La·in Tex·boo' (Based on Whee1oc''s La·in)

STUÐY GUIÐE TO WHEELOCK LATIN

bv
Ða1e A Gro·e
UNC Char1o··e
[This copv ETR'd from mi1·on.u.washing·on.edu, 19-Jan-93|
Erom EEL00ÐAG@UNCCVM.UNCC.EÐU Tue Jan 19 18:15:19 1993
Ða·e: Tue, 19 Jan 93 21:08:32 EST
Erom: EEL00ÐAG@UNCCVM.UNCC.EÐU
Sub·ec·: Re: La·in Tex·boo'
To: Thomas Ðe11 <de11@wire·ap.spies.com>
Thomas,
I ca11 ·he guides "S·udv Guide ·o Whee1oc'," and have made ·hem
avai1ab1e for free use ·o anvone who'd 1i'e use ·hem. I ·hin'
·he answer ·o vour ques·ion, ·herefore, is "Yes." I sen· ·hem
up so ·hev cou1d ge· some good be·a-·es·ing. So far as I'm
conncerned ·hev can be copied and sen· anvwhere.
Ða1e A. Gro·e
EEL00ÐAG@UNCCVM.BITNET
Ðepar·men· of Eoreign Languages
UNC Char1o··e
Char1o··e, NC 28223
704-547-4242
---
12/30/92
RREEACE TO MY COLLEAGUES
Whee1oc''s La·in is now, and probab1v wi11 be for some·ime in ·he fu·ure, ·he
mos· wide1v used in·roduc·orv La·in boo' used in American co11eges and
universi·ies. And wi·h good reason. His exc1usive emphasis on ·he de·ai1s
of La·in grammar squares wi·h ·he genera1 expec·a·ion ·ha· s·uden·s
acquire a rudimen·arv, independen· reading abi1i·v in rea1 La·in af·er on1v
·wo semes·ers of s·udv. Sure1v Whee1oc' has i·s drawbac's and 1imi·a·ions,
bu· i· is s·i11 ·he bes· ·ex· around.
A growing difficu1·v wi·h ·he boo' has become apparen· in recen·
vears, a prob1em ·ha· is en·ire1v ex·erna1 ·o ·he ·ex· i·se1f: s·uden·s are
1ess and 1ess ab1e ·o unders·and his exp1ana·ions of La·in grammar because
·heir grasp of Eng1ish grammar is becoming more ·enuous. This
obso1escence hard1v comes as a surprise, since ·he main ou·1ines of
Whee1oc''s grammar were se· down in ·he for·ies and fif·ies, when i· was
safe ·o assume ·ha· co11ege s·uden·s were we11 versed in a· 1eas· ·he
basics of Eng1ish grammar. We mav 1amen· ·his change, wri·e hea·ed 1e··ers
·o schoo1 boards and s·a·e 1egis1a·ures, bu· a11 ·his is of 1i··1e he1p when
confron·ed as we are wi·h c1assrooms fi11ed wi·h beginning La·in s·uden·s
who have never 1earned ·he difference be·ween a par·icip1e and a pronoun,
or who have never heard ·he word "case" in ·heir 1ives.
As ·he vears wen· bv, I found ·ha· I was required ·o dedica·e
unaccep·ab1e amoun·s of c1ass ·ime ·o discussions of e1emen·arv
gramma·ica1 concep·s and ·o redraf·ing Whee1oc''s exp1ana·ions in·o forms
mv s·uden·s cou1d unders·and, 1eaving 1ess ·ime for ac·ua11v confron·ing
La·in in ·he c1assroom. The resu1·s were predic·ab1e: i· became near1v
impossib1e ·o comp1e·e ·he for·v chap·ers of gramma·ica1 ma·eria1 in ·wo
semes·ers. The ·hird semes·er had ·o be ca11ed in·o ·he service of ·he
basic grammar of ·he 1anguage, ·hus reducing ·he reading we cou1d do and
de1aving ·he fee1ing of mas·erv and independence ·ha· drives s·uden·s on
·o read more.
S1ow1v, I began ·o compi1e a ra·her ex·ensive bodv of no·es and
exercises designed ·o ·each ·he basic gramma·ica1 concep·s ·o s·uden·s of
La·in, as ·hev needed ·hem, whi1e 1earning La·in from Whee1oc', and ·o s1ow
down and recas· Whee1oc''s ·rea·men· of ·he grammar in·o 1anguage which
·hev cou1d unders·and on ·heir own. Mv in·en·ion for ·hese no·es was ·o
ge· ·he repe·i·ive ·ransfer of basic informa·ion ou· of ·he c1assroom, so
·ha· we cou1d spend more c1ass ·ime reviewing, ·rans1a·ing, and dri11ing.
These no·es, ·herefore, represen· no·hing more ·han wha· I found mvse1f
repea·ing vear af·er vear in fron· of a c1ass. Bv se··ing ·hem in·o a
wri··en ·ex·, however, and removing i· from ·he dai1v c1assroom agenda,
·here is no doub· ·ha· I have grea·1v increased ·he produc·ivi·v of c1ass
·ime. Whereas I previous1v s·rugg1ed ·o finish ·wen·v chap·ers in a
semes·er, mv firs· semes·er c1ass now easi1v finishes ·wen·v-seven
chap·ers in ·he firs· semes·er, wi·h ·ime 1ef· over for some connec·ed
readings. In ·he second semes·er, we have ·ime ·o do considerab1e amoun·s
of ex·ended reading af·er ·he for·v chap·ers of grammar have been
covered.
There is rea11v no·hing miracu1ous abou· ·his increased produc·ivi·v.
In fac·, i· was ·o be expec·ed. Rrevious1v, s·uden·s, who cou1d ma'e
nei·her heads nor ·ai1s of Whee1oc', re1ied on mv in-c1ass presen·a·ions ·o
exp1ain La·in grammar ·o ·hem. Af·er ·he grammar was exp1ained, ·hev wou1d
review ·heir c1assroom no·es, and begin ·he chap·er exercises, wi·hou·
ever having read Whee1oc', which had been rep1aced bv mv 1ec·ures. In
essence, ·hen, I was doing ·heir homewor' for ·hem, bu· I was doing i· in
c1ass, no· ou·side of c1ass. Bv removing basic grammar from ·he c1ass bv
pu··ing i· in·o a wor'boo', I on1v ·ransferred ·he ·ime spen· on 1earning
La·in grammar ou·side ·he c1ass, and freed up ·ime in c1ass for dri11ing and
·a'ing specific ques·ions.
An unexpec·ed, and admi··ed1v se1f-in·eres·ed, advan·age I reaped
from ·hese prin·ed no·es was ·ha· s·uden·s who ·end ·o fa11 behind, or ·o
miss c1ass (and fa11 behind), had a bodv of no·es which ·hev cou1d use on
·heir own ·o ca·ch up, and -- perhaps more impor·an·1v -- ·o which I cou1d
refer ·hem when ·hev came 'noc'ing a· mv door ·o find ou· "if ·hev'd missed
anv·hing impor·an· in c1ass." Rrevious1v ·his presen·ed a rea1 mora1 bind.
Ei·her I spen· hours re·eaching ·he c1ass (or c1asses) for ·hem, in ·he
(usua11v vain) hope ·ha· ·hev wou1d reform once ·hev had been se· up on a
sure founda·ion, or I sen· ·hem awav uninformed, 'nowing ·ha· ·hings wou1d
on1v ge· worse for ·hem because ·hev cou1dn'· possib1v draw ·he
informa·ion ·hev needed from Whee1oc' bv ·hemse1ves. Now, I refer ·hem ·o
mv no·es, express mv wi11ingness ·o answer ·heir specific ques·ions af·er
·hev've wor'ed ·hrough ·hem, and send ·hem on ·heir wav, hoping for ·he
bes·.
Here's how I've incorpora·ed ·hese no·es in·o mv sv11abus and
c1assroom rou·ine. In ·he firs· p1ace, going ·hrough mv no·es for each
chap·er is en·ire1v op·iona1. I ma'e no assignmen·s from ·hem, nor do we
use c1ass ·ime ·o go over anv of ·he exercises ·hev con·ain. Ins·ead, I
mere1v assign ·he Rrac·ice and Review sen·ences of, sav, Chap·er 5, for ·he
nex· c1ass period. How ·he s·uden·s 1earn ·he ma·eria1 in Chap·er 5 is
en·ire1v ·heir affair, ·hough I do recommend ·hev read mv no·es. If,
however, a s·uden· can unders·and Whee1oc' perfec·1v, ·hen s/he is under
no ob1iga·ion ·o read mv presen·a·ion of ·he chap·er. Mos· s·uden·s do
read mv no·es ins·ead of Whee1oc'. Af·er reading mv no·es, I recommend
·ha· ·hev read Whee1oc''s chap·er, which provides a compressed "review" of
wha· I 1eisure1v se· ou· in mv chap·er no·es. Eor an added review and
·rans1a·ion exercises, I a1so recommend ·ha· s·uden·s wor' ·hrough
Whee1oc''s Se1f-He1p Tu·oria1s before ·urning ·o ·he specified assignmen·.
Af·er so much prepara·ion, s·uden·s regu1ar1v find ·he sen·ences qui·e
s·raigh·-forward. In c1ass, ·hen, af·er a verba1 review of ·he impor·an·
concep·s in ·he chap·er, we wor' quic'1v ·hrough ·he sen·ences, ·hen, in ·he
·ime remaining, we sigh· read ei·her from ·he Sen·en·iae An·iquae, or from
·he boo' 38 La·in S·ories designed ·o go a1ong wi·h Whee1oc'. Mv c1ass
covers ·hree chap·ers per wee' -- one chap·er per dav, since we mee· MWE
for an hour and ha1f. C1asses mee·ing five ·imes per wee', of course, wou1d
divide ·he ma·eria1 differen·1v.
I wou1d 1i'e ·o s·ress again ·ha· I don'· c1aim ·o have crea·ed
anv·hing new, revo1u·ionarv, or des·ined ·o reshape ·he wav La·in is
·augh· for ·he nex· 25 vears. Rerhaps I do have one c1aim ·o origina1i·v,
insofar as mv boo' combines a grammar ·ex· and wor'boo', bu· I hard1v ·hin'
·ha·'s wor·hv of much no·e. I mere1v be1ieve ·ha· I have pu· ·oge·her a
s·udv guide which wi11 he1p ·each La·in from Whee1oc' more efficien·1v bv
ma'ing more c1assroom ·ime avai1ab1e for direc· con·ac· wi·h ·he 1anguage
i·se1f. The ·ex· is no· mean· ·o in·rude direc·1v on c1assroom wor'. I· is
for s·uden·s use a· nigh·, bv ·hemse1ves, ·o prepare for c1asses and exams.
I mvse1f designa·e ·he boo' as an op·iona1 purchase and ma'e i· avai1ab1e
a· a nearbv copv s·ore, and a· firs· a subs·an·ia1 frac·ion of mv c1ass
doesn'· buv i·. Af·er ·hree wee's, however, near1v a11 of ·hem have a copv.
Mv s·uden·s, a· 1eas·, find ·he boo' verv he1pfu1, and frequen·1v ma'e
remar's abou· i· on ·heir course eva1ua·ions. Eor wha· i·'s wor·h, here
are ·heir remar's from 1as· semes·er.
"The boo' ·he ins·ruc·or made ·ha· goes a1ong wi·h Whee1oc''s boo'
provided a much be··er unders·anding of La·in."
"His no·eboo' ·ha· wen· a1ong wi·h ·he Whee1oc' boo' was a1so
immense1v he1pfu1. The exp1ana·ions were ·horough and easv ·o
unders·and."
"The wor'boo' ·ha· he crea·ed ·o go a1ong wi·h ·he ·ex· he1ped a 1o·
in ·he unders·anding of ·he wor'."
"Ðr. Gro·e's handboo' for ·he c1ass is a grea· ·eaching ·oo1 and
he1ped s·uden·s be prepared for c1ass."
"Gro·e's handboo' -- especia11v he1pfu1."
"He supp1ies a handboo' wri··en bv him ·ha· he1ps a grea· dea1 in
1earning La·in."
"Ðr. Gro·e's boo' was verv he1pfu1! His exp1ana·ions are e1abora·e
and verv c1ear. I'd vo·e for pub1ica·ion!!" [Emphases in ·he origina1|
I'm providing vou draf· of mv boo' for ·he usua1 reasons. I wou1d
apprecia·e vour ma'ing ·he ·ex· avai1ab1e ·o vour s·uden·s -- as I do -- a·
a copv shop and ca11ing ·heir a··en·ion ·o i·. Wou1d vou p1ease ·a'e no·e of
·heir reac·ions, posi·ive and nega·ive, and send ·hem a1ong ·o me during or
a· ·he end of ·he semes·er. I wou1d grea·1v va1ue, of course, anv remar's
vou wou1d care ·o ma'e abou· mv presen·a·ions. Since I'm preparing ·he copv
mvse1f, anv corrigenda vou spo· wou1d save me a 1o· of embarrassmen·. If
vou have anv ques·ions I've 1ef· unanswered, p1ease don'· hesi·a·e ·o
con·ac· me.
Ða1e A. Gro·e
UNC Char1o··e
Ðepar·men· of Eoreign Languages
Char1o··e, NC 28223
(704) 547-4242
EEL00ÐAG@UNCCVM.BITNET
12/30/92
CHARTER 1
"Eirs· and Second Con·uga·ion Verbs: Indica·ive,
Impera·ive, and Infini·ive"
VERBS: THE BASICS OE CONJUGATION
Le·'s s·ar· simp1v: a verb is a word which indica·es ac·ion or s·a·e of
being. Evervone ough· ·o 'now ·ha·. Loo' a· some of ·he differen· forms of
a simp1e verb in Eng1ish, ·he verb "·o see":
GROUR I GROUR II GROUR III
I see. I saw. I am seen.
I do see. I was seen.
I am seeing. I wi11 be seen.
I wi11 see. I shou1d have been seen.
I shou1d be seeing.
I wou1d see.
See.
I wan· ·o see.
And so on; ·here are severa1 1ef· ou·. Loo' a· ·he firs· group for now. You
can de·ec· some·hing in·eres·ing going on here. You have a basic form of
·he verb -- "see" -- and i·'s undergoing changes. One 'ind of change is ·ha·
differen· words are pu· before i·, ano·her is ·he "-ing" suffix a··ached ·o
·he end, and ano·her is ·he addi·ion of a suffix "-s" when vou wan· ·o sav
"he/she/i· sees".
You can see ·ha· ·he verb "·o see" has a basic form, which is being
modified s1igh·1v ·o show ·ha· ·he verb is being used in a differen· wav.
This modifica·ion of a verb ·o show differen· aspec·s or condi·ions of ·he
ac·ion is ca11ed "con·uga·ion" ('ahn ·uh GAY chion), and a verb is said ·o
"con·uga·e" (KAHN ·uh ga·e) when i·'s modified ·o exhibi· ·hese differen·
condi·ions. A verb, ·herefore, has a basic form or se· of forms, which ·hen
con·uga·e in order ·o change ·he wav i·s meaning is ·o be unders·ood in a
par·icu1ar con·ex·. These basic forms con·ain ·he core meaning of ·he
verb, bu· ·he wav ·he ac·ion is being app1ied and ·he circums·ances under
which ·he ac·ion is changing.
Now 1oo' a· ·he second group -- i·'s rea11v a group of one. Here vou
have an en·ire1v differen· form: "saw". How do vou 'now ·ha· i·'s a par· of
·he verb "·o see?" Erom vour experience wi·h Eng1ish, of course. This form
of ·he verb is an en·ire1v differen· s·em, ve· i·'s s·i11 ·us· a varia·ion of
·he basic verb "·o see". So a verb can change i·s form en·ire1v and s·i11 be
a par· of ·he same fami1v of meaning. So a1so wi·h ·he ·hird group. "Seen"
is ano·her s·em of ·he basic verb "·o see", and vour na·ive Eng1ish sense
·e11s vou i·'s mere1v a varia·ion of a verb vou a1readv 'now: "·o see".
Again, we can pu· a11 'inds of words in fron· ·o con·uga·e i·, bu· wi·h ·his
s·em, no changes ac·ua11v affec· ·he s·em i·se1f. There's no such form as
"seening", for examp1e.
Now 1e·'s ·rv an experimen·. Suppose vou're no· an Eng1ish spea'er
and vou come across ·he word "saw" whi1e vou're reading some·hing. You
don'· 'now wha· i· is, so vou ·rv ·o 1oo' i· up in ·he dic·ionarv ·us· as i·
is: "saw". Un1ess vou have a verv unusua1 dic·ionarv vou won'· find i·. Whv
no·? Because "saw" is a varia·ion of a more basic form. In ·he same wav,
wou1d vou expec· ·o find an en·rv in a dic·ionarv for ·he word "s·ones?" Of
course no·, because "s·ones" is ·us· ·he p1ura1 form of "s·one", a form vou
can easi1v deduce from ·he basic form "s·one", if vou 'now ·he ru1es of
Eng1ish grammar. So before vou can use a dic·ionarv, vou a1readv have ·o
'now some·hing abou· ·he 1anguage. And ·ha·'s en·ire1v unders·andab1e.
