature
T2in = 80°F
T2out = 120°F

Counter flow ∆ T = ((200*120oF)*(145∗80oF))/ ln

lm

((200∗120oF)/ (145∗80oF)) = 72oF

Parallel flow ∆ T = (200∗80oF)∗(145∗120oF))/ ln

lm

((200∗80oF)/ (145∗120oF)) = 61oF

Inserting the above values into heat transfer Equation
(2-2) for the counter flow heat exchanger yields the
.following result
((Q = (70 (BTU/ hr ft2 F))*(75 (ft2))*(72 (F

(Q = 3.8*105 (BTU/hr
Inserting the above values into the heat transfer
Equation (2-2) for parallel flow heat exchanger yields
.the following result
((Q = (70 (BTU/ hr ft2 F))*(75 (ft2))*(61 (F

(Q = 3.2 *105 (BTU/hr

The results demonstrate that given the same operating
conditions, operating the same heat exchanger in a
counter flow manner will result in a greater heat
.transfer rate than operating in parallel flow
In actuality, most large heat exchangers are not purely
parallel flow, counter flow, or cross flow; they are
usually a combination of the two or all three types of
heat exchangers. This is due to the fact that actual
heat exchangers are more complex than the simple
components shown in the idealized figures used above
to depict each type of heat exchanger. The reason for
the combination of the various types is to maximize
the efficiency of the heat exchanger within the
restrictions placed on the design. That is, size, cost,
weight, required efficiency, type of fluids, operating
pressures, and temperatures, all help determine the
.complexity of a specific heat exchanger
One method that combines the characteristics of two
or more heat exchangers and improves the
performance of a heat exchanger is to have the two
fluids pass each other several times within a single
heat exchanger. When a heat exchanger's fluids pass
each other more than once, a heat exchanger is called
a multi-pass heat exchanger. If the fluids pass each
other only once, the heat exchanger is called a single-
pass heat exchanger. See Figure 6 for an example of
both types. Commonly, the multi-pass heat exchanger
reverses the flow in the tubes by use of one or more
sets of "U" bends in the tubes. The "U" bends allow
the fluid to flow back and forth across the length of
the heat exchanger. A second method to achieve
multiple passes is to insert baffles on the shell side of
the heat exchanger. These direct the shell side fluid
back and forth across the tubes to achieve the multi-
.pass effect

Figure 6 Single and Multi-Pass Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are also classified by their

function in a particular system. One common
classification is regenerative or non regenerative. A
regenerative heat exchanger is one in which the same
fluid is both the cooling fluid and the cooled fluid, as
illustrated in Figure 7. That is, the hot fluid leaving a
system gives up its heat to "regenerate" or heat up the
fluid returning to the system. Regenerative heat
exchangers are usually found in high temperature
systems where a portion of the system's fluid is
removed from the main process, and then returned.
Because the fluid removed from the main process
contains energy (heat), the heat from the fluid leaving
the main system is used to reheat (regenerate) the
returning fluid instead of being rejected to an
external cooling medium to improve efficiency. It is
important to remember that the term
regenerative/non regenerative only refers to "how" a
heat exchanger functions in a system, and does not
indicate any single type (tube and shell, plate, parallel
.(.flow, counter flow, etc
In a non regenerative heat exchanger, as illustrated
in Figure 7, the hot fluid is cooled by fluid from a
separate system and the energy (heat) removed is not
.returned to the system

Figure 7 Regenerative and Non-Regenerative Heat Exchangers

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS FOR SHELL
AND TUBE EXCHANGERS

The major components of a shell and tube

exchanger are tubes, baffles, shell, front head,
rear head, tube sheet(s), and nozzles.
Expansion joint is an important component in
the case of
fixed tube-sheet exchanger for certain design
conditions. The selection criteria for a proper
combination of these components are
dependent upon the operating pressures,
temperatures,
thermal stresses, corrosion characteristics of
fluids, fouling, cleanability , and cost. Other
components
. A large number of geometrical variables are
associated with each component and they are
discussed in detail in this chapter.
Major components of shell and tube heat
exchangers are shown in Fig. 1.
TUBES

Tubes of circular cross section are exclusively

used in exchangers. Since the desired heat
transfer in the exchanger takes place across
the tube surface, the selection of tube
geometrical
variables is important from the performance
point of view. Important tube geometrical
variables include tube outside diameter tube
wall thickness, tube pitch, and tube layout
patterns Fig. 2).
Tubes should be able to withstand the
following:

1. Operating temperature and pressure on

both sides
2. Thermal stresses due to the differential
thermal expansion between the shell and the
tube bundle
3. Corrosive nature of both the shell-side and
the tube-side fluids

There are two types of tubes: straight tubes

and U-tubes. The tubes are further classified
as
1. Plain tubes
2. Finned tubes
3. Duplex or bimetallic tubes
4. Enhanced surface tubes

Tube Diameter

Tube size is specified by outside diameter and

wall thickness. From the heat-transfer point of
view, smaller diameter tubes yield higher heat-
transfer coefficients and result in a compact
exchanger. However, larger diameter tubes
are easier to clean, more rugged, and they are
necessary when the allowable tube-side
pressure drop is small.
Almost all heat exchanger tubes fall within the
range of in (6.35 mm)) to 2 in (5.8 mm)
outside diameter.

