Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
third-generation networks
Hans Beijner
Providing good in-building coverage plays an important role in attracting • End-users expect better quality of service
and retaining mobile subscribers. Ordinarily, coverage from the macro from third-generation mobile net-
network extends into buildings but should be complemented by dedicat- works—a key differentiator of third-gen-
ed in-building systems. Greater data capacity and the ability of third-gen- eration mobile networks is high bit rates,
eration networks to provide high-speed data services increase the but most high-bit-rate services will be
used by end-users who are stationary; that
demands put on the cellular network. Subscribers have great expecta-
is, the majority of end-users will be in-
tions regarding third-generation services. Therefore, when introduced, the doors in cafés, restaurants, offices, hotels,
new services must (at very least) be available everywhere second-genera- shopping centers, bars, pubs, subways,
tion services can be found. Notwithstanding, many third-generation net- gyms, train stations, airports, and homes.
works deployed to date have been designed primarily to provide good Few people remain stationary while out-
coverage in outdoor environments—not inside buildings. As a conse- doors because conditions are seldom ideal
quence, users of early implementations of wideband code-division multi- (too hot, cold, wet or windy). To attract
ple access (WCDMA) rate third-generation services poorly compared to new subscribers, operators of third-
second-generation services. generation mobile networks should, at
Besides guaranteeing better quality of service (QoS), dedicated in- very least, provide the same level of cov-
building systems enable operators to catch roaming subscribers—most erage as end-users have come to expect
from existing second-generation net-
roaming subscribers have automatic public land mobile network (PLMN)
works. To provide this level of coverage,
selection, which means that if the regular connection is lost, their phone operators can employ dedicated inbuild-
automatically selects the best available PLMN. Operators who provide ing coverage in key locations.
dedicated in-building coverage in key locations, such as airports and train • Dedicated in-building coverage helps of-
stations, can thus catch these high-value roaming subscribers. fload the macro network. This has a two-
The implementation of dedicated in-building coverage in CDMA-based fold effect: (a) dedicated in-building sys-
networks also offloads the macro system, thereby increasing overall sys- tems offload the macro cells by reducing
tem capacity. In other words, operators can, with minimum investment, average downlink power levels, which in
continue to use existing networks to serve a growing number of sub- turn, releases additional system capacity
scribers. This gain in capacity means that operators can put off splitting for the outdoor cell; and (b) in-building
cells and thereby substantially reduce costs of network expansion. In par- cells are isolated from the macro network,
which results in lower interference levels.
ticular, it is more beneficial to deploy dedicated in-building coverage sys-
In-building cells can thus provide greater
tems in third-generation CDMA-based networks than in time-division mul- capacity than outdoor cells.
tiple access (TDMA) networks.
Interesting solutions for deploying in-building coverage in WCDMA net-
works make use of distributed radio base stations (DRS) and passive dis- Coverage vs. capacity in
tributed antenna systems (DAS). These solutions reduce overall costs by
lowering transmission costs, increasing trunking gain, and by sharing RBS
CDMA-based systems
equipment. In TDMA systems, cell coverage and capac-
ity are more or less independent. Coverage
depends on such factors as radio frequency
(RF) power, sensitivity and interference. Ca-
pacity, on the other hand, is determined by
the number of channels provided.
By contrast, in CDMA and WCDMA sys-
BOX A, TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Comparing 3G and 2G tems, capacity and coverage in the downlink
There are several reasons why the demand are highly interdependent (Figure 1). In
2G Second-generation for dedicated in-building coverage is greater CDMA systems, multiple users share the
3G Third-generation
CDMA Code-division multiple access in WCDMA networks than in current same base station transmitter, and thus the
DAS Distributed antenna system second-generation networks: same power resource in the downlink (Fig-
DRS Distributed radio base station • Less favorable link-budget, especially for ure 2). As a consequence, the total cell ca-
GSM Global system for mobile com- high-bit-rate services, because WCDMA pacity is affected by path loss to each user.
munication
HSDPA High-speed data packet access
networks use higher frequencies than Greater path loss is compensated for by a
PLMN Public land mobile network most second-generation networks, the in- comparably larger portion of the downlink
RAN Radio access network door coverage from macro cells is often in- resource, which leaves less of the downlink
RBS Radio base station ferior due to greater link loss. In addition, resource for other users. In essence, the sys-
RF Radio frequency greater capacity must be provided for tem can handle more users at low power
TDMA Time-division mobile network
UE User equipment WCDMA than for second-generation sys- than at high power.
WCDMA Wideband CDMA tems because stronger signal strength is Path loss is determined by a user’s loca-
WLAN Wireless local area network needed for high-bit-rate services. tion in the cell. It is also greatly influenced
WCDMA UL
TDMA DL and UL
WCDMA DL
Figure 1
Dependency of coverage (WCDMA) in the
Capacity uplink and downlink compared to TDMA.
by whether the user is outdoors or indoors. to any given user. A typical limit is 20% of
Users located outdoors and close to the cen- total available power. Therefore, in a worst-
ter of the cell have the least path loss; users case scenario with users in buildings in less-
who are inside buildings far from the cen- than-ideal locations, a cell can serve only a
ter of the cell (cell border) have the great- few users.
est path loss. Users inside buildings con-
sume a proportionately larger share of the
downlink resource, especially when located
Uplink vs. downlink
close to the cell border. Note also that a Conditions in the uplink are somewhat dif-
larger number of users (indoors and out- ferent from those in the downlink. Because
doors) is almost always located closer to the each user has his or her own dedicated radio
cell border (high path loss) than to the cell resource (user equipment, UE) in the up-
center (Figure 3). link, capacity and coverage are not directly
interdependent except for the effect of noise,
which has an increasingly negative effect as
Indoor “black holes” the number of users in the cell grows. Even
Ordinarily, a well-designed WCDMA sys- so, dedicated in-building systems also offer
tem limits the maximum downlink power specific benefits to the uplink. For instance,
Figure 2
Dependency of coverage and capacity
(load) in CDMA-based systems.