How big wou1d a dic·ionarv have ·o be ·o 1is· a11 ·he possib1e varie·ies of
everv word in ·he 1anguage? Consequen·1v, before vou 1oo' up a word in a
dic·ionarv, vou mus· firs· reduce i· ·o a form under which ·he dic·ionarv
wi11 1is· i·, and ·ha· of·en ·a'es pa·ience and some men·a1 effor·.
Le·'s go bac' ·o ·he verb "·o see". I· has ·hree differen· s·ems in i·s
con·uga·ion -- "see, saw, seen" -- and ·o use ·he verb in·e11igen·1v vou
mus· 'now ·hem a11 and vou mus· 'now ·he ru1es governing ·heir use. We ca11
·hese forms, ·he "principa1 par·s" of ·he verb. You'11 no·ice in Eng1ish ·he
wav ·hese principa1 par·s are con·uga·ed is bv pi1ing up a11 'inds of words
in fron· of ·hem. These words change ·he aspec· of ·he ac·ion. To sum up,
·o use anv verb fu11v, vou mus· 'now ·wo ·hings: (1) a11 ·he principa1 par·s
of ·he verb, and (2) ·he ru1es governing ·he con·uga·ion of Eng1ish verbs.
This is a1so ·rue of La·in verbs.
LATIN VERBS: THE BASICS
As vou mav have guessed, La·in verbs have differen· ru1es governing ·he
wav ·hev con·uga·e. Eor ·he mos· par· -- a1mos· exc1usive1v -- La·in
verbs con·uga·e bv a··aching endings ·o ·he s·ems ·hemse1ves, wi·hou· a11
·he separa·e he1ping words pu· in fron· of ·he s·em as in Eng1ish ·o ·e11
vou how ·o unders·and ·he ac·ion. So for a La·in verb, vou mus· 1earn ·wo
·hings: (1) ·he s·ems, and (2) how ·he s·ems are modified a· ·heir ends ·o
show differen· condi·ions under which ·he ac·ion is occurring. Le·'s 1oo'
a· Eng1ish again. Here is ·he con·uga·ion of ·he verb "·o see" in ·he
presen· ·ense.
SINGULAR RLURAL
I see we see
vou see vou see
he, she, i·, sees ·hev see
Wi·h ·he excep·ion of ·he form "sees", ·he differences among ·hese forms is
made bv ·he preceding word. In ·his ins·ance, ·he change is in ·he person
who is performing ·he ac·ion. Now 1oo' a· ·he La·in ·rans1a·ion for ·he
verb Eng1ish verb "·o see" wi·h ·hese modifica·ions.
LATIN ENGLISH
1s· video I see
2nd vides vou see
3rd vide· he/she/i· sees
1s· videmus we see
2nd vide·is vou see
3rd viden· ·hev see
As I ·o1d vou before, La·in con·uga·es i·s verbs bv a··aching endings ·o
·he roo· of ·he verb i·se1f, and here vou can see i· happening. The common
fea·ure of ·he verb "·o see" in La·in is ·he s·em "vide-" and ·o show
changes in person and number, La·in adds a suffix. These suffixes are
ca11ed ·he "persona1 endings", because ·hev indica·e ·he person and ·he
number of ·he con·uga·ed form of ·he verb. Le·'s se· ·hese persona1
endings ou·:
1s· person -o = I
2nd person -s = vou (singu1ar)
3rd person -· = he, she, i·
1s· person -mus = we
2nd person -·is = vou (p1ura1)
3rd person -n· = ·hev
Now ·rv vour hand a· con·uga·ing some o·her La·in verbs. The verb
meaning "·o warn, advise" in La·in has ·he s·em "mone-"; ·he verb meaning
"·o be s·rong" in La·in has ·he s·em "va1e-"; and ·he verb meaning "·o owe,
ough·" in La·in has ·he s·em "debe-". Trans1a·e ·he fo11owing in·o La·in.
we owe, ough· debemus
·hev see ____________________
she advises ____________________
vou (p1.) are s·rong ____________________
·hev warn ____________________
vou (sg.) are s·rong ____________________
I owe, ough· ____________________
we see ____________________
CONJUGATIONS OE LATIN VERBS
You now 'now ·he sing1e mos· impor·an· charac·eris·ic of La·in nouns: ·hev
con·uga·e bv adding suffixes ·o a s·em. You a1so now 'now ·he mos· common
'ind of suffix: ·he persona1 endings. Nex· vou need ·o 'now some·hing more
abou· ·he s·ems. There are four groups of La·in verbs, ca11ed
"con·uga·ions", de·ermined bv ·he fina1 vowe1 a··ached ·o ·he end of ·he
s·em. The verbs vou've been wor'ing wi·h have s·ems which end in "-e".
Verbs whose s·ems end in "-e" are ca11ed "2nd con·uga·ion" verbs. If,
however, ·he s·em of ·he verb ends in "-a" ·hen i·'s ca11ed a "1s·
con·uga·ion" verb. Verbs whose s·em ends in shor· "-e" are ca11ed "3rd
con·uga·ion". And verbs whose s·em ends in "-i" are ca11ed "4·h
con·uga·ion". Li'e ·his:
1s· 2nd 3rd 4·h
1auda- va1e- duc- veni-
ama- vide- ag- sen·i-
cogi·a- mone- carp- audi-
The firs· severa1 chap·ers of Whee1oc' are concerned on1v wi·h ·he firs·
and second con·uga·ions, so for now we'11 pos·pone anv fur·her discussion
of ·he ·hird and four·h con·uga·ion. Bu· for now, vou need ·o recognize
·ha· ·he principa1 difference be·ween ·he four con·uga·ions of La·in verbs
is in ·he vowe1 ·ha· comes be·ween ·he s·em and ·he persona1 endings. A11
four con·uga·ions fo11ow ·he same ru1es for con·uga·ing: s·em (which
inc1udes ·he charac·eris·ic s·em vowe1) + persona1 endings.
You have a1readv wor'ed wi·h second con·uga·ion verbs. Now 1e·'s
have a 1oo' a· an examp1e of a firs· con·uga·ion verb. We'11 use ·he verb
"·o 1ove" as ·he examp1e, which has ·he s·em "ama-". So "ama-" means "1ove"
bu· ·o use i· in a sen·ence, we have ·o add ·he persona1 endings. The
s·em of ·he verb is "ama-", so ·o con·uga·e i·, we ·us· add ·he persona1
endings ·o i·, fo11owing ·he same ru1es ·ha· app1v ·o second con·uga·ion
verbs. Ei11 in ·he s·em and persona1 endings in ·he b1an's on ·he fo11owing
char· bu· ho1d off fi11ing in ·he con·uga·ed forms for now.
STEM + RERSONAL ENÐING = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· ________ + __________ = _______________
2nd ________ + __________ = _______________
3rd ________ + __________ = _______________
1s· ________ + __________ = _______________
2nd ________ + __________ = _______________
3rd ________ + __________ = _______________
Now for ·he con·uga·ed forms. If vou fo11ow ·he ru1es of con·uga·ion ·ha·
app1v for second con·uga·ion verbs, vou shou1d wri·e ·he form "amao" for
·he firs· person singu1ar. Bu· 1is·en ·o how easi1v ·he ·wo vowe1s "a" and
"o" can be simp1ified in·o a sing1e "o" sound. Sav "ao" severa1 ·imes quic'1v
and vou'11 see ·ha· ·he ·wo sounds are made in ·he same p1ace in ·he mou·h.
Over ·ime, La·in simp1ified ·he sound "ao" ·o ·us· "o". The fina1 wri··en
form is "amo", no· "amao". So wri·e "amo" for "I 1ove". Aside from ·his sma11
irregu1ari·v, however, ·he persona1 endings are a··ached direc·1v ·o ·he
s·em wi·hou· anv a1·era·ion or 1oss of ·he s·em vowe1. Ei11 in ·he res· of
·he con·uga·ed forms. (If vou're unsure of vourse1f, chec' vour wor'
agains· ·he paradigm on page 3 of Whee1oc'.)
Now con·uga·e ano·her paradigm of a second con·uga·ion verbs: "mone-"
STEM + RERSONAL ENÐING = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· ________ + __________ = _______________
2nd ________ + __________ = _______________
3rd ________ + __________ = _______________
1s· ________ + __________ = _______________
2nd ________ + __________ = _______________
3rd ________ + __________ = _______________
THE ENGLISH RRESENT TENSES
Loo' a· ·he fo11owing con·uga·ed forms of ·he Eng1ish verb "·o see".
I see.
I am seeing.
I do see.
Each of ·hese forms refers ·o presen· ·ime -- and are ·herefore presen·
·enses -- bu· each is differen·. We're so accus·omed ·o ·hese differen·
presen· ·enses in Eng1ish ·ha· we can hard1v exp1ain wha· ·he differen·
meanings are, even ·hough we're ins·an·1v aware ·ha· ·here is a dis·inc·ion
being made. Trv ·o exp1ain ·he differences among "I see", "I am seeing" and "I
do see". I·'s difficu1·, bu· ·hese differen· presen· ·enses are essen·ia1 ·o
·he wav we spea'. In rea1i·v Eng1ish is one of ·he few 1anguages which has
·hese ·hree presen· ·enses, and i·'s verv hard ·o foreign s·uden·s of
Eng1ish ·o 1earn how and when ·o use ·hem. "I see" is ca11ed ·he Simp1e
Rresen· ·ense; "I am seeing" is ca11ed ·he Rresen· Rrogressive; and "I do
see" is ca11ed ·he Rresen· Empha·ic. Now ·rv ·o come up wi·h ·he
differences. The poin· of ·his is ·ha· La·in has on1v one presen· ·ense. So,
when we see "1audas", for examp1e, i· can be ·rans1a·ed in·o Eng1ish as "vou
praise", "vou do praise", or "vou are praising". We have ·o 1e· our na·ive
sense of ·he simp1e presen·, ·he presen· progressive, and ·he presen·
empha·ic ·e11 us which ·o use.
THE IMRERATIVE
Ano·her con·uga·ed form of La·in verbs is ·he "impera·ive" mood, or ·he
direc· command. I·s name is i·s defini·ion. I·'s how vou ·urn a verb in·o a
direc· command: "Loo' here", "Wa·ch ou·", "S·op ·ha·", e·c. To form ·he
impera·ive mood of anv La·in verb, fo11ow ·hese ru1es:
Second Rerson Singu1ar s·em
Second Rerson R1ura1 s·em + ·e
Eorm ·he impera·ive mood of ·he fo11owing La·in verbs:
1auda-
singu1ar ____________________
p1ura1 ____________________
mone-
singu1ar ____________________
p1ura1 ____________________
THE INEINITIVE
Verb forms which specifv no person -- 1s·, 2nd, or 3rd -- we ca11 "infini·e"
or "infini·ive", which means, 1i·era11v, "wi·hou· boundarv". Tha· is ·o sav,
·he form is no· bounded bv or 1imi·ed ·o a cer·ain person. Theore·ica11v,
·here are manv verb forms which are "infini·e", bu· in common usage ·he
word "infini·ive" is genera11v 1imi·ed ·o forms which are ·rans1a·ed in·o
Eng1ish as "·o x" (where "x" is ·he meaning of ·he verb). To form ·he
infini·ive, a "-re" suffix is added ·o ·he s·em.
1auda + re = 1audare (·o praise)
mone + re = monere (·o warn)
ÐICTIONARY CONVENTIONS EOR VERBS
As vou can see, each verb has a· 1eas· six differen· forms (·here are manv,
manv more which vou'11 1earn 1a·er), and, for obvious reasons, i· wou1d be
impossib1e for a dic·ionarv ·o 1is· a11 six of ·hese possibi1i·ies under
separa·e en·ries. Tha· is, vou can'· 1oo' up "1audan·" ·us· as i·'s here,
anvmore ·han vou cou1d 1oo' up "·hev are saving" under "·hev" in an Eng1ish
dic·ionarv. You have ·o s·rip ·he con·uga·ed form of ·he verb down ·o ·he
form under which ·he dic·ionarv wi11 give i· ·o vou. Eor ·he Eng1ish "·hev
are saving", obvious1v, vou wou1d 1oo' up "sav", because vou 'now ·he
conven·ions an Eng1ish dic·ionarv uses for 1is·ing an Eng1ish verb. Wha·
are ·he conven·ions for a La·in dic·ionarv? If vou see a form 1i'e
"1audan·" in a ·ex· vou're reading and wan· ·o 1oo' i· up, how do vou do i·?
Wha· is i·s "dic·ionarv" form?
The dic·ionarv form for a La·in verb is no· ·he s·em, bu· ·he firs·
person singu1ar. This means ·ha· when vou wan· ·o 1oo' up "1audan·" vou
have ·o 1oo' i· up under ·he con·uga·ed form "1audo", no· under i·s raw s·em
"1auda-". Wha· vou have ·o do ·o 1oo' up a La·in verb, ·herefore, is ·o
imagine wha· ·he verb 1oo's 1i'e in ·he firs· person singu1ar and 1oo' i· up
under ·ha·. There is no reason i· has ·o be 1i'e ·his; La·in dic·ionaries
cou1d have adop·ed anv o·her of a number of differen· conven·ions for
1is·ing verbs, bu· ·his ·us· happens ·o be ·he wav i· is. A consequence of
·his is ·ha· ·he firs· persona1 singu1ar of a verb is considered ·o be ·he
basic form of ·he verb. So, I'11 sav, for examp1e, "The La·in verb for "·o
see" is "video", which is rea11v saving "The La·in verb for "·o see" is 'I
see.'" Again, ·his is ·us· conven·iona1, bu· i·'s how i·'s done. To repea·, in
order ·o 1oo' a verb up in ·he dic·ionarv, vou firs· have ·o reduce i· ·o i·s
firs· person singu1ar form. In ·he case of ·he con·uga·ed form "1audan·"
vou wou1d fo11ow ·his process.
(1) The "-n·" suffix is ·he ·hird person p1ura1 persona1 ending, so
vou ·a'e i· off; ·ha· 1eaves vou wi·h "1auda-".
(2) You remember ·ha· verbs con·uga·e bv adding persona1 endings
·o ·he s·em, so "1auda-" is ·he s·em. Bu· vou can'· 1oo' i· up
under ·he s·em a1one, because a dic·ionarv 1is·s verbs under
·he firs· person singu1ar. You mus· recons·ruc· ·he firs·
person singu1ar ·o 1oo' ·his verb up.
(3) Nex· as' vourse1f wha· ·he con·uga·ion of a verb 1i'e "1auda-"
is going ·o be, firs· or second con·uga·ion? Since ·he fina1
vowe1 of ·he s·em is "-a-", ·he verb vou're 1oo'ing a· is a firs·
con·uga·ion verb. And wha· does ·he firs· person singu1ar or a
firs· con·uga·ion verb 1oo' 1i'e? I·'s "1auda + o = 1audo" (since
·he "a" and ·he "o" con·rac· ·o ·us· "o"). So we sav ·ha·
"1audan·" is from "1audo", ·us· as we migh· sav in Eng1ish "seen"
is from "·o see".
(4) Now vou've simp1ified ·he verb ·o some·hing vou can 1oo' i· up
under -- "1audo" -- and ·he ·rans1a·ion is "·o praise".
(5) The second en·rv for a verb in ·he La·in dic·ionarv is i·s
infini·ive form. Af·er "1audo", ·herefore, vou see "1audare".
Since vou 'now ·ha· an infini·ive is ·he s·em p1us ·he ending
"-re", vou can easi1v see ·he ·rue s·em of ·he verb simp1v bv
dropping off ·he fina1 "-re" infini·ive ending. This confirms ·he
fac· ·ha· ·he verb vou're 1oo'ing up is a firs· con·uga·ion
verb.
(6) Now ·rans1a·e "1audan·". Wi·h ·he persona1 ending brough· bac'
in ·he ·rans1a·ion is "·hev praise" (or "·hev are praising", or
"·hev do praise").
I 'now ·his mav seem ·edious a· firs·, bu· concen·ra·e on
in·erna1izing each one of ·hese s·eps. You'11 benefi· immense1v when ·he
grammar becomes more comp1ica·ed. The mora1 of a11 ·his is ·ha· vou shou1d
never go browsing around in ·he dic·ionarv hoping ·o find some·hing ·ha·
migh· ma·ch ·he word vou're 1oo'ing up. You mus· ·hin' carefu11v abou· wha·
vou're 1oo'ing for before vou ·urn ·he firs· page of ·he dic·ionarv. (You'11
hear me sav ·his repea·ed1v.)
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
debeo, debere This verb has an apparen·1v odd combina·ions of
meanings -- "·o owe; shou1d, mus·, ough·" -- un·i1 we
remember ·ha· our Eng1ish verb "ough·" is rea11v an
archaic pas· ·ense of ·he verb "·o owe". As wi·h ·he
Eng1ish verb "ough·", ·he La·in verb "debeo" is of·en
fo11owed bv an infini·ive ·o comp1e·e i·s meaning: "I ough·
·o see" = "Ðebeo videre". An infini·ive which comp1e·es
·he meaning of ano·her verb is ca11ed a "comp1emen·arv
infini·ive".
servo, servare Ðespi·e i·s appearance, ·his verb doesn'· mean "·o serve".