Standard tube sizes and gages for various

metals are given in TEMA Table RCB-2.21.
These sizes give the best performance and are
most economical in many applications. Most
popular are the ;-in and f-in sizes, and these
sizes give the best all-around performance and
are most economical in most applications

Use in (6.35 mm) diameter tubes for clean

fluids. For mechanical cleaning, the smallest
practical size is 3 in (19.05 mm). Tubes
diameter 1 in are normally used when fouling
is expected because smaller ones are not
suitable for mechanical cleaning, and falling
film exchangers anvaporizers generally are
supplied with 1.5- and 2-in tubes

Tube Wall Thickness

The tube wall thickness is generally identified

by the Birmingham wire gage (BWG). Standard
tube sizes and tube wall thickness in inches
are presented in TEMA Table RCB-2.21. Tube
wall thickness must be checked against the
internal and external pressure separately, or
maximum pressure differential across the wall.
However, in many cases the pressure is not
the
governing factor in determining the wall
thickness.

Except when pressure governs, the wall

thickness selected on these bases:

(1) providing an adequate margin again

corrosion,

(2) fretting and wear due to flow induced

vibration,

(3) axial strength, particularly in fixed

Tube-sheet exchangers,

(4) standardized dimensions, and cost.

Low-Finned Tubes
Shell and tube exchangers employ low-finned
tubes (Fig. 3) to increase the surface area on
the shell side when the shell-side heat-transfer
coefficient is low compared to the tube-side
coefficient-for example, when shell-side fluid is
highly viscous liquids, gases, or
condensingvapors. The low-finned tubes are
generally helical or annular fins on individual
tubes.

Fin tubes for a shell and tube exchanger are

generally “low-fin” type with fin height
slightly less than & in (1.59 mm). The most
common fin density range is 19-40 finding
(748-
1575 fins/m). The surface area of such a fin
tube is about 2.5-3.5 times that of a bare tube
The finned tube has bare ends having
conventional diameters of bare tubing; the
diameter of the fin is either slightly lower than
or the same as the diameter of the bare ends,
depending upon the manufacturer. In addition
to the geometrical variables associated with
bare tubes, the additional geometrical
dimensions associated with a fin tube are root
diameter, fin height, and fin pitch.

Tube Length

For a given surface area, the most economical

exchanger is possible with a small shell
diameter
and long tubes, consistent with the space and
the availability of handling facilities at site and
in the fabricator’s shop. Therefore, minimum
restrictions on length should be observed.
However, for offshore applications, long
exchangers, especially with removable
bundles, are often very difficult to install and
maintain economically because of space
limitations. In
this case, shorter and larger shells are
preferred despite their higher price per unit
heat-transfer
surface.
Standard lengths as per TEMA standard RCB-
2.1 are 96, 120, 144, 196, and 240 in.
Other lengths may be used.

Means of Fabricating Tubes

Tubing used for heat exchanger service may

be either welded or seamless. The welded tube
is
rolled into cylindrical shape from strip material
and is welded automatically by a precise
joining process. A seamless tube may be
extruded or hot pierced and drawn. Copper
and
copper alloys are available only as seamless
products, whereas most commercial metals
are
offered in both welded and seamless.

Duplex or Bimetallic Tubes

Duplex or bimetallic tubes are available to
meet the specific process problem pertaining
to
either the shell side or the tube side. For
example, if the tube material is compatible
with the shell-side fluid, but not compatible
with the tube-side fluid, a bimetallic tube
allows it to satisfy
both the corrosive conditions.

Number of Tubes

The number of tubes depends upon the fluid

flow rate and the available pressure drop. The
number of tubes is selected such that the
tube-side velocity for water and similar liquids
range
from 3 to 8 ft/s (0.9-2.4 m/s) and the shell-side
velocity from 2 to 5 ft/s (0.6-1.5 m/s) [Z].
The lower velocity limit is desired to limit
fouling; the higher velocity is limited to avoid
erosion-corrosion on the tube side, and
impingement attack and flow-induced
vibration on the shell side. When sand, silt,
and particulates are present, the velocity is
kept high enough to
Prevent settling down.

Tube Count

To design a shell and tube exchanger, one

must know the total number of tubes that can
fit
into the shell of a given inside diameter. This is
known as tube count.

