c Earth=4.

57 billion years old

c Fission: spontaneous break-up of atoms
c Large continents present 2.5B yrs ago
c Center of Earth- dense, iron rich core
c Isostasy-buoyancy principle to the low-density continents and mountain ranges that literally float on the denser mantle below
Lithosphere-pressure dominant over temperature
Asthenoshphere- temp. dominant over pressure; plastic nature
c Plate tectonics
New lithosphere moves away from zones of oceanic crust formation(seafloor spreading)
Subduction: slabs collide with other slab. Older/colder/denser slab turns downward and is pulled by gravity back into
asthenosphere
-Epicenters (above hypocenter) outline and define the edges of the tectonic plates. (place where one major section of rock has moved
past another)
-Spreading centers cause rocks to fail in tension
-Transform faults: horizontal movement (large earthquakes)
-Dip-slip Faults: vertical direstion caused by pushing or pulling force
Normal fault: hangingwall moves down relative tp footwall
Reverse fault: hanging wall moves upward relative to footwall
-Strike-slip faults: horizontal (parallel to strike direction
-Right lateral fault/left lateral
-Hypocenter: point where fault first ruptures
-Iceland=magnitude 7. East/west oriented transform faults between spreading center segments
-Three classes of collisions:
Oceanic plate/oceanic plate
Oceanic plate/continent-bearing plate
Continental plate/continental plate
-Subduction zones-sites of big earthquakes
-1923, Tokyo & Yokohama- magnitude of 8.2 beneath Sagami Bay southwest of the big cities. Floor dropped markedly and sent
11-m high seismic sea waves. Killed 99,331 people and left another 43,476 missing and presumed dead
-Biggest earthquake-1960, Southern Chile-9.5 mag.

-Law of original continuity: sediment layers are continuous ending only by butting up against topographic high
-Fault zone: avenue of permeability through which water can flow
-P-wave: 5.5-6km/sec but 1.5km/sec in water. 1.7 times faster than S-waves
-S-waves:reflected back into rock and only travel through solids
-Love/Rayleigh waves: Travel only through Earth¶s surface. Love travel from side to side in horizontal plane
-April 1946, Aleutian Islands (not divergent margin): Tsunami 30m high
-September 1992, Nicaragua- 7.6 mag earthquake moved oceanic plate 1m in 2 mins.
-July1998, Papua, New Guinea-7.1 mag
-Feb. 1971, SF Valley (Sylmar) earthquake-67 deaths because of soft first story building support

-March 1964, Alaska ³Good Friday´- mag. 9.2

-Sept. 1985, Mex. City- 8000 deaths caused by building collapse.
-January 1700- mag 9
-April 1906, San Francisco- 5000 death toll
-deficit of earthquakes-³locked´ section of San Andreas fault
-San Juan Bautista and Cholame=´creeping´ section. Earthquakes do not exceed 6 mag.
-Clustered movements: North Anatolian fault in Turkey
-Random movements: San Andreas
-October 1989, World Series (Loma Prieta): Mag 7.1. 6B in damages.
Fault rupture took place at depth
Did not offset ground surface
Vertical movement
Lasted only 11 secs
-Liquefaction caused by slurries as underground water and loose sediments flowed as fluids
-Bay Area: mag. 6-7 earthquake every decade. Mag. 8 every century.
-April 1992, Landers, CA: Mag. 7.5 triggered earthquakes in Nevada, NorCal, Utah, Yellowstone Wyoming
-Yellowstone Park, Wyoming: Fault movements jump successively eastward onto adjacent faults
-Blind thrusts-faults that do not reach ground surface
-Jan. 1994, Northridge
-1971, Sanfernando: Mag 6.5

Eruptive Styles
‡Icelandic-type, gas escapes easily and the low-viscosity lava flows are almost waterlike.
‡Hawaiian-type- basaltic flows where low-viscosity lava dominates, building to a domed peaks. E.G. Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea.
‡Strombolian Type- Not strong enough to break the volcanic cone, but little eruptions occuring a few times per hour.
‡Vulcanian-type- thick highly viscous lavas and masses of pyroclastic material blown out of the volcano. (Clearing throats, first phase)
‡Vesuvian- ciolent blasts of hih-viscosity magma loaded with trapped gases.
‡Plinian type- incredible vertical eruptions of gases vlow ashes and other rocky-glassy debris many miles up into the atmosphere.
(throat now clear).
‡Pelean type- magma is so viscous, the magma and gaseous pressue blow out the top or the side of the volcano.
‡1973, Heimaey, Southern Coast of Iceland, lava flows redirected to increase harbor. People set up a pipe system which poured water
-August 79 CE Vesuvius obliterated Pompeii-4000 deaths
-Lahars-Gravity pulled mass movements of muddy volcanic debris
-1883, Krakatau, Indonesia-caused Tsunami killing 36000npeople
-1628 BCE- Santorini buried the Bronze Age city of Alkrotiri
-May 1980, Mount St. Helen¶s: 5.1 mag. Drop in pressure. Pyroclastic flow.
-May 1914, Mt. Lassen, CA:
-Largest # of hotspots beneath African plate.
-Yellowstone: 2M, 1.3M, 600K increments of rhyolitic magma
-1991, Mt. Pinatubo- 20000 ppl saved. 1.5Million

Lecture Notes:
-1857: San Andreas; moving toward N. American Plate
-Ring of Fire: 70% of seismicity where activity (Volcanoes) happen
-Island Arc Magmatism-tectonic plates floating on Earth
-Oceanic crust=weak spot=Volcano
-How Hawaii was formed
-Tsunami: deals with shallow body of water; waves tend to be long; can be caused by volcanoes
-Submarine landslides cause Tsunamis
-Yellowstone has potential for volcanic activity; history of many events
-New Madrid earthquake moved Mississippi River several km
-Sudden injection of energy in localized place=disasters
- 2004 Indian Earthquake triggered Tsunami that carried away ¼ of a million people
-Early 70¶s Tung Shen Earthquake: 100,000 deaths (most from fires not collapse of bldgs)
- Population concentration (large) is the diff. between hazards/disasters
Pop. Growth has been uniform. Rate of pop. is increasing. (birthrate-deathrate)
-Nigeria-3X birthrate than deathrate
-Current growth rate=1.2%
-Ring of fire-magnet for attracting many people
-58 yrs doubling time
-Si/oxygen=most abundant elements on earth
-Nuclear Fission: Process by which earth generate most internal energy
-Continents=rocks less dense than those in oceans
Plate tectonics denser than continents
-Seismology=2-fold
-Rocky Mtn. States=boundary between N. American and other plates a long time ago
-Indian sub-continent being driven to underbelly of Asia
-Mediterranean sea will disappear where Europe/Africa meet
-Earthquakes: Mag. 9=3 to 6 per century. 8=every 1 to 2 yrs. 7=over 20 per yr.
-magnitude events=200 a yr
-Energy Budget-what comes in must go back out
-Humidity=energy source for tornados/hurricanes
-Winds driven by temp. differences