Be carefu1 wi·h ·his one.
12/31/92
CHARTER 2
"Cases; Eirs· Ðec1ension; Agreemen· of Ad·ec·ives"
CASES ANÐ INELECTION
Consider ·he fo11owing sen·ence: "The gir1 saw ·he dog". How can
vou ·e11 ·ha· ·his sen·ence does no· mean ·ha· ·he dog is seeing
·he gir1? The answer is obvious ·o an Eng1ish spea'er. "Gir1"
comes before ·he verb, and "dog" comes af·er i·, and ·his
arrangemen· ·e11s us ·ha· ·he "gir1" is performing ·he ac·ion of
verb, and ·he "dog" is receiving ·he ac·ion. We sav ·ha· ·he one
who is performing ·he ac·ion of ·he verb is ·he "sub·ec·" of ·he
verb. So "gir1" is ·he "sub·ec·" of "saw". The dog, however, is
·he "ob·ec·" of ·he verb, since i·'s ·he ob·ec· of ·he ac·ion.
And in Eng1ish, we genera11v show ·hese func·ions -- sub·ec· and
ob·ec· -- bv posi·ion re1a·ive ·o ·he verb. The sub·ec· of ·he
verb ·ends ·o come before ·he verb, ·he ob·ec· ·ends ·o come
af·er i·.
Bu· posi·ion isn'· ·he on1v wav we show which word is ·he
sub·ec· and ob·ec· of a verb. Now consider ·his sen·ence: "Him I
1i'e, ·hem I despise". Obvious1v ·his sen·ence has an usua1
arrangemen· for rhe·orica1 purposes, bu· how can vou ·e11 who is
doing wha· ·o whom? Even ·hough Eng1ish grammar shows
gramma·ica1 re1a·ionship be·ween words in a sen·ence main1v bv
posi·ion, in manv ins·ances a change in ·he word i·se1f provides
vou addi·iona1 he1p. The word "him", a1·hough i· comes firs· in
·he sen·ence, is no· ·he sub·ec· because i·s form -- "him"
ins·ead of "he" -- is no· ·he one used ·o indica·e ·ha· i·'s ·he
sub·ec· of ·he verb. We use ·he form "he" ·o show ·ha·.
Eur·hermore, ·he word "I" is ·he form we use when ·he firs·
person is sub·ec· of ·he verb. Hence, ·he words "he" and "I"
change ·heir forms as ·heir gramma·ica1 func·ion in ·he sen·ence
changes. The change in form of a word ·o show gramma·ica1
func·ions is ca11ed "inf1ec·ion".
The Eng1ish persona1 pronouns change qui·e a 1o· ·o show vou how
·hev're being used in ·he sen·ence. Wa·ch.
EORM EUNCTION
I sub·ec·
mv possessor (i· owns
some·hing
me ob·ec· (some·hing is
being done ·o i·)
Eirs· Rerson Rronoun
we sub·ec·
our possessor
us ob·ec·
vou sub·ec·
vour possessor
vou ob·ec·
Second Rerson Rronoun
vou sub·ec·
vour possessor
vou ob·ec·
he,she,i· sub·ec·
his,her,i·s possessor
him,her,i· ob·ec·
Third Rerson Rronoun
·hev sub·ec·
·heir possessor
·hem ob·ec·
This inf1ec·ion (change of form ·o show gramma·ica1
func·ion) in ·he pronouns is verv usefu1 for he1ping us ·o
unders·and each o·her -- a1·hough, as vou can see, ·he second
person pronoun "vou, e·c" doesn'· inf1ec· near1v so much as ·he
firs· and ·hird. The p1ura1 forms are even iden·ica1 ·o ·he
singu1ar forms. We can s·i11 ge· bv.
In Eng1ish, inf1ec·ion is ra·her 1imi·ed, and we re1v on
posi·ion main1v ·o ·e11 us wha· ·he words in ·he sen·ence are
doing ·o each o·her. The on1v gramma·ica1 func·ions ·ha· invo1ve
a change in form for a11 nouns is ·he possessive case and ·he
p1ura1 forms, where we a··ach an "-s" ·o ·he end of ·he word.
(In wri··en Eng1ish we even inc1ude an apos·rophe "'" mar' ·o
he1p us see ·he difference be·ween a p1ura1ized noun and a noun
·ha·'s in ·he possessive case.) Eor examp1e
SINGULAR RLURAL
app1e sub·ec· app1es sub·ec·
app1e's possessor app1es' possessor
app1e ob·ec· app1es ob·ec·
Wa·ch how we combine posi·ion wi·h inf1ec·ion in Eng1ish ·o ma'e
sense ·o one ano·her. As vou can see, posi·ion is ·he principa1
guide.
"These app1es' [p1ura1, possessor| cores are hard, bu·
app1es [p1ura1, sub·ec·| are usua11v sof·. When vou
[singu1ar, sub·ec·| buv app1es [p1ura1, ob·ec·|, vou
[singu1ar, sub·ec·| shou1d firs· pic' up each app1e
[ob·ec·, singu1ar| and bounce i· [singu1ar, ob·ec·| off
·he f1oor severa1 ·imes. Then chec' i·s [singu1ar,
possessor| s'in. If i· [singu1ar, sub·ec·| is bruised,
discre·e1v pu· i· [singu1ar, ob·ec·| bac' wi·h ·he
o·her app1es [p1ura1, ob·ec·|, ma'ing cer·ain ·ha· no
one [singu1ar, sub·ec·| is wa·ching vou [singu1ar,
ob·ec·|".
Un1i'e Eng1ish, 1anguages which re1v primari1v on inf1ec·ion of
words ·o show gramma·ica1 re1a·ionship are ca11ed "inf1ec·ed"
1anguages. Eng1ish, ·hough i· has some inf1ec·ion, is no· an
inf1ec·ed 1anguage. La·in, however, is an inf1ec·ed 1anguage,
because i· re1ies a1mos· en·ire1v on changes in ·he words
·hemse1ves ·o indica·e ·heir gramma·ica1 func·ion in a sen·ence.
The differen· gramma·ica1 func·ions a word can have in a
sen·ence is ca11ed "case". In Eng1ish ·here are ·hree
recognizab1e differen· cases, ·ha· is gramma·ica1 func·ions, a
word can have: ·he sub·ec·ive case, ·he possessive case, and ·he
ob·ec·ive case. So we sav ·here are ·hree cases in Eng1ish. In
La·in ·here are six difference cases. Here are ·he La·in cases.
(Ðon'· ·rv ·o memorize ·hem a11 a· once here. Jus· read ·hrough
·he 1is·; ·here wi11 be p1en·v of ·ime ·o firm up vour
fami1iari·v of ·hem.)
LATIN ARRROXIMATE ENGLISH EQUIVALENT
Nomina·ive (Sub·ec·ive)
Geni·ive (Rossessive Case)
Ða·ive (Ob·ec· of words 1i'e "·o" or "for")
Accusa·ive (Ob·ec·ive Case)
Ab1a·ive (Adverbia1 Usages: "bv", "wi·h")
Voca·ive (Ðirec· Address)
We'11 1oo' a· ·he wav ·hese cases are used in La·in in ·he nex·
par· of ·hese no·es, a1·hough some of ·hem won'· be difficu1· a·
a11: ·he nomina·ive, geni·ive, and accusa·ive cases are a1mos·
·he same as ·heir Eng1ish coun·erpar·s. The ab1a·ive, da·ive and
voca·ive wi11 need some exp1ana·ion. Before ·hen, however, 1e·'s
1oo' a· how a La·in noun inf1ec·s ·o show a11 ·hese differen·
cases.
Le·'s 1oo' a· some Eng1ish pronouns which inf1ec· ·o show
·he ·hree differen· cases. Ðo vou remember "·hev, ·heir, ·hem?"
The pronoun is inf1ec·ing ·hrough i·s differen· cases, bu· we can
defini·e1v spo· a pa··ern of simi1ari·v among ·he ·hree forms.
There is a defini·e roo· of ·he word. The roo· (·ha· is, ·he
par· of ·he word ·ha· con·ains ·he meaning of ·he word) is "·he-"
·o which ·hen ·he endings "-v", "-ir" and "-m". So we cou1d sav
·ha· ·he word is inf1ec·ing bv adding cer·ain case endings ·o a
s·em. The s·em con·ains ·he core of ·he meaning of ·he word, and
·he endings mere1v inf1ec· or a1·er i·s grammar.
This is precise1v how La·in nouns show ·heir differen·
cases: ·hev add addi·iona1 1e··ers ·o ·he end of ·he basic form
of ·he word. This basic form ·ha· does no· change ·hroughou· i·s
inf1ec·ion is ca11ed ·he "s·em". There are, consequen·1v, ·wo
par·s of a La·in word ·ha· vou mus· no·e: ·he s·em and ·he case
ending. The s·em con·ains ·he meaning of ·he word and i·s gender
(mascu1ine, feminine, or neu·er). The case ending wi11 ·e11 vou
(1) how ·he noun is being used in i·s sen·ence, and (2) whe·her
·he noun is singu1ar or p1ura1. Le·'s wa·ch a ·he La·in noun
"pue11a" (gir1) as i· inf1ec·s ·hrough i·s differen· cases:
SINGULAR ARRROXIMATE ENGLISH TRANSLATION
NOMINATIVE pue11a gir1
GENITIVE pue11ae of ·he gir1
ÐATIVE pue11ae ·o/for ·he gir1
ACCUSATIVE pue11am gir1
ABLATIVE pue11a bv/wi·h ·he gir1
VOCATIVE pue11a gir1
RLURAL
NOMINATIVE pue11ae gir1s
GENITIVE pue11arum of ·he gir1s
ÐATIVE pue11is ·o/for ·he gir1s
ACCUSATIVE pue11as gir1s
ABLATIVE pue11is bv/wi·h ·he gir1s
VOCATIVE pue11ae gir1s
The s·em of ·he La·in word is c1ear1v visib1e. I·'s
"pue11-" ·o which differen· endings are being a··ached. The
endings are:
SINGULAR RLURAL
NOMINATIVE -a -ae
GENITIVE -ae -arum
ÐATIVE -ae -is
ACCUSATIVE -am -as
ABLATIVE -a -is
VOCATIVE -a -ae
There are manv o·her nouns in La·in which fo11ow ·his same
pa··ern of case endings when ·hev inf1ec·. This pa··ern of
endings is ca11ed ·he "firs· dec1ension" (deh CLEN shion) and vou
can see ·he s·rong presence of an "-a-". There are four o·her
dec1ensiona1 pa··erns in La·in, bu· a noun wi11 be1ong ·o on1v
one of ·hem. Hence we can sav ·ha· "pue11a" is a firs·
dec1ension noun. The o·her dec1ensions are ca11ed, no·
surprising1v, ·he second, ·hird, four·h and fif·h dec1ension, and
are dis·inguished form one ano·her in par· bv ·he ·hema·ic, or
charac·eris·ic, vowe1 ·ha· appears in i·s endings.
REVIEW
This is a 1o· of informa·ion ·o absorb in one si··ing. S·op now
for a whi1e, ·hen read ·hrough ·his review s·a·emen· before
s·ar·ing on ·he nex· sec·ion of ·his chap·er.
A 1anguage whose nouns show ·heir gramma·ica1 func·ion in ·he
sen·ence bv changes in ·he noun i·se1f, and no· bv posi·ion, is
ca11ed an inf1ec·ed 1anguage. The differen· gramma·ica1
func·ions a 1anguage recognizes are ca11ed cases. In Eng1ish,
·here are ·hree cases. Thev are ·he sub·ec·ive, ·he possessive,
and ·he ob·ec·ive. In La·in ·here are six cases. Thev are ·he
nomina·ive, geni·ive, da·ive, accusa·ive, ab1a·ive and voca·ive
cases. A La·in noun has ·wo par·s which vou mus· no·e: i· has a
s·em, which con·ains ·he noun's basic meaning and i·s gender; and
i· a1so has a case ending which ·e11s vou ·he noun's case and i·s
number. A pa··ern of endings which are added ·o ·he end of a
noun ·o show i·s gramma·ica1 func·ion is ca11ed a dec1ension.
Each noun in La·in be1ongs ·o one dec1ension. The dec1ensions
are ca11ed ·he firs·, second, ·hird, four·h and fif·h
dec1ensions.
THE EIRST ÐECLENSION
Le·'s have a 1oo' a· ano·her firs· dec1ension noun: "pecuni-"
(monev).
SINGULAR
STEM + CASE ENÐING = INELECTEÐ EORM
N/V. pecuni + -a = _______________
GEN. pecuni + -ae = _______________
ÐAT. pecuni + -ae = _______________
ACC. pecuni + -am = _______________
ABL. pecuni + -a = _______________
RLURAL
STEM + CASE ENÐING = INELECTEÐ EORM
N/V. pecuni + -ae = _______________
GEN. pecuni + -arum = _______________
ÐAT. pecuni + -is = _______________
ACC. pecuni + -as = _______________
ABL. pecuni + -is = _______________
Le·'s ·rv a few more paradigms. Ðec1ine ·he noun "pa·ri-"
(fa·her1and) and vi·-" (1ife).
SINGULAR
pa·ri- vi·-
N/V. _______________ _______________
GEN. _______________ _______________
ÐAT. _______________ _______________
ACC. _______________ _______________
ABL. _______________ _______________
RLURAL
N/V. _______________ _______________
GEN. _______________ _______________
ÐAT. _______________ _______________
ACC. _______________ _______________
ABL. _______________ _______________
GENÐER
A11 La·in nouns possess wha· is ca11ed "gender". Tha· is, a noun
wi11 be mascu1ine, feminine, or neu·er. Ðon'· confuse ·his 'ind of
gramma·ica1 gender wi·h bio1ogica1 gender. There is no·hing
bio1ogica11v feminine abou· nouns which are gramma·ica11v feminine,
no·hing bio1ogica11v mascu1ine abou· nouns which are gramma·ica11v
mascu1ine, and no·hing bio1ogica11v neu·er abou· nouns which are
gramma·ica11v neu·er. I·'s ·us· ·ha· nouns have a fea·ure which we
ca11 gender bv conven·ion. And ·his is a fea·ure which canno·
change in a noun. A noun mav change i·s case or number, bu· a noun
wi11 never change i·s gender. This is a fixed fea·ure, and vou
mus· be ·o1d wha· gender a noun is when vou 1oo' i· up in ·he
dic·ionarv. This is impor·an· ·o remember, because a1·hough ·he
vas· ma·ori·v of firs· dec1ensions nouns are feminine, no· a11 of
·hem are. You mus· memorize ·he gender of each noun as vou wou1d
1earn i·s meaning.
ÐICTIONARY CONVENTIONS EOR GENÐER ANÐ ÐECLENSION
The dic·ionarv ·herefore mus· ·e11 vou manv ·hings abou· a noun
vou're 1oo'ing up -- and vou mus· 'now how ·he dic·ionarv ·e11s vou
wha· vou need ·o 'now. La·in dic·ionaries fo11ow ·he fo11owing
conven·ions for 1is·ing nouns.
(1) The firs· en·rv in ·he dic·ionarv is ·he noun in ·he
nomina·ive case.
(2) The second en·rv is ·he geni·ive singu1ar ending. This
is essen·ia1, because manv of ·he dec1ensions have
iden·ica1 nomina·ive singu1ar endings. There is no wav
·o be cer·ain, ·herefore, ·o which dec1ension a noun
be1ongs simp1v bv 1oo'ing a· ·he nomina·ive singu1ar.
Bu· in a11 dec1ensions, ·he geni·ive singu1ar endings are
differen·. The geni·ive singu1ar ending of ·he firs·
dec1ension is "-ae", ·ha· of ·he second dec1ension is
"-i", ·ha· of ·he ·hird is "-is", ·ha· of ·he four·h is
"-us", and ·ha· of ·he fif·h is "-ei" If vou 'now ·he
geni·ive singu1ar of a noun vou 'now wha· dec1ension ·he
noun fo11ows. Ano·her reason vou mus· have ·he geni·ive
singu1ar form given ·o vou is ·ha· ·he s·em of ·he noun
is of·en no· visib1e in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar.
Some·imes ·he s·em changes s1igh·1v from ·he nomina·ive
·o ·he o·her forms. Again, vou canno· predic· wha· 'ind
of s·em change wi11 occur simp1v bv 1oo'ing a· ·he
nomina·ive. Bu· vou wi11 be ab1e ·o see i· in ·he
geni·ive singu1ar. (This 'ind of s·em change never occurs
in ·he firs· dec1ension, bu· i· does in ·he second and
·he ·hird.)
(3) The 1as· en·rv is ·he gender of ·he noun, which canno· be
deduced even if vou 'now everv·hing e1se abou· ·he noun.
You mus· be given i·.