Factors on which the tube count depends are

discussed in Ref. 6 and in Phadke and Whitley
et al. Such factors include the following:

Shell diameter
Outside diameter of the tubes ,ube pitch
Tube layout pattern-square, triangular, rotated
square, or rotated triangular
Clearance between the shell inside diameter
and the tube bundle diameter

Type of exchanger, i.e., fixed tube sheet,

floating head, or U-tube
Number of tube-side passes
Design pressure
Nozzle diameter
Tie rods and sealing devices that block space
Type of channel baffle, i.e., ribbon, pie shape,
vertical, etc.

The conventional method of obtaining tube

count by plotting the layout and counting the
tubes (thus the tube count) is cumbersome,
time-consuming, and prone to error. Tables of
tube
count are available in references like Ref. 10,
and Saunders [111, Escoe [121, and others,
which
often cover only certain standard combinations
of pitch, tube diameter, and layout
parameters.
A mathematical approach using number
theory is suggested by Phadke [8] to predict
the tube
count and presented tube count for various
combinations of tube layout parameters. His
method eliminates the disadvantages of
drawing the tube layout pattern and can
accommodate any configuration.

U-Bend Requirements as per TEMA

When U-bends are formed, it is normal for the
tube wall at the outer radius to thin. As per
TEMA section RCB-2.33, the minimum tube
wall thickness in the bent portion before
bending
shall be:
t,=t, iI + -
4dRJ
Where t, is the original tube wall thickness, t,
the minimum tube wall thickness calculated by
Code rules for a straight tube subjected to the
same pressure and metal temperature, d the
tube
outer diameter, and Rb the mean radius of
bend.

3 TUBE ARRANGEMENTS

3.1 Tube Pitch

The selection of tube pitch is a compromise

between a close pitch for increased shell-side
heat
transfer and surface compactness, and a
larger pitch for decreased shell-side pressure
drop and
fouling, and ease in cleaning. In most shell and
tube exchangers, the minimum ratio of tube
pitch to tube outside diameter (pitch ratio) is
1.25. The minimum value is restricted to 1.25
because the tube-sheet ligament (a ligament is
the portion of material between two
neighboring
tube holes) may become too weak for proper
rolling of the tubes into the tubesheet. The
ligament width is defined as the tube pitch
minus the tube hole diameter; this is shown in
Fig. 4.

Tube Layout

Tube layout arrangements are designed so as

to include as many tubes as possible within
the
shell to achieve maximum heat transfer area.
Sometimes a layout is selected that also
permits

access to the tubes for cleaning as required by

process conditions. Four standard types of
tube
layout patterns are triangular (30"), rotated
triangular (60"), square (90"), and rotated
square
(45"). (Note that the tube layout angle is
defined in relation to the flow direction and is
not
related to the horizontal or vertical reference
line arrangement, and that the 30°, 60°, and
45'
arrangements are "staggered," and 90" is "in-
line.") For identical tube pitch and flow rates,
the
tube layouts in decreasing order of shell-side
heat-transfer coefficient and pressure drop are
30°, 45",60°, and 90". Thus the 90" layout
will have the lowest heat-transfer coefficient
and
pressure drop. The selection of the tube layout
pattern depends on the following parameters,
which influence the shell-side performance and
hence the overall performance:
1. Compactness
2. Heat transfer
3. Pressure drop
4. Accessibility for mechanical cleaning
5. Phase change if any on the shell side
Triangular and Rotated Triangular
Arrangements
Triangular and rotated triangular layouts (30"
and 60") provide a compact arrangement,
better
shell-side heat-transfer coefficients, and
stronger tube sheets for a specified shell-side
flow
area. For a given tube pitch outside diameter
ratio, about 15% more tubes can be
accommodated within a given shell diameter
using these layouts these layout patterns are
satisfactory for clean services, but have the
disadvantage of making the lanes between
tubes rather inaccessible for mechanical
cleaning. It is difficult to insert a rigid tool
between the tubes.
Only chemical cleaning or water jet cleaning is
possible.

Square and Rotated Square Arrangements

When mechanical cleaning is necessary on the
shell side, 45" and 90" layouts must be used
with a minimum gap between tubes of 6.35
mm. There is no theoretical limit to tube outer
diameter for mechanical cleaning, but the 6.35
mm clearance limits the tubes to a minimum
of 2 or in outer diameter in practice. The
square pitch is generally not used in the fixed
Tube-sheet design because of no need of
mechanical cleaning on the shell side. These
layout patterns offer lower pressure drops and
lower heat-transfer coefficients than triangular
pitch.
The 45" layout is preferred for single-phase
laminar flow or fouling service, and for
condensing fluid on the shell side
Shah 121 suggests a square layout for the
following applications:

1. If the pressure drop is a constraint on the

shell side, the 90" layout is used for turbulent
flow, since in turbulent flow the 90" has
superior heat-transfer rate and less pressure
drop.