Reduced
coverage
High load Low load
Figure 3
Areas A1 and A2 are equal and contain A1
the same number of subscribers, but A1= A2 (km2)
average path loss to users in area A2 is
much greater than for users in area A1.
less interference from other cells, which High bit rates require
means that an isolated indoor cell can have
greater capacity in the uplink than an out-
more power
door macro cell. The services offered in WCDMA systems
By design, traffic is not expected to be bal- determine the power levels required by the
anced in the uplink and downlink. The ma- uplink and downlink. High-bit-rate ser-
jority of high-speed data traffic occurs in the vices require greater power levels from the
downlink. Therefore, most indoor cells are RBS and mobile equipment than low-bit-
limited by the capacity of the downlink. rate services. Also, bear in mind that most
cell; and
• interference from other cells—less inter- Figure 5
ference means greater capacity. The deployment of dedicated in-building systems can increase total
Minimum interference is achieved by iso- network capacity up to 400%.
lating cells from one another. Walls and
other structures help isolate dedicated in-
door cells, making them less vulnerable to
interference from signals from other cells.
Ortogonality is also better in indoor sys-
tems. The capacity of dedicated indoor cells which means the macro cells can serve more
is thus typically two to three times greater users. The addition of a dedicated cell for in-
than that of an ordinary non-isolated macro door users also increases available capacity
cell. Indoor cells that do not employ soft indoors, because the indoor cell is isolated
handover to other cells have even greater ca- from the macro cells. The capacity of the in-
pacity. door cell is thus greater than that of the out-
door cells.
The gain in capacity signifies that the net-
Potential capacity gains work can handle a larger number of sub-
Figure 5 shows a model for describing gains scribers. Compared to traditional methods,
in capacity. According to this model, the ad- such as cell splitting or increasing the num-
dition of in-building systems has the po- ber of frequency channels, the addition of
tential to increase network capacity up to dedicated in-building coverage is thus a
400 percent. Moreover, cost per subscriber, cost-effective way of catering for new sub-
including the cost of the in-building sys- scribers.
tem, can be reduced 67%. The actual gain in capacity depends on
In the first case, macro cells provide cov- factors such as number of indoor users served
erage for outdoor and indoor users (12 out- by dedicated in-building coverage, location
door users and 6 indoor users, Figure 5). Av- of users and buildings, the traffic profile, and
erage path loss to each user is high, and as a penetration loss due to building walls and
consequence, total capacity is relatively low. structures. In many cases, the capacity gain
In the second case, the indoor users enjoy is considerable. Theoretical calculations
dedicated coverage. The coverage from show that capacity in certain parts of a cel-
macro cells is used mostly by outdoor users. lular network can increase by 200-600%
Average path loss per user is thus less, and provided some indoor users are served by
the capacity of each macro cell has increased, dedicated cells. Measurements in live net-
Fiber
Fiber Figure 6
RBS/MU DRS solution using RBS 3402
Main-Remote.
than small, distributed indoor base stations optical signals back into RF signals. The sig-
(pico RBS). For instance, it provides trunk- nals are then distributed inside the build-
ing gains on the radio interface and trans- ing via a coaxial antenna network. Some of
mission links—every radio channel is thus the benefits of deploying DRS configura-
instantly available in every part of the build- tions are greater capacity thanks to im-
ing; this, in turn, increases spectrum effi- proved trunking, low transmission cost, and
ciency and makes it possible to cater for local low investment in the radio access network.
traffic peaks. The RBS needs only one trans-
mission line to feed an entire building. This Greater capacity
makes for a high degree of transmission Trunking gain refers to an increase in num-
trunking efficiency and decreases the ber of channels (or bandwidth), or in other
amount of transmission overhead that is nor- words, an increase in capacity. The DRS so-
mally transmitted to each RBS. lution provides trunking gains for radio in-
DAS solutions also make it is easy for op- terface and transmission—spectrum efficien-
erators to control and confine coverage with- cy improves because every radio channel is in-
in a building and to reduce interference to stantly available in each associated building.
and from the macro network, which in- Moreover, the full capacity of the RBS can be
creases overall network capacity. made available for any building or site, mak-
ing it easier for operators to handle local peak
loads (for example at restaurants during the
DRS solution lunch hour or when users seek indoor shelter
A distributed RBS solution (DRS) is an in- from sudden rain showers).
teresting solution for implementing in-
building coverage for WCDMA (Figure 6). Low transmission cost
The solution shares one RBS between sev- Operators can use statistical multiplexing
eral buildings or indoor areas. The RBS is to reduce transmission costs—many users
connected to an optical distribution system share the same transmission, which is con-
that converts radio signals into optical sig- centrated to one site. In many markets, dark
nals before distributing them to each build- fiber is inexpensive, making the overall cost
ing over optical fiber. High-power optical for a DRS solution favorable compared to
remote units in each building convert the other alternatives.