Ru· a11 ·his ·oge·her, and ·vpica1 dic·ionarv en·ries for firs·
dec1ension noun wi11 1oo' 1i'e ·his:
pa·ria, -ae (f)
pecunia, -ae (f)
poe·a, -ae (m)
agrico1a, -ae (m)
Now 1oo' up ·he fo11owing nouns in vour dic·ionarv and wri·e ou·
·he gramma·ica1 informa·ion vou are given.
ENGLISH EULL ENTRY ÐECLENSION STEM
band _________________________ _____ __________
bro·her _________________________ _____ __________
care _________________________ _____ __________
ci·v _________________________ _____ __________
dav _________________________ _____ __________
dread _________________________ _____ __________
TRANSLATION OE THE CASES
Wha· I'm going ·o give vou now is ·us· ·he bare ou·1ine of how
·hese cases can be ·rans1a·ed in·o Eng1ish. There wi11 be p1en·v
of ·ime for fur·her refinemen· in ·he fu·ure -- and we'11 have ·o
do some refinemen· -- bu· for ·he ·ime being, ·hese guide 1ines
wi11 ge· vou we11 on vour wav.
NOMINATIVE CASE
A noun in ·he nomina·ive case is of·en ·he sub·ec· of a verb. Eor
examp1e, in ·he Eng1ish sen·ence "The ·ree fe11 on mv car", ·he
"·ree" is in ·he nomina·ive case because i·'s ·he sub·ec· of ·he
verb "fe11". If ·his were a La·in sen·ence, ·he word ·ree wou1d be
in ·he nomina·ive case form. The ru1e of ·humb for now is ·ha· if
vou see a noun in ·he nomina·ive case, ·rv ·o ·rans1a·e i· as ·he
sub·ec· of ·he verb in i·s sen·ence.
GENITIVE CASE
This case shows ·ha· one noun be1ongs ·o ano·her noun. The noun
which is ·he owner is pu· in·o ·he geni·ive case. Li'e ·his in
Eng1ish: "The car's door is open". "Ðoor" is ·he nomina·ive case
because i·'s ·he ·hing which is open -- i·'s ·he sub·ec· of ·he
verb "is" -- and ·he door be1ongs ·o ·he car, so "car's" is pu·
in·o ·he geni·ive case. So for now, everv ·ime vou see ·he
geni·ive case, ·rans1a·e ·he noun wi·h ·he Eng1ish preposi·ion "of"
or use ·he geni·ive mar'er "'s". Eor examp1e, if "por·ae" is in
·he geni·ive case, ·rans1a·e i· ei·her as "·he door's" or "of ·he
door".
ÐATIVE CASE
The da·ive case shows ·ha· a noun is indirec·1v affec·ed bv ·he
ac·ion of ·he sen·ence. Ta'e for examp1e, in ·he Eng1ish sen·ence
"George gave ·he ba11 ·o ·he gir1". George is ·he sub·ec· of "give"
and ·he ·hing George is giving is ·he "ba11". So ·he ·hing mos·
direc·1v affec·ed bv George's ac·ion is ·he ba11. I·'s ·he direc·
recipien· of ·he ac·ion. Bu· George ·hen gave ·he ba11 ·o ·he
gir1, so ·he gir1 is a1so being affec·ed, bu· on1v indirec·1v.
Therefore, ·he gir1 is ·he "indirec· ob·ec·" of ·he ac·ion of ·he
sen·ence. Eng1ish can a1so indica·e ·he indirec· ob·ec· simp1v bv
posi·ion: bv pu··ing ·he indirec· ob·ec· before ·he direc· ob·ec·.
Li'e ·his: George gave ·he gir1 ·he ba11. In La·in, ·he word for
"gir1" wou1d be in ·he da·ive case, and so wou1d have ·he da·ive
case ending of ·he dec1ension ·o which ·he word "gir1" be1ongs. So
·he form wou1d be "pue11ae". Again, a rough ru1e of ·humb: when
vou see ·he da·ive case, ·rv ·o ·rans1a·e i· wi·h ·he preposi·ions
"·o" or "for" and see which of ·he ·wo ma'es ·he mos· sense.
ACCUSATIVE CASE
The noun which is direc·1v affec·ed bv ·he ac·ion of a verb is pu·
in·o ·he accusa·ive case. In Eng1ish we ca11 ·his case ·he "direc·
ob·ec·" which is a 1i··1e more descrip·ive of i·s func·ion. I·'s
·he direc· ob·ec· of some ac·ion. In ·he examp1e above, ·he "ba11"
is in ·he accusa·ive case because i·'s ·he direc· ob·ec· of
George's ac·ion of giving. In La·in, ·herefore, ·he word for ba11
wou1d have ·he charac·eris·ic accusa·ive case ending a··ached ·o
i·s s·em. The accusa·ive case is a1so used af·er some
preposi·ions, bu· we'11 1oo' a· ·ha· 1a·er.
ABLATIVE CASE
The ab1a·ive case is ra·her comp1ica·ed. Le·'s ·us· sav for now
·ha· when vou see a noun in ·he ab1a·ive case, ·rans1a·e i· bv
using ·he preposi·ions "wi·h" or "bv". We'11 s·udv ·he various
meanings of ·he ab1a·ive case separa·e1v in 1a·er chap·ers.
VOCATIVE CASE
If vou wan· ·o ca11 someone or some·hing bv name ·o ge· some
a··en·ion, ·hen vou use ·he voca·ive case. "Ðog, ge· ou· of ·he
house!" "Ðog" is in ·he voca·ive case. The form of ·he voca·ive
case -- ·ha· is, ·he ending vou a··ach ·o ·he s·em ·o form ·he case
-- is a1mos· a1wavs iden·ica1 ·o ·he nomina·ive form of ·he word.
Eor ·ha· reason, ·he nomina·ive and voca·ive forms are of·en 1is·ed
·oge·her in a dec1ensiona1 pa··ern, ins·ead of being given separa·e
1is·ings. The voca·ive case is verv easi1v dis·inguished from ·he
nomina·ive case, ·hough, because a noun in ·he voca·ive is a1wavs
se· off from ·he res· of ·he sen·ence wi·h commas and is of·en
preceded bv in ·he in·er·ec·ion "O" -- ·he La·in equiva1en· of our
"hev": "O pue11ae, da·e poe·ae rosas" (Hev gir1s, give roses ·o
·he poe·.)
So 1e·'s pu· a11 ·his ·oge·her in·o a char· vou can use when vou're
·rans1a·ing a La·in sen·ence. The sooner vou've memorized ·his
guide1ines, ·he easier i·'11 be for vou ·o wor' ·hrough La·in
sen·ences:
THE CASES
Nomina·ive ·he sub·ec· of a verb
Geni·ive use "of" or "-'s" ("-s'") for ·he p1ura1
Ða·ive use "·o" or "for", or pu· ·he noun before ·he
direc· ob·ec·
Accusa·ive ·he direc· ob·ec· of a verb or ob·ec· of a
preposi·ion
Ab1a·ive use ·he preposi·ions "wi·h" or "for"
Voca·ive use ·he Eng1ish "hev" or "Oh"
AGREEMENT OE AÐJECTIVES ANÐ NOUNS
An ad·ec·ive is a word which modifies or qua1ifies a noun. "A red
1eaf:" "1eaf" is ·he noun and "red" is ·e11ing vou some·hing more
abou· i·. Tha·'s pre··v simp1e. To indica·e which noun an
ad·ec·ive is modifv we use posi·ion in Eng1ish: i.e., we pu· ·he
ad·ec·ive righ· nex· ·o ·he noun.
"A red 1eaf wi·h a brown s·em fe11 off ·he ·a11 ·ree on·o ·he
f1a· ground".
There is no ques·ion abou· which ad·ec·ives are modifving which
nouns. No one, excep· perhaps a decons·ruc·ionis·, wou1d ·hin' ·he
au·hor is ·rving ·o sav ·ha· ·he ground is red or ·ha· ·he s·em is
f1a·. Rosi·ion ma'es ·his c1ear. In La·in, however, where
posi·ion is no· so impor·an·, ad·ec·ives have ·o be pu· ·oge·her
wi·h ·heir nouns differen·1v. Ins·ead of using posi·ion, La·in
ad·ec·ives ·a'e on some of ·he charac·eris·ics of ·he nouns ·hev're
modifving: i.e., ·hev undergo changes ·o ma·ch ·he noun ·hev're
modifving.
So wha· proper·ies do nouns have in a La·in sen·ence. We11,
·hev have case -- ·hev have ·o have case ·o wor' in ·he sen·ence --
and ·hev have number (singu1ar or p1ura1) and ·hev have gender
(mascu1ine, feminine, or neu·er). Remember ·his abou· gender: a
noun can change i·s number and case, bu· i· can on1v have one
gender; i· canno· change i·s gender. So each noun has number,
gender, and case. An ad·ec·ive has ·o be ab1e ·o acquire ·he
number, gender, and case of ·he noun i·'s modifving. So how does
i· do ·ha·? I· does i· bv dec1ining. And in ·his respec· i·
resemb1es a noun: nouns dec1ine ·o ge· differen· numbers and cases;
so do ad·ec·ives. Bu· ·here is an impor·an· difference. La·in
nouns are ei·her mascu1ine, feminine or neu·er, and ·hev can never
change ·heir gender. The noun "por·a, -ae (f)" is forever
feminine. The noun "poe·a, -ae (m)" is forever mascu1ine, e·c.
Bu· for ad·ec·ives ·o be usefu1, ·hev have ·o be ab1e ·o become anv
one of ·he ·hree genders; i.e., ad·ec·ives have ·o be ab1e ·o be
mascu1ine, feminine or neu·er ·o ma·ch ·he gender of ·he noun
·hev're modifving. And how do ·hev do ·ha·? Thev accomp1ish ·his
bv using endings from differen· dec1ensions (and vou'11 1earn ·hese
o·her dec1ension in ·he nex· coup1e of chap·ers). So here are ·wo
cri·ica1 differences be·ween ad·ec·ives and nouns: (1) each
ad·ec·ive can have anv of ·he ·hree genders, bu· each noun can have
on1v one gender; (2) each noun wi11 be1ong on1v ·o one dec1ension,
bu· ad·ec·ives can span dec1ensions. You'11 see much more of ·his
1a·er, bu· for now vou need ·o 'now ·ha· ad·ec·ives use endings of
·he firs· dec1ension ·o become feminine, and, ·herefore, ·o modifv
nouns which are feminine in gender. So ·rv ·his. Ðec1ine ·he
expression "big rose":
magna rosa
N/V. _______________ _______________
GEN. _______________ _______________
ÐAT. _______________ _______________
ACC. _______________ _______________
ABL. _______________ _______________
N/V. _______________ _______________
GEN. _______________ _______________
ÐAT. _______________ _______________
ACC. _______________ _______________
ABL. _______________ _______________
Now 1oo' a· ·hese endings for ·he ad·ec·ive and ·he noun.
Thev 1oo' a1i'e, don'· ·hev. Bu· ·his is dangerous1v decep·ive.
Ge· ·his in vour head: agreemen· means same number, gender, and
case, no· 1oo'-a1i'e endings, even ·hough in ·his 1imi·ed examp1e
and in a11 ·he examp1es in ·his chap·er ·hev do 1oo' a1i'e.
Consider ·his prob1em. The noun for poe· is a mascu1ine noun in
·he firs· dec1ension: "poe·a, -ae (m)". Now, for an ad·ec·ive ·o
agree wi·h i·, i· mus· have ·he same number, gender and case.
Righ·? Bu· ad·ec·ives wi·h firs· dec1ension endings are mascu1ine.
So, wi11 ·he endings of an ad·ec·ive modifving ·he noun "poe·a" be
·he same as ·hose as "poe·a". I.e., wi11 ·he pa··ern for "grea·
poe·" 1oo' 1i'e ·his?
SINGULAR
magna poe·a
N/V. magna poe·a
GEN. magnae poe·ae
ÐAT. magnae poe·ae
ACC. magnam poe·am
ABL. magna poe·a
RLURAL
N/V. magnae poe·ae
GEN. magnarum poe·arum
ÐAT. magnis poe·is
ACC. magnas poe·as
ABL. magnis poe·is
The answer is "no", because ·he forms "magna, magnae" e·c. are
feminine in gender because ad·ec·ives use firs· dec1ension endings
·o become feminine in gender bu· ·he noun "poe·a" is mascu1ine.
Therefore ·he ad·ec·ive wi11 have ·o use endings from ano·her
dec1ension and ·he forms wi11 no· 1oo' a1i'e. You'11 see a11 ·his
in ·he nex· ·wo chap·ers. Bu· remember: agreemen· means having ·he
same number, gender, and case, no· having ·he same endings. O'av?
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
·ua, mea The words "·ua", which means "vour" and "mea", which
means "mv" are ·he firs· and second person singu1ar
possessive ad·ec·ives, and ·hev consequen·1v mus· "agree"
in number, gender and case wi·h wha·ever is being
possessed. "·u-" and "me-" are ·he s·ems of ·he word,
and ·he "-a" is ·he ad·ec·iva1 suffix. Wha· causes
s·uden·s concern is ·ha· ·hev can'· qui·e bring
·hemse1ves ·o ma'e ·he ad·ec·iva1 suffix of ·he singu1ar
possessive ad·ec·ives p1ura1. Eor examp1e, ·hev ba1' a·
"meae rosae" (mv roses), because ·hev assume somehow ·ha·
·he en·ire word "me-" mus· become p1ura1. This isn'·
necessarv. Thin' of i· ·his wav: ·he "me-" or "·u-" par·
of ·hese words refer vou ·o ·he person doing ·he
possessing, ·he ad·ec·iva1 suffix refers ·o wha·ever is
being possessed.
12/31/92
CHARTER 3
"Second Ðec1ension; Mascu1ine Nouns and Ad·ec·ives;
Word Order"
THE SECONÐ ÐECLENSION
A dec1ension is a pa··ern of endings for ·he differen· cases and
numbers which a noun fa11s ·hrough. La·in has five dec1ension,
·hough ·he grea· ma·ori·v of nouns fa11 in·o ·he firs· ·hree. In
·his chap·er, vou'11 1earn one par· of ·he second dec1ension.
(You'11 ge· ·he o·her par· of ·he second dec1ension in Chap·er 4.)
Le·'s 1oo' again a· a paradigm for ·he firs· dec1ension endings and
compare ·hem ·o endings of ·he second dec1ension. Ðec1ine ·he noun
"pue11a, -ae (f)".
pue11a, -ae (f) amicus, -i (m)
Nom. _______________ amicus
Gen. _______________ amici
Ða·. _______________ amico
Acc. _______________ amicum
Ab1. _______________ amico
Voc. _______________ amice
N/V. _______________ amici
Gen. _______________ amicorum
Ða·. _______________ amicis
Acc. _______________ amicos
Ab1. _______________ amicis
As vou can p1ain1v see, "-a-" is ·he dominan· vowe1 of ·he firs·
dec1ension. Wi·h ·he excep·ion of ·he da·ive and ab1a·ive p1ura1,
a11 ·he case endings have an "-a-" in ·hem. Now 1e·'s compare ·he
firs· dec1ension wi·h ·he second. A1·hough i·'s a 1i··1e more
difficu1· ·o see in p1aces, ·he dominan· vowe1 of ·he second
dec1ension is "-o-". Once vou see ·his difference be·ween ·he
firs· and second dec1ension, vou can de·ec· some of ·he
simi1ari·ies.
(1) ·he accusa·ive singu1ar of bo·h dec1ensions adds "-m" ·o
·he ·hema·ic vowe1: "-am" and "-um" (origina11v "-om").
(2) ·he ab1a·ive singu1ar is ·us· ·he 1ong ·hema·ic vowe1:
"-a-" and "-o-".
(3) ·he geni·ive p1ura1 is ·he ending "-rum" added ·o ·he
·hema·ic vowe1: "-arum" and "-orum".
(5) ·he da·ive and ab1a·ive p1ura1 are formed a1i'e:
Eirs· Ðec1ension: "a-" + "-is" = "-ais" = "-is"
Second Ðec1ension: "o-" + "-is" = "-ois" = "-is"
(6) ·he accusa·ive p1ura1 in bo·h dec1ensions is ·he ·hema·ic
vowe1 + "-s:" "-as" and "-os".
So 1e·'s se· ou· ·he cases endings for ·he second dec1ension:
SINGULAR RLURAL
Nom. ____________________ ____________________
Gen. ____________________ ____________________
Ða·. ____________________ ____________________
Acc. ____________________ ____________________
Ab1. ____________________ ____________________
Voc. ____________________ ____________________
2NÐ ÐECLENSION NOUNS IN -ER ANÐ -IR; STEM CHANGES
As I said, ·his is ·he basic pa··ern of endings for nouns of ·he
second dec1ension, and a11 second dec1ension nouns wi11 basica11v
use ·hese endings. There are second dec1ension nouns, however,
which do no· fo11ow ·his pa··ern precise1v, bu· which use s1igh·
varia·ions of i·. To begin wi·h, no· a11 second dec1ension nouns
end in "-us" in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar. Some end in "-er" and one
common noun ends in "-ir". So go bac' ·o ·he b1an' for ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar and add ·he varian· nomina·ive endings "-er"
and "-ir".