2. For reboilers, a square layout will be

preferred for stability reasons. The 90" layout
provides
vapor escape lanes.

BAFFLES

Baffles must generally be employed on the

shell-side to support the tubes, to maintain the
tube
spacing, and to direct the shell-side fluid
across or along the tube bundle in a specified
manner.
There are a number of different types of
baffles and these may be installed in different
ways
to provide the flow pattern required for a given
application.

TUBESHEET

A tube sheet is an important component of a

heat exchanger. It is the principal barrier
between
the shell-side and tube-side fluids. Proper
design of a tube sheet is important for safety
and
reliability of the heat exchanger. Tube sheets
are mostly circular with uniform pattern of
drilled
holes. Tube sheets of surface condensers are
rectangular shape. Tube sheets are connected
to
the shell and the channels either by welds
(integral) or with bolts (gasketed joints) or with
a
combination thereof. Tube-sheet connection
with the shell and channel for fixed tube-sheet
exchanger can be categorized into two types:
1. Both sides integral construction,
2. Shell-side integral and tube-side gasketed
constructionTube-sheet connection with the
shell and channel for floating heat exchanger
and U-tubeheat exchangers can be
categorized into three types:
1. Both sides integral construction
2. One side integral and the other side
gasketed construction
3. Both sides gasketed construction
Possible tube-sheet connections with the shell
and the channel are shown in Fig.

SHELLS

Heat exchanger shells are manufactured in a

large range of standard sizes, materials, and
thickness. Smaller sizes are usually fabricated
from standard size pipes. Larger sizes are
fabricated from plate by rolling. The cost of the
shell is much more than the cost of the tubes;
hence a designer tries to accommodate the
required heat-transfer surface in one shell. It is
found that a more economical heat exchanger
can usually be designed by using a small
diameters hell and the maximum shell length
permitted by such practical factors as plant
layout,installation, servicing, etc. Nominal shell
diameter and shell thickness are furnished in
TEMA Tables R-3.13 and CB-3.1

A PASS ARRANGEMENTSFOR FLOW

THROUGH TUBES

The simplest flow pattern through the tubes is

for the fluid to enter at one end and exit at the
other. This is a single-pass tube arrangement.

To improve the heat-transfer rate, higher

velocities are preferred. This is achieved by
increasing the number of tube-side passes.

The number of tube passes depends upon the

available pressure drop, since higher velocity
in the tube results in higher heat-transfer
coefficient, at the cost of increased pressure
drop. suggests the following guidelines for
tube-side passes:

1. Two-phase flow on the tube side, whether

condensing or boiling, is best kept in a single
straight tube run or in a U-tube.

2. If the shell-side heat-transfer coefficient is

significantly lower than on the tube side, it is
not advisable to increase the film coefficient
on the tube side at the cost of higher tubeside
pressure drop, since this situation will lead to a
marginal improvement in overall heattransfer
coefficient.

Number of Tube Passes

The number of tube-side passes generally

ranges from one to eight. The standard design
has
one, two, or four tube passes. The practical
upper limit is 16. Maximum number of tube
side
passes are limited by workers’ abilities to fit
the pass partitions into the available space
and
the bolting and flange design to avoid
interpass leakages on the tubeside. In
multipass designs,
an even number of passes is generally used;
odd numbers of passes are uncommon, and
may
result in mechanical and thermal problems in
fabrication and operation. Partitions built into
heads known as partition plates control tube-
side passes. The pass partitions may be
straight or wavy rib design. There are some
limitations on how the different types of heat
exchangers can be partitioned to provide
various numbers of passes. They are
summarized here.
1. Fixed tube-sheet exchanger-any practical
number of passes, odd or even. For multipass
arrangements, partitions are built into both
front and rear heads.
2. U-tube exchanger-minimum two passes;
any practical even number of tube passes can
be obtained by building partition plates in the
front head.
3. Floating head exchangers:
With pull through floating head (T head) type
and split backing ring exchanger (S head),
any practical even number of passes is
possible. For single-pass operation, however,
a packed joint must be installed on the floating
head.
With outside packed floating head type (P
head), the number of passes is limited to one
or two. With externally sealed floating tube
sheet no practical tube pass limitation.
4. Two-phase flow on the tube side, whether
condensing or boiling, is best kept within a
single pass or in U-tubes to avoid uneven
distribution and hence uneven heat transfer.

Shell-Side Passes
For exchangers requiring high effectiveness,
multipassing is the only alternative. Shell-side
passes could be made by the use of
longitudinal baffles. However, multipassing on
the shell with longitudinal baffles will reduce
the flow area per pass compared to a single
pass on the shell side. This drawback is
overcome by shells is series, which is also
equivalent to multipassing the shell side. For
the case of the overall direction of two fluids in
counter flow, as the number of shell-side
passes is increased to infinity (practically
above four), its effectiveness Approaches that
of a pure counter flow exchanger. In heat
recovery trains and some other applications,
up to six shells in series are commonly used.

Fouling Factor
The performance of heat exchangers usually
deteriorates with time as a result of
accumulation of deposits on heat transfer
surfaces. The layer of deposits represents
additional resistance to heat transfer and
causes the rate of heat transfer in a heat
exchanger to decrease. The net effect of these
accumulations on heat transfer is represented
by a fouling factor Rf , which is a measure of
the thermal resistance introduced by fouling.
The most common type of fouling is the
precipitation of solid deposits in a fluid on the
heat transfer surfaces. You can observe this
type of fouling even in your house. If you
check the inner surfaces of your teapot after
prolonged use, you will probably notice a layer
of calcium-based deposits on the surfaces at
which boiling occurs. This is especially the
case in areas where the water is hard. The
scales of such deposits come off by scratching,
and the surfaces can be cleaned of such
deposits by chemical treatment. Now imagine
those mineral deposits forming on the inner
surfaces of fine tubes in a heat exchanger and
the detrimental effect it may have on the flow
passage area and the heat transfer. To avoid
this potential problem, water in power and
process plants is extensively treated and its
solid contents are removed before it is allowed
to circulate through the system. The solid ash
particles in the flue gases accumulating on the
surfaces of air preheaters create similar
problems. Another form of fouling, which is
common in the chemical process industry, is
corrosion and other chemical fouling. In this
case, the surfaces are fouled by the
accumulation of the products of chemical
reactions on the surfaces. This form of fouling
can be avoided by coating metal pipes with
glass or using plastic pipes instead of metal
ones. Heat exchangers may also be fouled by
the growth of algae in warm fluids. This type of
fouling is called biological fouling and can be
prevented by chemical treatment. In
applications where it is likely to occur, fouling
should be considered in the design and
selection of heat exchangers. In such
applications, it may be

necessary to select a larger and thus more

expensive heat exchanger to ensure that it
meets the design heat transfer requirements
even after fouling occurs. The periodic
cleaning of heat exchangers and the resulting
down time are additional penalties associated
with fouling.
The fouling factor is obviously zero for a new
heat exchanger and increases with time as the
solid deposits build up on the heat exchanger
surface. The fouling factor depends on the
operating temperature and the velocity of the
fluids, as well as the length of service. Fouling
increases with increasing temperature and
decreasing velocity.
Fouling reduces the cross sectional area for heat to be
transferred and causes an increase in the resistance to heat
transfer across the heat exchanger. This is because the
thermal conductivity of the fouling layer is low. This
reduces the overall heat transfer coefficient and efficiency
of the heat exchanger. This in turn, can lead to an increase
in pumping and maintenance costs.

Maintenance

1 Clean exchangers subject to fouling (scale,

sludge deposits, etc.) periodically, depending
on specific conditions. A light sludge or scale
coating on either side of the tube greatly
reduces its effectiveness. A marked increase in
pressure drop and/or reduction in performance
usually indicates cleaning is necessary. Since
the difficulty of cleaning increases rapidly as
the scale thickens or deposits increase, the
intervals between cleanings should not be
excessive.

2 Neglecting to keep tubes clean may result

in random tube plugging. Consequent
overheating or cooling of the plugged tubes,
as compared to surrounding tubes, will cause
physical damage and leaking tubes due to
differential thermal expansion of the metals.

3 To clean or inspect the inside of the tubes,

remove only the necessary tube side channel
covers or bonnets, depending on type of
exchanger construction.

4 If the heat exchanger is equipped with

sacrificial anodes or plates, replace these as
required.

5 To clean or inspect the outside of the tubes,

it may be necessary to remove the tube
bundle. (Fixed tubesheet exchanger bundles
are non-removable).
6 When removing tube bundles from heat
exchangers for inspection or cleaning, exercise
care to see that they are not damaged by
improper handling.
• The weight of the tube bundle should not be
supported on individual tubes but should be
carried by the tubesheets, support or baffle
plates or on blocks contoured to the periphery
of the tube bundles.
• Do not handle tube bundles with hooks or
other tools which might damage tubes. Move
tube bundles on cradles or skids.
• To withdraw tube bundles, pass rods through
two or more of the tubes and take the load on
the floating tubesheet.
• Rods should be threaded at both ends,
provided with nuts, and should pass
through a steel bearing plate at each end of
the bundle.
• Insert a soft wood filler board between the
bearing plate and tubesheet face to prevent
damage to the tube ends.
• Screw forged steel eyebolts into both
bearing plates for pulling and lifting.
• As an alternate to the rods, thread a steel
cable through one tube and return through
another tube.
• A hardwood spreader block must be inserted
between the cable and each tubesheet to
prevent damage to the tube ends.
7 If the heat exchanger has been in service
for a considerable length of time without being
removed, it may be necessary to use a jack on
the floating tubesheet to break the bundle
free.
• Use a good-sized steel bearing plate with a
filler board between the tubesheet face and
bearing plate to protect the tube ends.