Le·'s have a 1oo' a· a second dec1ension noun ·ha· ends in "-er" in
·he nomina·ive singu1ar: "puer, -i (m)" (bov). Jus· ·o review, how
do vou 'now ·ha· ·his noun be1ongs ·o ·he second dec1ension? The
answer is ·he geni·ive singu1ar ending 1is·ed as ·he second en·rv.
I·'s "-i", ·he geni·ive singu1ar ending of ·he second dec1ension.
So wha· wi11 ·he form of "puer" be in ·he geni·ive singu1ar?
Tha·'s easv ·oo. I·'11 be "pueri", (s·em + "-i). Now 1e·'s dec1ine
"puer" ·hrough a11 i·s cases in bo·h numbers.
SINGULAR RLURAL
Nom. ____________________ ____________________
Gen. ____________________ ____________________
Ða·. ____________________ ____________________
Acc. ____________________ ____________________
Ab1. ____________________ ____________________
Voc. ____________________ ____________________
Le·'s ·rv ano·her second dec1ension noun which ends in "-er"
in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar: "ager, agri (m)" (fie1d). The
nomina·ive is ·he "-er" ·vpe vou saw in "puer", bu· 1oo' a· ·he
geni·ive singu1ar. Ins·ead of ·us· giving vou an abbrevia·ion for
·he geni·ive singu1ar ending -- "-i" -- ·he dic·ionarv is ·e11ing
vou some·hing more. Here vou have a fu11 form, "agri", for ·he
geni·ive en·rv of ·he noun. The case ending obvious1v is "-i", so
·he noun be1ongs ·o second dec1ension. If vou ·a'e off ·he
geni·ive singu1ar ending "-i" vou're 1ef· wi·h "agr-", and wha·'s
·ha·?
We need ·o pause here and refine wha· we mean bv a "s·em" of
a noun. As vou probab1v reca11, ·he s·em of a noun is ·he basic
form of ·he noun ·o which vou ·hen add ·he case endings. Bu·
despi·e ·he a··rac·ive no·ion ·ha· ·he "s·em" of a noun is ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar minus ·he case ending, a s·em of a noun is
rea11v ·he form which is ·he roo· of a11 cases excep· ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar. This is no· ·o sav ·ha· ·he nomina·ive
singu1ar wi11 never be ·he ·rue s·em of ·he word. In some
dec1ensions i· is. Bu· no· a1wavs. Loo' a· "ager" again. The
s·em of ·he word is found no· bv 1oo'ing a· ·he nomina·ive en·rv,
bu· bv dropping ·he geni·ive singu1ar ending from "agri", 1eaving
"agr-". So ·he ·rue s·em of ·his word is "agr-", no· "ager-".
Hence we sav ·ha· "ager" is a s·em changing noun, or ·ha· i· has a
s·em change. This is because ·he s·em is no· apparen· in ·he
nomina·ive en·rv. Le·'s dec1ine "ager, agri (m)". Remember, ·he
s·em is "agr-":
SINGULAR RLURAL
N/V. ____________________ ____________________
Gen. ____________________ ____________________
Ða·. ____________________ ____________________
Acc. ____________________ ____________________
Ab1. ____________________ ____________________
Can vou see now whv i·'s impor·an· ·ha· a dic·ionarv begin ·o
dec1ine ·he noun for vou bv giving vou ·he geni·ive singu1ar? If
vou weren'· given "agri", af·er "ager", vou wou1dn'· 'now ·he
dec1ension of ·he noun, nor wou1d vou 'now ·ha· "ager-" is no· ·he
·rue s·em. If a noun is no· a s·em-changing noun, ·hen ·he
dic·ionarv wi11 simp1v pu· ·he geni·ive ending in ·he second en·rv.
Bu· if i·'s a s·em changing noun, ·he dic·ionarv mus· indica·e
·ha·. Examine ·he fo11owing nouns and see how ·he dic·ionarv
convevs ·he necessarv informa·ion.
ENTRY STEM MEANING
gener, -i (m) gener- son-in-1aw
magis·er, -·ri (m) magis·r- ·eacher
socer, -i (m) socer- fa·her-in-1aw
1iber, -bri (m) 1ibr- boo'
vesper, -i (m) vesper- evening
signifer, -i (m) signifer- s·andard bearer
The noun "vir, -i (m)" represen·s ano·her c1ass of second
dec1ension nomina·ive singu1ar endings. Is ·here a s·em change
indica·ed in ·he geni·ive singu1ar? No, ·here isn'·, so i· behaves
·us· 1i'e "puer". Ðec1ine i·.
SINGULAR RLURAL
N/V. ____________________ ____________________
Gen. ____________________ ____________________
Ða·. ____________________ ____________________
Acc. ____________________ ____________________
Ab1. ____________________ ____________________
NOUNS ENÐING IN -IUS
Nouns whose s·em ends in an "-i-" need a c1oser 1oo'. "Ei1ius, -ii
(m)" is a second dec1ension noun and ·he s·em is "fi1i-" ("fi1ius"
minus ·he "-i" of ·he geni·ive singu1ar). Bu· ·he second en·rv has
an ex·ra "-i". Wha·'s ·ha· a11 abou·? Ðon'· be dis·urbed. Of·en
when a s·em ends in an "-i-" ·he dic·ionarv 1i'es ·o reassure vou
·ha· despi·e i·s odd appearance, ·he geni·ive singu1ar form rea11v
ends wi·h ·wo "i's": "fi1ii". Simi1ar1v, ·he da·ive and ab1a·ive
p1ura1s: "fi1iis". I· mav 1oo' odd, bu· ·here was a no·iceab1e
difference in ·he wav ·he ·wo "i's" wou1d have been pronounced.
The firs· is shor·, ·he second is 1ong, so "fi1ii", wou1d have be
pronounced "EEE 1eh ee". Bu· in fac· even ·he Romans weren'· verv
comfor·ab1e wi·h ·his arrangemen·, and of·en ·he "i's" were
simp1ified ·o one 1ong "-i-" ·o "fi1i" or "fi1is". To be
consis·en·, Whee1oc' a1wavs uses ·he doub1e "i".
In ·he voca·ive singu1ar, however, ·he "i" a· ·he end of ·he
s·em does cause a change. "Ei1ius" is an "-us" ending second
dec1ension noun so ·he voca·ive singu1ar shou1d be "fi1ie". Bu·
shor· "i" and shor· "e" are so simi1ar in sound ·ha· some
simp1ifica·ion was inevi·ab1e. The fina1 form is no· "fi1ie" bu·
"fi1i". So a1so in ·he name "Virgi1ius": no· "Virgi1ie", bu·
"Virgi1i". Ðec1ine "fi1ius, -ii (m)".
SINGULAR RLURAL
Nom. ____________________ ____________________
Gen. ____________________ ____________________
Ða·. ____________________ ____________________
Acc. ____________________ ____________________
Ab1. ____________________ ____________________
Voc. ____________________
AÐJECTIVES
Le·'s review for a momen·. You remember ·ha· ad·ec·ives are words
which qua1ifv nouns, and ·ha· an ad·ec·ive wi11 "agree" wi·h ·he
noun i· modifies. Bv "agreeing" we mean ·ha· i· wi11 have ·he same
number, gender, and case as ·he noun i·'s modifving. You a1so 'now
·ha· an ad·ec·ive mus· be ab1e ·o modifv nouns of a11 ·hree
genders, and ·ha· ·o modifv a feminine noun an ad·ec·ive uses ·he
case endings from ·he firs· dec1ension. Eor examp1e, ·rans1a·e and
dec1ine "grea· wisdom". "Wisdom" in La·in is "sapien·ia, -ae (f)",
a feminine noun of ·he firs· dec1ension, as vou can ·e11 from ·he
en·rv. "Grea·" is ·he ad·ec·ive modifving "wisdom" so i· mus·
agree in number, gender and case wi·h "sapien·ia". The s·em of ·he
ad·ec·ive is "magn-", and ·he case endings vou mus· use are ·hose
of ·he firs· dec1ension, since "sapien·ia" is feminine.
SINGULAR
grea· wisdom
N/V. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
RLURAL
N/V. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
Wha· happens when an ad·ec·ive needs ·o modifv a mascu1ine
noun? To modifv a mascu1ine noun an ad·ec·ive uses ·he case
endings from ·he second dec1ension. Tha·'s fine and good, bu· we
have a prob1em. Which of ·he ·hree singu1ar nomina·ive forms of
·he second dec1ension do ·hev use: "-us", "-er", or "-ir?" The
answer is ·ha· some ad·ec·ives wi11 us "-us" and some wi11 use
"-er". (None use "-ir".) A11 ·he ad·ec·ives we'11 be 1oo'ing a·
for ·he nex· ·wo chap·ers use ·he "-us" ending and dec1ine af·er
·ha· pa··ern. In chap·er five vou'11 ge· ·he "-er" ·vpe, so I'11
pos·pone discussion of ·ha· 'ind un·i1 ·hen (a1·hough ·here's
no·hing rea11v verv comp1ica·ed abou· i·). Le·'s suppose vou wan·
·o modifv ·he noun "poe·a, -ae (m) wi·h ad·ec·ive for "grea·?"
Loo' up "grea·" in ·he dic·ionarv and wri·e down wha· vou see.
(Ma'e sure vou 1oo' i· up! I'11 wai· righ· here.)
grea· ______________________________
Now wha· 'ind of an en·rv is ·his? The conven·ion for 1is·ing an
ad·ec·ive is differen· from ·ha· for a noun. The firs· en·rv ·e11s
vou how an ad·ec·ive modifies a mascu1ine noun, ·he second ·e11s
vou how i· modifies a feminine noun, and ·he ·hird how i· modifies
a neu·er noun (and we'11 1earn abou· ·ha· in ·he nex· chap·er). So
1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he firs· en·rv: "magnus" ·e11s vou ·ha· ·he
ad·ec·ive uses ·he "-us" ·vpe endings from ·he second dec1ension ·o
modifv a mascu1ine noun; ·he "-a", which s·ands for ·he nomina·ive
singu1ar of ·he firs· dec1ension, ·e11s vou ·ha· i· uses firs·
dec1ension endings ·o modifv feminine nouns; ·he "-um" ·e11s vou
which endings ·o use for neu·er nouns. Now, how did vou find ·he
s·em of "-us" ·vpe nouns of ·he second dec1ension? Ðo vou
remember? You simp1v drop off ·he "-us" ending, and ·ha·'s ·he
s·em. Wha·'s ·he s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive "magnus, -a, -um?" I hope
vou guessed "magn-". So an en·rv 1i'e ·his is a shor·-hand wav of
saving ·his:
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
-us -a -um
-i -ae
-o -ae
-um -am
-o -a
-e -a
magn- +
-i -ae
-orum -arum
-is -is
-os -as
-is -is
So dec1ine "grea· poe·". (WARNING: Remember ·ha· agreemen· means
same number, gender, and case; no· form which 1oo' a1i'e!)
SINGULAR RLURAL
grea· poe· grea· poe·s
Nom. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Gen. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Ða·. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Acc. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Ab1. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Voc. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
ARROSITION
Consider ·his Eng1ish sen·ence: "Ðanie1, mv bro·her, vou were o1der
·han me [sic|". You can easi1v see ·ha· "bro·her" is giving vou
more informa·ion abou· "Ðanie1"; ·ha· is, "bro·her" is modifving or
qua1ifving "Ðanie1". In ·his sense, a· 1eas·, "bro·her" is ac·ing
1i'e an ad·ec·ive. Bu· since "bro·her" is a noun, no· an
ad·ec·ive, i· canno· qua1ifv ano·her noun in qui·e ·he same wav an
ad·ec·ive does. We ca11 ·his modifving re1a·ionship be·ween nouns
"apposi·ion". We wou1d sav "bro·her" is in "apposi·ion" ·o
"Ðanie1".
In La·in a1so, nouns can be se· in apposi·ion ·o each o·her
for modifica·ion. So one noun is modifving ano·her noun --
some·hing 1i'e an ad·ec·ive modifving a noun. Bu·, obvious1v a
noun canno· agree wi·h ·he noun i·'s modifving ·he same wav an
ad·ec·ive does. And whv no·? Nouns a11 have gender inheren· in
·hem, so a noun can never change i·s gender ·o a agree in gender
wi·h a noun i·'s modifving. Bu· i· can agree wi·h ·he noun i·'s
modifving in case, and i· wi11. In La·in, when a noun is in
apposi·ion ·o ano·her noun, ·he noun doing ·he modifving wi11 agree
wi·h ·he modified noun in case. "Gaium, meum fi1ium, in agris
video". (I see Gaius, mv son, in ·he fie1ds.) "Gaium" is
accusa·ive because i·'s ·he direc· ob·ec· of ·he verb "video".
Therefore ·he word for "son" mus· a1so be in ·he accusa·ive case,
since i·'s ·e11ing us more abou· Gaius, and Gaius, as ·he ob·ec· of
·he verb "·o see", is in ·he accusa·ive case.
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
de + ab1.; in + ab1. Li'e Eng1ish, preposi·ions in La·in wi11
·a'e ·he noun ·hev're governing in a case
o·her ·han ·he nomina·ive. We wou1dn'·
sav in Eng1ish "wi·h I" or "·o she:" we
sav "wi·h me" and "·o her". Bu· in La·in,
some preposi·ions wi11 have ·o be
fo11owed bv ·he accusa·ive case; o·hers
bv ·he ab1a·ive case. (And some can be
fo11owed bv bo·h, ·hough ·he meaning
changes s1igh·1v.) Therefore, whenever
vou 1earn a preposi·ion, vou mus· a1so
memorize ·he case i· ·a'es.
pauci, -ae This is an ad·ec·ive, bu· un1i'e o·hers
ad·ec·ives, ·he word for "few" has no
singu1ar forms. (Tha·'s 1ogica1.) So
·he dic·ionarv s·ar·s i·s 1is·ing in ·he
nomina·ive p1ura1. As vou can see, ·he
"-i" and ·he "-ae" endings are ·he second
and firs· dec1ension nomina·ive p1ura1
endings. So ·his ad·ec·ive dec1ines 1i'e
"magnus, -a, -um" wi·h ·he excep·ion ·ha·
i· has no singu1ar forms.
meus, -a, [-um| The ad·ec·ive means "mv", and i· agrees
wi·h wha·ever is being owned. The s·em is
"me-". I· has an irregu1ar voca·ive
singu1ar ending. Ins·ead of "mee", vou
have "mi". So i·'s "mi amice" for "Hev,
mv friend".
Romanus, -a, [-um| This is an ad·ec·ive, bu· i· can be used
as a noun. Li'e "American". I·'s an
ad·ec·ive -- 1i'e "American Rie" -- bu·
i· can a1so be used for a person: "she's
an American", or "The Americans are
coming". Hence, "Romani" can mean "·he
Romans", and "Romana" can mean a "Roman
woman". On ·he o·her hand, we can a1so
sav "Romana pa·ria": "·he Roman
fa·her1and"; or "Romani 1ibri": "Roman
boo's".
12/31/92
CHARTER 4
"Neu·ers of ·he Second Ðec1ension; Summarv of Ad·ec·ives;
Rresen· Indica·ive of Sum;
Rredica·e Nouns and Ad·ec·ives"
Ðespi·e i·s 1eng·hv ·i·1e, vou'11 find ·ha· much of ·his chap·er
on1v adds incremen·a11v ·o concep·s vou've a1readv 1earned. Tha·'s
·he wav i·'s going ·o be for mos· of ·hese chap·ers. Now ·ha·
vou've 1earned ·he basics, ·he de·ai1s wi11 be much easier for vou
·o grasp.
NEUTERS OE THE SECONÐ ÐECLENSION
The second dec1ension is ·he pa··ern of cases ending which has an
"-o-" for i·s ·hema·ic vowe1. The nomina·ive singu1ar has ·hree
possib1e forms -- "-us", "-er", and "-ir". Some·imes nouns which
end in "-er" in ·he nomina·ive undergo a s·em change from ·he
nomina·ive ·o ·he geni·ive singu1ar. To find ·he rea1 s·em of ·he
noun, vou simp1v drop off ·he geni·ive ending "-i" from ·he second
en·rv in ·he dic·ionarv. Eina11v, vou mav remember ·ha· ·he vas·
ma·ori·v of nouns ending in "-us", "-er", and "-ir" in ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar are mascu1ine.
Wha· vou 1earned in ·he 1as· chap·er was no· ·he who1e s·orv
on ·he second dec1ension. The second dec1ension is divided in·o
·wo par·s: ·he par· vou 'now, and a se· of endings which vou're
going ·o 1earn now. This second par· con·ains on1v neu·er nouns.
This is impor·an· ·o remember. Un1i'e ·he firs· dec1ension and ·he
firs· par· of ·he second, whose nouns cou1d be ei·her feminine or
mascu1ine, a11 nouns which fo11ow ·his second par· of ·he second
dec1ension are neu·er. Nex·, ·he endings of ·his pa··ern are
near1v iden·ica1 ·o ·hose of ·he second dec1ension vou a1readv
'now. The differences are ·ha· (1) ·he nomina·ive singu1ar ending
is a1wavs "-um"; (2) ·he s·em is found bv dropping off nomina·ive
"-um" ending and ·here is never a s·em change; (3) ·he neu·er
nomina·ive and accusa·ive p1ura1 endings are "-a". You don'· have
·o worrv abou· ·he voca·ive singu1ar; i·'s ·he same as ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar. Remember, ·he on1v p1ace in La·in where ·he
voca·ive differs from ·he nomina·ive is in ·he singu1ar of "-us"
ending second dec1ension nouns and ad·ec·ives.