8 Lift tube bundles horizontally by means of a

cradle formed by bending a lightgauge plate or
plates into a U-shape.Make attachments in the
legs of the U for lifting.

9 Do not drag bundles, since baffles or

support plates may become easily bent. Avoid
any damage to baffles so that the heat
exchanger will function properly.

10 Some suggested methods of cleaning

either the shell side or tube side are listed
below:
• Circulating hot wash oil or light distillate
through tube side or shell side will
usually effectively remove sludge or similar
soft deposits.
• Soft salt deposits may be washed out by
circulating hot fresh water.
• Some commercial cleaning compounds such
as “Oakite” or “Dowell” may be effective in
removing more stubborn deposits. Use in
accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.

11 Some tubes have inserts or longitudinal

fins and can be damaged by cleaning when
mechanical means are employed. Clean these
types of tubes chemically.
• If the scale is hard and the above methods
are not effective, use a mechanical means.
Neither the inside nor the outside of the tube
should be hammered with a metallic tool. If it
is necessary to use scrapers, they should not
be sharp enough to cut the metal of the tubes.
Take extra care when employing scrapers to
prevent tube damage. Do not attempt to clean
tubes by blowing steam through individual
tubes. This overheats the individual tube and
results in severe expansion strains and leaking
tube-to-tubesheet joints.

12 To locate ruptured or corroded tubes or

leaking joints between tubes and tubesheets,
the following procedure is recommended:
• Remove tube side channel covers or
bonnets.
• Pressurize the shell side of the exchanger
with a cold fluid, preferably water.
• Observe tube joints and tube ends for
indication of test fluid leakage.

13 With certain styles of exchangers, it will

be necessary to buy or make a test ring to seal
off the space between the floating tubesheet
and inside shell diameter to apply the test in
paragraph 13.

14 To tighten a leaking tube joint, use a

suitable parallel roller tube expander.
• Do not roll tubes beyond the back face of the
tubesheet. Maximum rolling depth should be
tubesheet thickness minus 1/8”.
• Do not re-roll tubes that are not leaking since
this needlessly thins the tube wall.

15 It is recommended that when a heat

exchanger is dismantled, new gaskets be used
in reassembly.
• Composition gaskets become brittle and
dried out in service and do not
provide an effective seal when reused.
• Metal or metal jacketed gaskets in initial
compression match the contact surfaces and
tend to work-harden and cannot be
recompressed on reuse.
16 Use of new bolting in conformance with
dimension and ASTM specifications of the
original design is recommended where
frequent dismantling is encountered.

CAUTIONS:

1 Do not remove channel covers, shell covers,

floating head covers or bonnets until all
pressure in the heat exchanger has been
relieved and both shell side and tube side are
completely drained.

2 Since many of the removable components

of the heat exchanger, particularly in the
larger sizes, are too heavy for people to
handle, care must be used to take this weight
with proper rigging to avoid injury. Wear hard
hats and safety shoes as required.

3 When the heat exchanger is cleaned, it is

important that full characteristics of the fouling
material and the cleaning agent be known and
care exercised in handling them according to
instructions. Use eye protection to prevent
damage to your eyes. Wear a respirator when
required.

4 Do not blow out heat exchangers with air

when the normal process fluids or the cleaning
fluids being handled are inflammable.

SELECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are complicated devices, and the results

obtained with the simplified approaches presented above
should be used with care. Heat transfer enhancement in
heat exchangers is usually accompanied by increased
pressure drop, and thus higher pumping power. Therefore,
any gain from the enhancement in heat transfer should be
weighed against the cost of the accompanying pressure
drop. Also, some thought should be given to which fluid
should pass through the tube side and which through the
shell side. Usually, the more viscous fluid is more suitable
for the shell side (larger passage area and thus lower
pressure drop) and the fluid with the higher pressure for
the tube side. Engineers in industry often find themselves
in a position to select heat
exchangers to accomplish certain heat transfer tasks.
Usually, the goal is to heat or cool a certain fluid at a
known mass flow rate and temperature to a desired
temperature. Thus, the rate of heat transfer in the
prospective heat exchanger is

Qmax=m Cp(Tin _ Tout)

which gives the heat transfer requirement of the heat

exchanger before having any idea about the heat exchanger
itself.
An engineer going through catalogs of heat exchanger
manufacturers will be overwhelmed by the type and
number of readily available off-the-shelf heat exchangers.
The proper selection depends on several factors.

Heat Transfer Rate

This is the most important quantity in the

selection of a heat exchanger. Aheat
exchanger should be capable of transferring
heat at the specified rate in order to achieve
the desired temperature change of the fluid at
the specified mass flow rate.

Cost

Budgetary limitations usually play an

important role in the selection of heat
exchangers, except for some specialized cases
where “money is no object.” An off-the-shelf
heat exchanger has a definite cost advantage
over those made to order. However, in some
cases, none of the existing heat exchangers
will do, and it may be necessary to undertake
the expensive and time-consuming task of
designing and manufacturing a heat
exchanger from scratch to suit the needs. This
is often the case when the heat exchanger is
an integral part of the overall device to be
manufactured. The operation and maintenance
costs of the heat exchanger are also important
considerations in assessing the overall cost.

Pumping Power

In a heat exchanger, both fluids are usually

forced to flow by pumps or fans that consume
electrical power. The annual cost of electricity
associated with the operation of the pumps
and fans can be determined from
Operating cost = (Pumping power, kW) *
(Hours of operation, h)
*(Price of electricity, $/kWh)
where the pumping power is the total electrical
power consumed by the
motors of the pumps and fans. For example, a
heat exchanger that involves a 1-hp pump and
a -hp fan (1 hp _ 0.746 kW) operating 8 h a
day and 5 days a week will consume 2017 kWh
of electricity per year, which will cost $161.4
at an electricity cost of 8 cents/kWh.
Minimizing the pressure drop and the mass
flow rate of the fluids will minimize the
operating cost of the heat exchanger, but it
will maximize the size of the heat exchanger
and thus the initial cost. As a rule of thumb,
doubling the mass flow rate will reduce the
initial cost by half but will increase the
pumping power requirements by a factor of
roughly eight.
Typically, fluid velocities encountered in heat
exchangers range between 0.7 and 7 m/s for
liquids and between 3 and 30 m/s for gases.
Low velocities are helpful in avoiding erosion,
tube vibrations, and noise as well as pressure
drop.

Size and Weight

Normally, the smaller and the lighter the heat

exchanger, the better it is. This is especially
the case in the automotive and aerospace
industries, where size and weight
requirements are most stringent. Also, a larger
heat exchanger normally carries a higher price
tag. The space available for the heat
exchanger in some cases limits the length of
the tubes that can be used.

Type

The type of heat exchanger to be selected

depends primarily on the type of fluids
involved, the size and weight limitations, and
the presence of any phasechange processes.
For example, a heat exchanger is suitable to
cool a liquid by a gas if the surface area on the
gas side is many times that on the liquid side.
On the other hand, a plate or shell-and-tube
heat exchanger is very suitable for cooling a
liquid by another liquid.

Materials

The materials used in the construction of the

heat exchanger may be an important
consideration in the selection of heat
exchangers. For example, the thermal and
structural stress effects need not be
considered at pressures below 15 atm or
temperatures below 150_C. But these effects
are major considerations above 70 atm or
550_C and seriously limit the acceptable
materials of the heat exchanger. A
temperature difference of 50_C or more
between the tubes and the shell will probably
pose differential thermal expansion problems
and needs to be considered. In the case of
corrosive fluids, we may have to select
expensive
corrosion-resistant materials such as stainless
steel or even titanium if we are not willing to
replace low-cost heat exchangers frequently.

Other Considerations

There are other considerations in the selection

of heat exchangers that may or may not be
important, depending on the application. For
example, being leak-tight is an important
consideration when toxic or expensive fluids
are involved. Ease of servicing, low
maintenance cost, and safety and reliability
are some other important considerations in the
selection process. Quietness is one of the
primary considerations in the selection of
liquid-to-air heat exchangers used in heating
and air-conditioning applications.

CHAPTER 23
10
 HEAT EXCHANGER APPLICATIONS
:Introduction
Heat exchangers are found in most chemical or
mechanical systems. They serve as the system's means of
gaining or rejecting heat. Some of the more common
applications are found in heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems, radiators on internal
combustion engines, boilers, condensers, and as pre-
heaters or coolers in fluid systems.