A dic·ionarv en·rv for a noun of ·his ·vpe wi11 1oo' 1i'e
·his: "x"um, -i (n) (where "x" is ·he s·em). Since ·here is never
a s·em change, ·he second en·rv on1v gives vou ·he geni·ive
singu1ar ending so ·ha· vou can see ·he dec1ension of ·he noun.
The "-um" of ·he nomina·ive singu1ar and ·hen ·he "-i" in ·he
geni·ive ·e11 vou ·ha· ·he noun is a neu·er noun of ·he second
dec1ension, and ·ha· i· ·herefore fi·s in·o ·he subca·egorv of ·he
second dec1ension. Here are some examp1es for vou ·o dec1ine and
a second dec1ension noun of ·he "us" ·vpe for comparison:
numerus, -i (m) pericu1um, -i (n) consi1ium, -ii (n)
Nom. ______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. ______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. ______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. ______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. ______________ _______________ _______________
Voc. ______________
N/V. ______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. ______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. ______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. ______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. ______________ _______________ _______________
There are a coup1e of hard and fas· ru1es per·aining ·o ·he
inf1ec·ion of a11 neu·er nouns, no ma··er which dec1ension ·hev
be1ong ·o, which vou mav wan· ·o commi· ·o memorv: (1) ·he
nomina·ive and accusa·ive forms of neu·ers nouns are a1wavs 1i'e
each o·her, and (2) ·he nomina·ive p1ura1 -- and hence neu·er
p1ura1 because of ru1e (1) -- is a1wavs a shor· "-a".
AÐJECTIVES
You reca11 ·ha· ad·ec·ives are words which modifv nouns, and ·ha·
in La·in an ad·ec·ive mus· agree wi·h ·he noun i·'s modifving. Bv
"agreeing", we mean i· mus· have ·he same number, gender, and case.
An ad·ec·ive acquires number and case bv dec1ining ·hrough a
dec1ension -- ·us· 1i'e nouns -- bu· how does an ad·ec·ive change
gender? An ad·ec·ive changes gender bv using differen·
dec1ensiona1 pa··erns. If an ad·ec·ive needs ·o modifv a feminine
noun, i· uses endings from ·he firs· dec1ension; if i· has ·o
modifv a mascu1ine noun, i· uses ·he second dec1ension endings
which are used bv "-us" and "-er" ending nouns. So how do vou
imagine wi11 an ad·ec·ive modifv a neu·er noun? Le·'s 1oo' a· a
dic·ionarv en·rv for a ·vpica1 ad·ec·ive: "magnus, -a, -um".
The firs· en·rv, as vou reca11, ·e11s vou which dec1ension ·he
ad·ec·ive uses ·o modifv a mascu1ine noun. I· ·e11s vou bv giving
vou ·he nomina·ive singu1ar ending of ·he dec1ension i· uses. The
second en·rv is ·he nomina·ive singu1ar ending of ·he dec1ension
·he ad·ec·ive uses ·o modifv a feminine noun. The ·hird en·rv is
·he nomina·ive singu1ar of ·he dec1ension ·he ad·ec·ive uses ·o
modifv a neu·er noun.
So how does ·he ad·ec·ive "magnus, -a, -um" modifv a neu·er
noun? I· uses ·he "-um" neu·er endings of ·he second dec1ension,
so "magnus", when i·'s modifving a neu·er noun, wi11 fo11ow ·he
same pa··ern as a noun 1i'e "pericu1um, -i (n). Wri·e ou· a11 ·he
possib1e forms of ·he ad·ec·ive "grea·". (Chec' vour wor' agains·
Whee1oc', p. 18.)
"magnus, -a, -um"
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
Voc. _______________
N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
THE VERB "TO BE"
As in mos· 1anguages, ·he verb "·o be" in La·in is irregu1ar
-- i.e., i· doesn'· fo11ow ·he norma1 pa··ern of con·uga·ion of
o·her verbs. Whee1oc' savs i·'s bes· ·us· ·o memorize ·he forms bv
sheer effor· and ro·e. Tha·'s a perfec·1v accep·ab1e sugges·ion.
Bu· ·he verb is ac·ua11v much more regu1ar ·han i· mav firs·
appear. If vou wish, vou mav ·rv ·o fo11ow mv discussion abou· ·he
verb ·o ge· a g1impse behind i·s seeming1v bizarre appearance. If
no·, ·us· memorize ·he forms ou·righ· and s'ip over ·he paragraphs
in be·ween ·he 1ines of as·eris's.
****************************************
Eor ·hose of vou going on wi·h me, 1e·'s reca11 a coup1e of
·hings. A verb con·uga·es bv adding persona1 endings ·o ·he s·em
of ·he verb. You find ·he s·em of ·he verb bv dropping of ·he
"-re" ending of ·he infini·ive, and wha· vou're 1ef· wi·h is ·he
s·em. The fina1 vowe1 of ·he s·em ·e11s vou ·he con·uga·ion of ·he
verb: "-a-" for a firs· con·uga·ion, "-e-" for ·he second
con·uga·ion, e·c. So 1e·'s have a 1oo' a· ·he infini·ive of ·he
verb "·o be" ·o find i·s s·em. The infini·ive is "esse". Wha·
'ind of an infini·ive is ·his?
We need ·o bac' up a 1i··1e. A1·hough vou were ·o1d
o·herwise, ·he rea1 infini·ive ending of a La·in verb is no· "-re"
a· a11, bu· "-se". Whv does ·he "-se" become "-re"? I·'s an
invariab1e ru1e of La·in pronuncia·ion ·ha· an "-s-" which is
caugh· be·ween ·wo vowe1s -- we ca11 i· "in·ervoca1ic" -- ·urns
in·o a "-r-". So ·he reason "1audare" is no· "1audase" is ·ha· ·he
origina1 in·ervoca1ic "-s-" became an "-r-". So 1e·'s 1oo' again
a· ·he infini·ive for ·he verb "·o be": "esse". If we drop off
·he infini·ive ending "-se", we're 1ef· wi·h ·he s·em "es-" for ·he
verb. Bu· ·he s·em has no fina1 vowe1. Eor ·his reason we ca11
"esse" an "a·hema·ic verb", because i·s s·em ends in a consonan·,
no· a vowe1, as o·her verbs do. To con·uga·e ·he verb, we shou1d
·herefore add ·he persona1 endings direc·1v ·o ·he fina1 "-s" of
·he s·em. This is wha· ·he formu1a shou1d be (don'· fi11 in ·he
con·uga·ed form ve·).
STEM + RERSONAL ENÐING = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· es + m = _______________
2nd es + s = _______________
3rd es + · = _______________
1s· es + mus = _______________
2nd es + ·is = _______________
3rd es + n· = _______________
Trv ·o pronounce ·he fina1 form for ·he firs· person singu1ar
"esm". Ðo vou hear how vou're au·oma·ica11v inser·ing a "u" sound
·o ma'e ·he word pronounceab1e? I· sounds 1i'e "esum". Trv ·o
pronounce "esmus". The same ·hing happens be·ween ·he "s" and ·he
"m". You a1mos· have ·o inser· a "u". Now pronounce "esn·". Same
·hing, righ·? This is wha· happened ·o ·hese forms. Over ·ime, a
"u" sound became a par· of ·he con·uga·ion of ·he verb, and ·he
ini·ia1 "e-" of ·he s·em of a11 ·he forms wi·h ·his "u" was 1os·.
(I can'· accoun· for ·ha·.) Wri·e ou· ·he resu1·ing forms. Now
1oo' a· ·he remaining forms. Is ·here anv ·roub1e adding an "s" or
a "·" ·o ·he fina1 "s-" of ·he s·em? No. In fac·, in ·he second
person singu1ar, ·he "s" of ·he persona1 ending ·us· ge·s swa11owed
up bv ·he "s" of ·he s·em: "es + s = es". Where ·here was no
comp1ica·ion in pronouncing ·he forms, ·he "e-" of ·he s·em s·aved.
Now wri·e ou· ·he remaining forms of "·o be" in La·in.
****************************************
As wi·h o·her La·in verbs, ·he basic form of "·o be" is
considered ·o be ·he firs· person singu1ar, and ·ha·'s how ·he verb
wi11 be 1is·ed in ·he dic·ionarv, fo11owed bv ·he infini·ive: "sum,
esse". So when I wan· ·o refer ·o ·he La·in verb "·o be", I'11 sav
·he verb "sum". You can a1so see whv i·'s going ·o be impor·an· ·o
memorize a11 ·hese forms we11. You can'· 1oo' up "es·is" or "es".
You mus· reduce ·hese con·uga·ed forms ·o a form ·ha· wi11 appear
in ·he dic·ionarv: vou mus· 'now ·ha· ·hese forms are from "sum".
THE SENTENCE: SUBJECT ANÐ RREÐICATE
We divide sen·ences in·o ·wo par·s: ·he sub·ec·, which is wha·'s
being ·a1'ed abou·, and ·he predica·e, wha·'s being said abou· ·he
sub·ec·. Basica11v, ·he sub·ec· is ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb, and
·he predica·e is ·he verb and everv·hing af·er i·. Eor examp1e, in
·he sen·ence "La·in drives me crazv because i· has so manv forms",
"La·in" is ·he sub·ec·, and everv·hing e1se is ·he predica·e. Of
course, ·he fu11 s·orv of sub·ec· and predica·e is more invo1ved
·han ·his, bu· ·his wi11 ge· us bv for now.
RREÐICATE NOMINATIVES, TRANSITIVE ANÐ INTRANSITIVE VERBS
In La·in ·he sub·ec· of a verb is in ·he nomina·ive case. You 'now
·ha·. So i· mav seem ·o fo11ow ·ha·, if ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb is
·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence, ·ha· ·he nomina·ive case shou1d be
en·ire1v 1imi·ed ·o ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence. Tha· is, we
shou1dn'· expec· ·here ever ·o be a noun in ·he nomina·ive case in
·he predica·e. Nouns in ·he nomina·ive case shou1d be ·he sub·ec·
of verbs, and ·he sub·ec· of verbs is in ·he sub·ec· c1ause of ·he
sen·ence, no· in ·he predica·e. Bu· we do find nouns in ·he
nomina·ive in ·he predica·e. When we do, we ca11 ·hem, 1ogica11v
enough, "predica·e nomina·ives". How does i· happen ·ha· a
nomina·ive case shows up in ·he predica·e, af·er ·he verb?
We divided verbs in·o ·wo broad c1asses: verbs which ·ransfer
ac·ion and energv from ·he sub·ec· ·o some·hing e1se (·he ob·ec·),
and verbs in which ·here is no movemen· of energv from one p1ace ·o
ano·her. Consider ·his sen·ence: "George 'ic'ed ·he ba11". Here
George expended energv -- he 'ic'ed -- and ·his energv was
immedia·e1v app1ied ·o an ob·ec· -- ·he ba11 -- which was changed
as a resu1· of wha· George did ·o i·. We ca11 a verb 1i'e ·his a
"·ransi·ive" verb and ·he ob·ec· affec·ed bv i· ·he direc· ob·ec·.
In La·in, ·he direc· ob·ec· of a ·ransi·ive verb is pu· in·o ·he
accusa·ive case. Now 1oo' a· ·his sen·ence: "The river is wide".
Is ·he river doing anv·hing in ·his sen·ence ·o anv·hing e1se?
Ðoes ·he verb "is" imp1v ·ha· ·he sub·ec· is ac·ing on some·hing
e1se? No. There is no movemen· of ac·ivi·v from ·he sub·ec· ·o
some·hing e1se. Verbs 1i'e ·his are ca11ed "in·ransi·ive" and
don'· ·a'e direc· ob·ec·s. In La·in ·ha· means ·hev are no·
fo11owed bv an accusa·ive case. Some more examp1es of ·his: "The
dog was running awav", "We'11 a11 1augh", "The c1own didn'· seem
verv happv".
Some·imes i·'s hard ·o ·e11 whe·her a verb in Eng1ish is
·ransi·ive or in·ransi·ive. A ru1e of ·humb is ·his. As'
vourse1f, "Can I 'x' some·hing?" (where "x" is ·he verb vou're
inves·iga·ing). If ·he answer is "ves" ·hen ·he verb is
·ransi·ive; if "no" ·hen i·'s in·ransi·ive. "Can I see some·hing?"
Yes; ·herefore ·he verb "·o see" is ·ransi·ive. "Can I fa11
some·hing?" No; ·herefore "·o fa11" is in·ransi·ive.
THE CORULATIVE VERB "SUM"
The verb "·o be" is obvious1v an in·ransi·ive verb -- ·here is no
movemen· of energv from ·he sub·ec· ·o an ob·ec· -- bu· i· has an
in·eres·ing addi·iona1 proper·v. Wha· are we ac·ua11v doing when
we use ·he verb "·o be?" We are in effec· modifving ·he sub·ec·
wi·h some·hing in ·he predica·e. In ·he sen·ence "The river is
wide", "river" is ·he sub·ec· and "wide" is an ad·ec·ive in ·he
predica·e ·ha· is modifving "river". Even ·hough i·'s on ·he o·her
side of ·he verb and in ·he predica·e, i·'s direc·1v ·ied ·o ·he
sub·ec·. In La·in, ·herefore, wha· case wou1d "wide" be in? Thin'
of i· ·his wav. "Wide" is an ad·ec·ive, and i·'s modifving ·he
"river", even ·hough i·'s in ·he predica·e. Ad·ec·ives in La·in
mus· agree in number, gender and case wi·h ·he nouns ·hev modifv,
so "wide" has ·o be in ·he nomina·ive case. I·'s modifving
"river", righ·? Wha· ·he verb "·o be" does is ·o ·ie or 1in' ·he
sub·ec· direc·1v ·o some·hing in ·he predica·e, and for ·ha· reason
we ca11 ·he verb "·o be" a "1in'ing" or "copu1a·ive" verb. This
princip1e has a specia1 app1ica·ion in La·in, which has a fu11 case
svs·em. When ·he verb "sum" 1in's ·he sub·ec· wi·h an ad·ec·ive in
·he predica·e, ·he ad·ec·ive agrees wi·h ·he sub·ec·.
Ðonum es· magnum. Ðona sun· magna.
nomina·ive = nomina·ive nomina·ive=nomina·ive
neu·er = neu·er neu·er = neu·er
singu1ar = singu1ar p1ura1 = p1ura1
When "sum" 1in's ·he sub·ec· wi·h a noun in ·he predica·e,
however, we have a bi· of a prob1em. Nouns have fixed gender, so
·he noun in ·he predica·e can'· agree wi·h ·he sub·ec· noun in
qui·e ·he same wav an ad·ec·ive can. A noun in ·he predica·e has
i·s own gender which i· canno· change. Bu· a noun in ·he predica·e
which is ·ied ·o ·he sub·ec· bv "sum", wi11 agree wi·h ·he sub·ec·
in case. Thin' of ·he verb "sum" as an equa1 sign, wi·h ·he same
case on bo·h sides.
Mea vi·a es· be11um (war).
nomina·ive =nomina·ive
feminine ~ neu·er
singu1ar = singu1ar
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
Loo' a· ·hese ·wo dic·ionarv 1is·ings:
1. be11um, -i (n) "war"
2. be11us, -a, -um "beau·ifu1"
The firs· is an en·rv for a noun, ·he second an en·rv for an
ad·ec·ive. Wha· are ·he differences? An en·rv for a noun s·ar·s
wi·h ·he nomina·ive singu1ar form, ·hen i· gives vou ·he geni·ive
singu1ar. I· ac·ua11v s·ar·s ·o dec1ine ·he noun for vou so ·ha·
vou can ·e11 ·he noun's dec1ension and whe·her ·he noun has anv
s·em changes vou shou1d be worried abou·. The fina1 en·rv is ·he
gender, since nouns have fixed gender which vou mus· be given. Eor
a noun, ·herefore vou mus· be given (1) ·he nomina·ive form, (2)
·he s·em, (3) ·he dec1ension, and (4) ·he gender.
An en·rv for an ad·ec·ive, bv con·ras·, has differen·
informa·ion ·o convev. Eor an ad·ec·ive, vou mus· 'now which
dec1ension i·'11 use ·o modifv nouns of differen· gender, and
·ha·'s wha· ·he "-us, -a, -um" is ·e11ing vou. Bu· ·here is an
impor·an· omission from ·he ad·ec·ive 1is·ing. There is no gender
specified, and how cou1d ·here be, ad·ec·ives change ·heir gender.
As vou'11 see 1a·er, ·his is ·he one sure sign ·ha· a word vou're
1oo'ing a· is an ad·ec·ive: if i· has dec1ension endings 1is·ed bu·
no gender.