:Pre-heater
In large steam systems, or in any process requiring
high temperatures, the input fluid is usually
preheated in stages, instead of trying to heat it in
one step from ambient to the final temperature.
Pre-heating in stages increases the plant's
efficiency and minimizes thermal shock stress to
components, as compared to injecting ambient
temperature liquid into a boiler or other device
that operates at high temperatures. In the case of a
steam system, a portion of the process steam is
tapped off and used as a heat source to reheat the
feed water in pre-heater stages. Figure 1 is an
example of the construction and internals of a U-
tube feed water heat exchanger found in a large
.power generation facility in a pre-heater stage

Figure 1 U-tube Feed water Heat Exchanger

As the steam enters the heat exchanger and flows
over and around the tubes, it transfers its thermal
energy and is condensed. Note that the steam
enters from the top into the shell side of the heat
exchanger, where it not only transfers sensible heat
(temperature change) but also gives up its latent
heat of vaporization (condenses steam into water).
The condensed steam then exits as a liquid at the
bottom of the heat exchanger. The feed water
enters the heat exchanger on the bottom right end
and flows into the tubes. Note that most of these
.tubes will be below the fluid level on the shell side
This means the feed water is exposed to the
condensed steam first and then travels through the
tubes and back around to the top right end of the
heat exchanger. After making the 180° bend, the
partially heated feed water is then subjected to the
.hotter steam entering the shell side
The feed water is further heated by the hot steam
and then exits the heat exchanger. In this type of
heat exchanger, the shell side fluid level is very
important in determining the efficiency of the heat
exchanger, as the shell side fluid level determines
.the number of tubes exposed to the hot steam

:Radiator
Commonly, heat exchangers are
thought of as liquid-to-liquid devices only. But a
heat exchanger is any device that transfers heat
from one fluid to another. Some of a facility's
equipment depends on air-to-liquid heat
.exchangers
The most familiar example of an air-to- liquid heat
exchanger is a car radiator. The coolant flowing in
the engine picks up heat from the engine block and
carries it to the radiator. From the radiator, the
hot coolant flows into the tube side of the radiator
(heat exchanger). The relatively cool air flowing
over the outside of the tubes picks up the heat,
.reducing the temperature of the coolant

(Fig. (2

Because Air is such a poor conductor of heat, the

heat transfer area between the metal of the
radiator and the air must be maximized. This is
done by using fins on the outside of the tubes. The
fins improve the efficiency of a heat exchanger and
are commonly found on most liquid-to- air heat
exchangers and in some high efficiency liquid-to-
.liquid heat exchangers

Air Conditioner Evaporator and

:Condenser
All air conditioning systems contain at least two
heat exchangers, usually called the evaporator and
the condenser. In either case, evaporator or
condenser, the refrigerant flows into the heat
exchanger and transfers heat, either gaining or
.releasing it to the cooling medium
Commonly, the cooling medium is air or water. In
the case of the condenser, the hot, high pressure
refrigerant gas must be condensed to a sub cooled
.liquid

(Fig. (3
The condenser accomplishes this by cooling the
gas, transferring its heat to either air or water. The
.cooled gas then condenses into a liquid
In the evaporator, the sub cooled refrigerant flows
into the heat exchanger, but the heat flow is
reversed, with the relatively cool refrigerant
absorbing heat from the hotter air flowing on the
outside of the tubes. This cools the air and boils the
.refrigerant
:Large Steam System Condensers

Figure 4 Single-Pass Condensers

The steam condenser, shown in Figure 4, is a major

component of the steam cycle in power generation
facilities. It is a closed space into which the steam exits
the turbine and is forced to give up its latent heat of
vaporization. It is a necessary component of the steam
.cycle for two reasons
One, it converts the used steam back into water for
.return to the steam generator or boiler as feed water
This lowers the operational cost of the plant by
allowing the clean and treated condensate to be
reused, and it is far easier to pump a liquid than
.steam
Two, it increases the cycle's efficiency by allowing the
cycle to operate with the largest possible delta-T and
delta-P between the source (boiler) and the heat sink
.((condenser
Because condensation is taking place, the term
latent heat of condensation is used instead of latent
heat of vaporization. The steam's latent heat
of condensation is passed to the water flowing
.through the tubes of the condenser

After the steam condenses, the saturated liquid

continues to transfer heat to the cooling water as it
.falls to the bottom of the condenser, or hot well
This is called sub cooling, and a certain amount is
desirable. A few degrees sub cooling prevents
condensate pump cavitations. The difference
between the saturation temperature for the existing
condenser vacuum and the temperature of the
.condensate is termed condensate depression
This is expressed as a number of degrees
condensate depression or degrees sub
cooled. Excessive condensate depression decreases
the operating efficiency of the plant because the
sub cooled condensate must be reheated in the
boiler, which in turn requires more heat from the
.reactor, fossil fuel, or other heat source

:References
1-
heat exchanger design handbook, Faulkner, Marcel
Dekker, Inc.,NewYork.

-2
http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1018v1/css/h1018v1_
69.htm

-3
SCIENCES FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL-
FLUID , Yunus A. Çengel, Robert H. Turne

4-
http://www.ittstandard.com/Tools/Library/Upload/Project
6/Heat%20Exchanger%20Installtion%20Operation
%20Maintenance.pdf