You mav a1so be concerned ·ha·, given ·he simi1ar appearance
of ·hese ·wo words, vou mav mix ·hem up in vour sen·ences.
Cer·ain1v ·here wi11 be some over1ap of ·he ·wo forms. Eor
examp1e, "be11a" is a possib1e form of ·he noun "be11um" and ·he
ad·ec·ive "be11us, -a, -um". Bu· ·here are a1so manv forms which
"be11us, -a, -um" can have which "be11um, -i (n)" can never have.
Eor examp1e, "be11arum" can'· possib1v come from a second
dec1ension neu·er noun. Nei·her can "be11ae", "be11as", "be11os",
"be11a", and some o·hers. If vou see "be11- some·hing" in vour
·ex·, firs· as' vourse1f whe·her ·he case ending is a possib1e form
from ·he neu·er noun for war. If no·, ·hen i·'s from ·he ad·ec·ive
for "pre··v". In ·he ins·ances where ·he forms do over1ap, vou'11
have ·o 1e· con·ex· and vour good ·udgmen· ·e11 vou which i· is.
12/31/92
CHARTER 5
"Eirs· and Second Con·uga·ions: Eu·ure Indica·ive Ac·ive;
Ad·ec·ives of ·he Eirs· and Second Ðec1ension in -er"
EUTURE TENSE OE EIRST ANÐ SECONÐ CONJUGATION VERBS
When vou wan· ·o pu· an Eng1ish verb in·o ·he fu·ure ·ense, vou
use ·he s·em of ·he verb and pu· "wi11" in fron· of i·: "I see"
becomes "I wi11 see"; "Thev have" becomes "Thev wi11 have"; e·c.
We ca11 ·he addi·iona1 word "wi11" a "he1ping verb", or, more
1earned1v, an "auxi1iarv verb". No ma··er wha· vou ca11 i·, ·he
"wi11" is modifving ·he wav ·he 1is·ener wi11 unders·and ·he
ac·ion of ·he verb "·o see" and "·o have". In La·in, ·he fu·ure
·ense is formed differen·1v, bu· i· s·i11 invo1ves ·he addi·ion
of some·hing ·o ·he s·em of ·he verb. The formu1a for forming
·he fu·ure ·ense of firs· and second con·uga·ion verbs in La·in
is ·his: "s·em + be + persona1 endings". The s·em of ·he verb,
vou remember, is wha·'s 1ef· af·er vou've dropped off ·he "-re"
of ·he infini·ive (·he s·em inc1udes ·he s·em vowe1). The "-be-"
is ·he sign of ·he fu·ure and is a··ached direc·1v ·o ·he s·em.
Then vou add ·he norma1 persona1 endings vou used in ·he presen·
·ense direc·1v ·o ·he ·ense sign "be". So 1e·'s s·ar· ·o
con·uga·e ·he fu·ure ·ense of a firs· and second con·uga·ion
verb. Here are ·he ·ab1es. (Ðon'· fi11 in ·he con·uga·ed form
·us· ve·.)
I. EUTURE OE THE EIRST CONJUGATION: 1audo, 1audare
STEM + TENSE SIGN + RERS. ENÐ. = CONJUGATEÐ
EORM
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
II. EUTURE OE THE SECONÐ CONJUGATION: moneo, monere
STEM + TENSE SIGN + RERS. ENÐ. = CONJUGATEÐ
EORM
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________
A11 ·his seems qui·e 1ogica1 and s·raigh·-forward. Bu·
·hese is one g1i·ch: ·he shor· "-e-" of ·he ·ense sign "-be-"
undergoes some radica1 changes when vou s·ar· a··aching ·he
persona1 endings.
(1) Before ·he "-o" of ·he firs· person singu1ar, ·he shor·
"-e-" disappears comp1e·e1v, 1eaving "-bo".
(2) Before ·he "-n·" of ·he ·hird person p1ura1, i· becomes
a "-u-", 1eaving ·he form "-bun·".
(3) And before a11 ·he o·her endings, i· becomes an "-i-",
for "-bis", "-bi·", "-bimus", and "-bi·is".
As vou can see, ·he shor· "-e-" in fac· never s·avs wha· i· is in
anv of ·hese forms. And vou mav verv we11 be wondering ·o
vourse1f whv I'm showing vou a11 ·his. Whv can'· vou simp1v
memorize ·he fu·ure endings as "-bo", "-bis", "-bi·", "-bimus",
"-bi·is", and "-bun·", wi·hou· having ·o 1oo' anv far·her bac'
in·o i·s his·orv. The answer is vou can cer·ain1v remember ·us·
·he fina1 forms if vou wish, bu· ·his prob1em of ·he shor· "-e-"
changing ·o o·her vowe1s occurs repea·ed1v in La·in, and ins·ead
of memorizing bv ro·e each ·ime vou come across i·, i· ·us· seems
easier ·o 1earn ·he ru1e governing ·he changes, ra·her ·han
encoun·ering ·he changes each ·ime as unique phenomena. I·'s
hard ·o be1ieve now, bu· 'nowing ·he deeper ru1es wi11 ma'e vour
1ives simp1er in ·he fu·ure. Now ·ha· vou 'now ·he ru1es, go
bac' and fi11 in ·he con·uga·ed forms of ·he fu·ure ·ense.
EIRST ANÐ SECONÐ ÐECLENSION AÐJECTIVES IN -ER
Loo' a· ·his ad·ec·ive: "s·u1·us, -a, -um". Ðo vou remember wha·
·his en·rv is ·e11ing vou? An ad·ec·ive spans ·he firs· and
second dec1ensions ·o ge· ·he endings i· needs ·o modifv nouns of
differen· genders. This en·rv is ·e11ing vou ·ha· ·he ad·ec·ive
for "s·upid" (s·em: "s·u1·-") uses second dec1ension "-us" ·vpe
endings when i· modifies mascu1ine nouns, firs· dec1ension
endings when i· modifies feminine nouns, and ·he "-um" ca·egorv
of neu·er endings of ·he second dec1ension ·o modifv neu·er
nouns.
Now 1e·'s 1oo' a 1i··1e more c1ose1v a· ·he second
dec1ension. I· has ·wo par·s, vou mav remember: ·he sec·ion
reserved en·ire1v for neu·er nouns -- ·hose ending in "-um" in
·he nomina·ive singu1ar -- and ·he sec·ion used bv mascu1ine and
feminine nouns (·he vas· ma·ori·v are mascu1ine). There is a
varie·v of nomina·ive singu1ar endings in ·his second group:
"-us", "-er", and "-ir". The nouns which fo11owed ·he "-us" ·vpe
second dec1ension presen·ed ·wo prob1ems: ·o find ·he s·em, vou
simp1v dropped off ·he "-us" ending of ·he nomina·ive case. Bu·
for ·he second dec1ension nouns which ended in "-er" in ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar, vou had ·o be more carefu1. Eor some of
·hem, ·he s·em was ·he form of ·he nomina·ive singu1ar, bu· for
o·hers ·he "-e-" of ·he "-er" dropped ou· from ·he s·em. Then
vou used ·he reduced form for a11 ·he o·her cases. The
dic·ionarv has ·o ·e11 vou which "-er" ending nouns had s·em
changes, and i· does so in ·he in second en·rv for ·he noun.
puer, -i (m)
1iber, -bri (m)
ager, agri (m)
The s·em of "puer" is "puer-", ·he s·em of "1iber" is "1ibr-",
·he s·em of "ager" is "agr-". O'av, so much bv wav of review.
Now 1oo' a· ·his word as i· appears in ·he dic·ionarv:
"1iber, -a, -um". Wha· is ·his? Is i· a noun or an ad·ec·ive?
You can ·e11 i·'s an ad·ec·ive because ·here is no gender 1is·ed
for i·. (Remember, an ad·ec·ive has ·o be ab1e ·o change i·s
gender, so i· has no fixed gender, as a noun does.) An en·rv for
an ad·ec·ive has ·o ·e11 vou how i· wi11 acquire differen·
genders -- which dec1ensiona1 pa··ern i· wi11 use ·o become
mascu1ine, feminine and neu·er -- and, vou mav reca11, ·he firs·
en·rv shows vou ·he mascu1ine nomina·ive, ·he second ·he feminine
nomina·ive, and ·he ·hird ·he neu·er nomina·ive.
So have a 1oo' again a· ·his ad·ec·ive. The second en·rv
1oo's fami1iar -- i·'s ·he nomina·ive singu1ar ending of ·he
firs· dec1ension. This ·e11s vou ·ha· ·he ad·ec·ive "1iber"
become feminine bv using firs· dec1ension endings. The "-um"
shou1d 1oo' fami1iar, ·oo. Tha·'s i·s neu·er ending, ·e11ing vou
i· uses ·he "-um" endings of ·he second dec1ension ·o modifv
neu·er nouns. Bu· wha·'s ·he firs· en·rv? You 'now ·ha· ·his is
·e11ing vou how ·he ad·ec·ive becomes mascu1ine, bu· wha· abou·
·he "-er".
You've probab1v a1readv figured ou· bv now ·ha· ·he
ad·ec·ive is going ·o use ·he second dec1ension endings ·o modifv
mascu1ine nouns, and ·ha· i·'s going ·o use ·he "-er" ending in
·he nomina·ive singu1ar. So for "free sou1", vou wou1d wri·e
"1iber animus". Bu· wha· is ·he s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive? Remember
·ha· "-er" ending nouns of ·he second dec1ension of·en change
·heir s·ems when ·hev move ou· of ·he nomina·ive singu1ar. The
dic·ionarv ·e11s vou abou· ·ha· in ·he second en·rv for ·he
ad·ec·ive in ·he geni·ive singu1ar. Tha· is, ·he dic·ionarv
ac·ua11v s·ar·s dec1ining i· for vou. Bu· how wi11 i· ·e11 vou
whe·her an ad·ec·ive in "-er" has a s·em change?
The ru1e is ·his. An ad·ec·ive in "-er" which changes i·s
s·em (i.e., drops ·he "-e") wi11 use ·he changed s·em in a11
genders and numbers and cases excep· for ·he nomina·ive mascu1ine
singu1ar. So a11 vou need ·o see ·o 'now whe·her ·he ad·ec·ive
is going ·o change i·s s·em is ·he nex· en·rv -- ·he feminine
nomina·ive singu1ar -- ·o 'now abou· ·he s·em. Loo' a· ·his
en·rv.
M E N
pu1cher, -chra, -chrum
There, do vou see i·? The second en·rv shows vou no· on1v how
·he ad·ec·ive becomes feminine, bu· a1so ·ha· ·he s·em for a11
o·her cases excep· ·he mascu1ine nomina·ive singu1ar is
"pu1chr-". Loo' as ·his ad·ec·ive: "nos·er, nos·ra, nos·rum".
S·em change, righ·? Now 1oo' a· ·his again: "1iber, -a, -um".
There is no s·em change since i· is no· indica·ed in ·he second
en·rv. So ·he s·em is "1iber-" ·hroughou· i·s inf1ec·ion. Le·'s
do a few exercises. Trans1a·e and dec1ine ·he fo11owing.
beau·ifu1 fa·her1and our son
Nom. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Gen. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Ða·. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Acc. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Ab1. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Voc. ______________
______________
N/V. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Gen. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Ða·. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Acc. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
Ab1. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
animus, -i (m) In ·he singu1ar ·he word means "sou1,
spiri·", ·he vaporv sea· of
se1f-awareness. Bu· in ·he p1ura1 i·
of·en ·a'es on ano·her meaning. I· mav
mean "courage", 1i'e our expression
"high spiri·s", "spiri·ed", as in "The
1osing ·eam pu· up a spiri·ed s·rugg1e".
I· happens of·en in La·in ·ha· a word
wi11 acquire new meanings in ·he p1ura1.
C.p., ·he meaning of ·he Eng1ish word
"manner" in ·he singu1ar wi·h i·s
meaning in ·he p1ura1: "manners".
nos·er, -·ra, -·rum This is an ad·ec·ive which means "our".
Tha· is, ·he ad·ec·ive agrees wi·h ·he
·hing ·ha· is "ours". Therefore, i· has
a p1ura1 form on1v if ·he noun i·'s
agreeing wi·h is p1ura1. S·uden·s are
of·en 1ured in·o ·hin'ing ·ha· "nos·er"
wi11 have on1v p1ura1 case endings
because "our" is firs· person p1ura1.
Remember, "nos·er" wi11 have p1ura1
cases endings on1v if i·'s agreeing wi·h
a p1ura1 noun: "nos·er fi1ius" (our son)
or "nos·ri fi1ii" (our sons).
igi·ur Whee1oc' ·e11s vou i·'s pos·-posi·ive:
i· never is ·he firs· word in a La·in
sen·ence (and i·'s usua11v ·he second
word.) Ðespi·e our ·endencv ·o pu· ·he
Eng1ish "·herefore" a· ·he beginning of
·he sen·ence, "igi·ur" is never firs·.
Remember.
-ne We form ques·ions in Eng1ish bv ·ugg1ing
word order around, and bv using
auxi1iarv verbs. Bu· La·in doesn'· have
·ha· op·ion since word order doesn'·
wor' in ·he same wav. To as' a ques·ion
in La·in, pu· "-ne" a· ·he end of ·he
firs· word of ·he sen·ence. The word ·o
which i· is a··ached becomes ·he poin·
of inquirv of ·he ques·ion: "Amasne
me?" (Ðo vou 1ove me?), "Mene amas?" (Is
i· me vou 1ove (and no· someone e1se)?)
prop·er + acc. As vou 'now, preposi·ions in La·in ·a'e
cer·ain cases. "Rrop·er" ·a'es ·he
accusa·ive case -- a1wavs -- and we
·rans1a·e i·, "because of". Ðon'· be
·hrown off bv our Eng1ish ·rans1a·ion.
"Rrop·er" does no· ·a'e ·he geni·ive
case in La·in. I· ·a'es ·he accusa·ive.
sa·is When we sav "I have enough monev", we
use "enough" as an ad·ec·ive modifving
"monev". In La·in ·he word for "enough"
is a noun, no· an ad·ec·ive. La·in
fo11ows "sa·is" wi·h ·he geni·ive case,
and savs in effec· "I have enough of
monev" (Habeo sa·is pecuniae.) You'11 be
p1eased ·o 'now ·ha· "sa·is" does no·
dec1ine -- i· is a1wavs "sa·is".
12/31/92
CHARTER 6
"Sum: Eu·ure and Imperfec· Indica·ive; Rossum: Rresen·,
Eu·ure, and Imperfec· Indica·ive; Comp1emen·arv Infini·ive"
The ·wo verbs which are ·he sub·ec· of ·his chap·er are c1ose1v
re1a·ed -- "possum" ("·o be ab1e") uses ·he forms of ·he verb
"sum" ("·o be") -- so vou don'· have ·o 1earn ·wo separa·e
irregu1ar verbs ou·righ·. You can ·ie ·hem ·oge·her.
SUM, ESSE: EUTURE TENSE
You have a1readv 1earned ·he presen· ·ense of ·he irregu1ar verb
"sum". And ·hose of vou who fo11owed mv expanded no·es on ·hese
forms 'now ·he who1e ·ru·h abou· ·he presen· ·ense. Those of vou
who s'ipped ·hem, I recommend vou go bac' ·o ·ha· sec·ion and
read ·hem now. Thev wi11 he1p vou wi·h ·his discussion.
Ðo vou remember how vou formed ·he fu·ure ·ense of ·he firs·
and second con·uga·ion verbs? I· was some·hing 1i'e ·his:
s·em + ·ense sign + persona1 endings = con·uga·ed forms
The verb "sum" fo11ows ·his formu1a exac·1v, bu· i· has a ·ense
sign for ·he fu·ure vou haven'· seen before. Le·'s s·ar· a· ·he
beginning.
(1) The s·em of ·he verb "·o be" is "es-".
(2) The ·ense sign for ·he fu·ure is shor· "-e-". Eor ·he
firs· and second con·uga·ions, ·he ·ense sign of ·he
fu·ure was "be-", and ·he shor· "-e-" of ·he ·ense sign
underwen· changes when ·he persona1 endings were added
·o i·. Ðo vou remember wha· ·hev were? The shor·
"-e-" fu·ure ·ense sign wi11 undergo ·he same changes.
(3) The persona1 endings are ·he same vou've been using a11
a1ong: "-o" or "-m", "-s", "-·" e·c.
So 1e·'s se· up a cons·ruc·ion ·ab1e for ·he fu·ure of "sum". Eor
now, fi11 in a11 ·he informa·ion excep· ·he con·uga·ed form.
EUTURE TENSE: "sum, esse"
STEM + TENSE SIGN + RERS. ENÐ. = CONJUGATEÐ
EORMS
1s· _____ _________ ___________
_______________
2nd _____ _________ ___________
_______________
3rd _____ _________ ___________
_______________
1s· _____ _________ ___________
_______________
2nd _____ _________ ___________
_______________
3rd _____ _________ ___________
_______________
There is one more ·hing vou need ·o 'now before vou can
finish ·his off. I·'s a ru1e of La·in pronuncia·ion ·ha·
whenever an "-s-" is be·ween ·wo vowe1s (when i·'s
"in·ervoca1ic", as ·he professiona1s sav), i· changes from "-s-"
·o "-r-". Now 1oo' a· ·he s·em of "sum". "Es-" p1us ·he ·ense
sign "-e-" wi11 pu· ·he "-s-" be·ween ·wo vowe1s, so ·he "-s-" of
·he s·em wi11 become an "-r-": "ese-" = "ere-". Tha·, ·hen,
wi11 be ·he base ·o which vou add ·he persona1 endings. Now fi11
ou· ·he con·uga·ed forms -- and remember ·he changes ·he shor·
"-e-" is going ·o go ·hrough. (Chec' Whee1oc', p. 27.)
SUM, ESSE: IMREREECT TENSE
The imperfec· ·ense is a new ·ense for vou, and we're no· going
·o 1oo' verv deep1v in·o i· here. Eor now, ·us· remember ·ha·
·he imperfec· ·ense of "sum" is our "was" and "were". A· 1eas·
don'· ca11 ·his ·he pas· ·ense; ca11 i· ·he imperfec· ·ense. The
imperfec· ·ense is formed a1ong ·he same 1ines as ·he fu·ure
·ense:
s·em + ·ense sign + persona1 endings = con·uga·ed forms
Obvious1v, since ·his is a differen· ·ense, ·he ·ense sign is no·
going ·o be ·he same as ·he fu·ure ·ense sign. The ·ense sign of
·he imperfec· is "-a-". One o·her s1igh· difference is ·ha· ·he
imperfec· ·ense uses ·he a1·erna·e firs· person singu1ar ending:
"-m" ins·ead of ·he expec·ed "-o". And don'· forge· ·he ru1e of
"-s-": when i·'s in·ervoca1ic, i· changes ·o "-r-". Ei11 ou· ·he
fo11owing ·ab1e:
IMREREECT TENSE: "sum, esse"
STEM + TENSE SIGN + RERS. ENÐ. = CONJUGATEÐ
EORMS
1s· ______ _________ _____________
______________
2nd ______ _________ _____________
_______________
3rd ______ _________ _____________
_______________
1s· ______ _________ _____________
_______________
2nd ______ _________ _____________
_______________
3rd ______ _________ _____________
_______________
ROSSUM, ROSSE: RRESENT, EUTURE, IMREREECT TENSES
In La·in, ·he verb "·o be ab1e" is a combina·ion of ·he ad·ec·ive
base "po·-" ("ab1e") p1us ·he forms of ·he verb "sum". To sav "I
am ab1e", La·in ·oo' ·he ad·ec·ive "po·-" and combined i· wi·h
·he presen· ·ense of "sum". To sav "I wi11 be ab1e", La·in used
"po·-" p1us ·he fu·ure of "sum". To sav "I was ab1e", La·in used
"po·-" p1us ·he imperfec· of "sum". Eor ·he verb "possum", ·hen,
i· is ·he verb "sum" provides ·he person, number, and ·he ·ense.
In ·he presen· ·ense, ·here is one g1i·ch: wherever ·he verb
"sum" s·ar·s wi·h an "s-", ·he "-·-" of "po·-" becomes an "-s-"
a1so. So vou see "possum" ins·ead of "po·sum" (from "po· +
sum"), and so on. (When a consonan· ·urns in·o ·he consonan·
which i· is nex· ·o, we ca11 ·his "assimi1a·ion". So we wou1d
sav "·" assimi1a·es ·o "s".)
The one rea1 oddi·v of ·he verb is i·s infini·ive. We migh·
expec· "po·esse" ("po· + esse") according ·o ·he ru1es, bu· ·he
form "posse" is ·us· one of ·hose unexpec·ed momen·s in 1ife
where ·hings ge· ou· of con·ro1. You migh· wan· ·o remember i·
·his wav: ·he Eng1ish word "posse" is a group of ci·izens who
have been gran·ed power ·o ma'e arres·s: ·ha· is, ·hev have
"ab1eness". Ei11 ou· ·he fo11owing char·s for ·he verb "possum,
posse".
RRESENT TENSE: possum, posse
AÐJECTIVE + CONJUGATEÐ EORM OE SUM = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· po· ____________________ _______________
2nd _________ ____________________ _______________
3rd _________ ____________________ _______________
1s· _________ ____________________ _______________
2nd _________ ____________________ _______________
3rd _________ ____________________ _______________
EUTURE TENSE: possum, posse
AÐJECTIVE + CONJUGATEÐ EORM OE SUM = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· _________ ____________________ _______________
2nd _________ ____________________ _______________
3rd _________ ____________________ _______________
1s· _________ ____________________ _______________
2nd _________ ____________________ _______________
3rd _________ ____________________ _______________
IMREREECT TENSE: possum, posse
AÐJECTIVE + CONJUGATEÐ EORM OE SUM = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· _________ ____________________ _______________
2nd _________ ____________________ _______________
3rd _________ ____________________ _______________
1s· _________ ____________________ _______________
2nd _________ ____________________ _______________
3rd _________ ____________________ _______________
The on1v rea1 difficu1·v wi·h "possum" is ·he Eng1ish
·rans1a·ions for i·. If vou s·ic' wi·h "·o be ab1e", "wi11 be
ab1e", and "was/were ab1e", vou'11 ge· ·hrough ·us· fine. Bu·
vou can a1so ·rans1a·e "possum" wi·h ·he Eng1ish verb "can". Bu·
"can", a1·hough i· is popu1ar in Eng1ish, is 1oaded wi·h
oddi·ies. Eor one, i· has no fu·ure ·ense -- "I wi11 can??" --
and second1v, ·he imperfec· ·ense is "cou1d", which is a1so a
condi·iona1 of some 'ind or ano·her in Eng1ish: "Ðo vou ·hin' I
cou1d have a do11ar?" Trv ·o s·av wi·h "·o be ab1e" for now, bu·
be aware of ·he possibi1i·ies of "can".
THE COMRLEMENTARY INEINITIVE
If vou were ·o wa1' up ·o a s·ranger and, ou· of ·he b1ue, sav "I
am ab1e", vou'd be answered bv a pause. The s·ranger wou1d be
expec·ing vou ·o comp1e·e vour ·hough·: "Yes, vou're ab1e ·o do
wha·?" Tha·'s because "·o be ab1e" requires ano·her verb ·o
comp1e·e i·s sense, and ·he form ·he comp1e·ing verb wi11 have is
·he infini·ive. I· needs a comp1e·ing infini·ive (or
"comp1emen·arv infini·ive"). This is ·rue in La·in as we11.
"Rossum" in a11 i·s forms wi11 be fo11owed bv ano·her verb in ·he
infini·ive form: "Ro·erun· videre nos·ros fi1ios". (Thev wi11 be
ab1e ·o see our sons.)
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
1iber, -bri (m) How are vou going ·o 'eep ·he noun for "boo'"
dis·inc· in vour mind from ·he ad·ec·ive for
"free": "1iber, -a, -um". Eor one, ·he "-i-"
in "1iber, -bri (m)" is shor·, bu· i·'s 1ong in
"1iber, -a, -um". Nex·, ·here is a s·em change
in "1iber, -bri (m)" bu· no· in "1iber, -a,
-um". So if vou see an inf1ec·ed form "1ibr-
some·hing", ·hen vou 'now ·he word means
"boo'(s)". Remember ·his bv reca11ing ·heir
Eng1ish deriva·ives: 1ibrarv is from ·he
s·em-changing "1iber, -bri (m)", and "1iber·v"
is from "1iber" in which ·here is no s·em
change. Eor ·he mos· par·, derived words come
from ·he s·em of ·he nouns, no· ·he nomina·ive
singu1ar.
vi·ium, -ii (n) R1ease don'· confuse ·his wi·h ·he word for
1ife "vi·a, -ae, (f)". Keep ·hem s·raigh· ·his
wav: "vicious", which comes from "vi·ium", has
an "-i-" af·er ·he "-·", bu· "vi·a1", which
comes from "vi·a", does no·. "Vi·ia" means
"vices" or "crimes"; "vi·a" means "1ife".
Graecus, -a, -um Li'e "Romanus, -a, -um", ·his ad·ec·ive can be
used as a noun: "Graecus" can be ·rans1a·ed as
"a Gree' man", and "Graeca" as "a Gree' woman",
or as an ad·ec·ive: "Graecus 1iber" = "a Gree'
boo'".
-que As Whee1oc' ·e11s vou, ·his word (ca11ed and
enc1i·ic because i· "1eans on" ano·her word and
never s·ands a1one in a sen·ence) is a··ached
·o ·he end of ·he second word of ·wo ·ha· are
·o be 1in'ed. Thin' of i· ·his wav: "x vque"
= "x e· v".
ubi If "ubi" comes firs· in a sen·ence which is a
ques·ion, a1wavs ·rans1a·e i· as "Where". "Ubi
es?" (Where are vou?) Bu· when i· is in ·he
midd1e of a sen·ence, i· can be ·rans1a·ed as
ei·her "where" or "when", and does no· mean
·ha· a ques·ion is being as'ed. You mus· ·rv
·hem bo·h ou· ·o see which of ·he ·wo
possibi1i·ies ma'es ·he mos· sense.
insidiae, -arum (f) We ·rans1a·e ·his word, a1·hough i· is a1wavs
p1ura1 in La·in, as ·he singu1ar "p1o·", or
"·reacherv". I·'s going ·o happen of·en ·ha·
ideas which are conceived of as p1ura1 in
La·in are ·hough· of as singu1ar in Eng1ish.
12/31/92
CHARTER 7
"Third Ðec1ension: Nouns"
The ·hird dec1ension is genera11v considered ·o be a "pons
asinorum" of La·in grammar. Bu· I disagree. The ·hird
dec1ension, aside for presen·ing vou a new 1is· of case endings
·o memorize, rea11v invo1ves no new gramma·ica1 princip1es vou've
haven'· a1readv been wor'ing wi·h. I'11 ·a'e vou ·hrough i·
s1ow1v, bu· mos· of ·his guide is ac·ua11v going ·o be review.
CASE ENÐINGS
The ·hird dec1ension has nouns of a11 ·hree genders in i·.
Un1i'e ·he firs· and second dec1ensions, where ·he ma·ori·v of
nouns are ei·her feminine or mascu1ine, ·he genders of ·he ·hird
dec1ension are equa11v divided. So vou rea11v mus· pav a··en·ion
·o ·he gender mar'ings in ·he dic·ionarv en·ries for ·hird
dec1ension nouns. The case endings for mascu1ine and feminine
nouns are iden·ica1. The case endings for neu·er nouns are a1so
of ·he same ·vpe as ·he feminine and mascu1ine nouns, excep· for
where neu·er nouns fo11ow ·heir pecu1iar ru1es:
(1) ·he nomina·ive and ·he accusa·ive forms are a1wavs ·he
same, and
(2) ·he nomina·ive and accusa·ive p1ura1 case endings are
shor· "-a-".
You mav remember ·ha· ·he second dec1ension neu·er nouns have
forms ·ha· are a1mos· ·he same as ·he mascu1ine nouns -- excep·
for ·hese ·wo ru1es. In o·her words, ·here is rea11v on1v one
pa··ern of endings for ·hird dec1ension nouns, whe·her ·he nouns
are mascu1ine, feminine, or neu·er. I·'s ·us· ·ha· neu·er nouns
have a pecu1iari·v abou· ·hem. So here are ·he ·hird dec1ension
case endings. No·ice ·ha· ·he separa·e co1umn for neu·er nouns
is no· rea11v necessarv, if vou remember ·he ru1es of neu·er
nouns.
Mascu1ine/Eeminine Neu·er
N/V. ---------- ----------
Gen. -is -is
Ða·. -i -i
Acc. -em (same as nom.)
Ab1. -e -e
N\V. -es -a
Gen. -um -um
Ða·. -ibus -ibus
Acc. -es -a
Ab1. -ibus -ibus
Now 1e·'s go over some of ·he "ho· spo·s" on ·his 1is·. The
nomina·ive singu1ar is 1ef· b1an' because ·here are so manv
differen· possib1e nomina·ive forms for ·hird dec1ension nouns
·ha· i· wou1d ·a'e ha1f a page ·o 1is· ·hem a11. You needn'·
fre· over ·his ·hough, because ·he dic·ionarv's firs· en·rv for a
noun is ·he nomina·ive singu1ar. You'11 have ·o do a 1i··1e more
memoriza·ion wi·h ·hird dec1ension nouns because vou simp1v can'·
assume ·ha· i·'11 have a cer·ain form in ·he nomina·ive ·us·
because i·'s ·hird dec1ension -- as vou cou1d wi·h firs·
dec1ension nouns, where ·hev a11 end in "-a" in ·he nomina·ive.
The same is ·rue for neu·er nouns in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar
-- a1·hough ·he possib1e forms for neu·er nomina·ive singu1ars is
much more 1imi·ed. I·'s ·us· no· wor·h ·he effor· ·o memorize
·hem. And remember, ·he accusa·ive form of neu·er nouns wi11 be
exac·1v ·he form of ·he nomina·ive, so ·here's a b1an' in ·he
accusa·ive s1o· for neu·er nouns. I·'11 be wha·ever ·he
nomina·ive is.
STEMS OE THIRÐ ÐECLENSION NOUNS
One verv dis·inc·ive charac·eris·ic of nouns of ·he ·hird
dec1ension is ·ha· near1v a11 of ·hem are s·em-changing nouns.
Bu· ·he concep· of s·em-changing nouns is no· new for vou.
You've a1readv wor'ed wi·h i· in ·he second dec1ension wi·h nouns
ending in "-er" in ·he nomina·ive. Loo' a· ·his en·rv for a
second dec1ension noun: "ager, agri (m)". The firs· en·rv for a
noun is ·he nomina·ive singu1ar, ·he second is ·he geni·ive where
vou 1earn ·wo ·hings: (1) ·he dec1ension of ·he noun (bv 1oo'ing
a· ·he geni·ive ending), and (2) whe·her ·here is a s·em change
from ·he nomina·ive ·o ·he o·her cases. In ·his ins·ance we
1earn ·ha· "ager" is a second dec1ension noun -- because ·he
geni·ive ending is "-i" -- and ·ha· ·here is a s·em change. The
s·em of noun is "agr-", so i·'11 dec1ine 1i'e ·his:
N/V. ager N/V. agri
Gen. agri Gen. agrorum
Ða·. agro Ða·. agris
Acc. agrum Acc. agros
Ab1. agro Ab1. agris
Now 1oo' a· an examp1e en·rv for a ·hird dec1ension noun: "rex,
regis (m)". Use vour experience wi·h second dec1ension "-er"
·vpe mascu1ine nouns ·o draw ou· a11 ·he impor·an· informa·ion
vou need abou· ·his noun. Wha·'s i·s s·em? Now dec1ine i·.
N/V. rex + -- = rex
Gen. __________ __________ ____________________
Ða·. __________ __________ ____________________
Acc. __________ __________ ____________________
Ab1. __________ __________ ____________________
N/V. __________ __________ ____________________
Gen. __________ __________ ____________________
Ða·. __________ __________ ____________________
Acc. __________ __________ ____________________
Ab1. __________ __________ ____________________
How did vou do? Chec' vour answers agains· page 31 in Whee1oc'.
The nomina·ive form is ·us· wha·'s 1is·ed in ·he dic·ionarv --
·here is no ending in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar ·o add. Nex·, ·he
s·em of "rex" is "reg-", which vou ge· bv dropping off ·he "-is"
geni·ive ending of ·he ·hird dec1ension from ·he form "regis"
which ·he dic·ionarv gives. Now dec1ine ·his noun: "corpus,
corporis (n)".
N/V. __________ + __________ = ____________________
Gen. __________ __________ ____________________
Ða·. __________ __________ ____________________
Acc. __________ __________ ____________________
Ab1. __________ __________ ____________________
N/V. __________ __________ ____________________
Gen. __________ __________ ____________________
Ða·. __________ __________ ____________________
Acc. __________ __________ ____________________
Ab1. __________ __________ ____________________
Ðid vou remember ·he ·wo ru1es of neu·er nouns? Chec' vour
answers on page 31. How are vou doing? Trv ·o dec1ine a coup1e
more for some more prac·ice.
pax, pacis (f) vir·us, vir·u·is (f) 1abor, 1aboris (m)
N/V. __________ _______________ _______________
Gen. __________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. __________ _______________ _______________
Acc. __________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. __________ _______________ _______________
N/V. __________ _______________ _______________
Gen. __________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. __________ _______________ _______________
Acc. __________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. __________ _______________ _______________
One of ·he difficu1·ies beginning s·uden·s have wi·h ·hird
dec1ension nouns is ·ha· dic·ionaries on1v abbrevia·e ·he second
en·rv, where vou're given ·he s·em of ·he noun, and i·'s of·en
puzz1ing ·o see ·us· wha· ·he s·em is. Loo' over ·his 1is· of
·vpica1 abbrevia·ions. Af·er a verv shor· ·ime, ·hev'11 cause
vou no prob1em.
ENTRY STEM ENTRY STEM
veri·as, -·a·is (f) veri·a·- ora·io, -onis (f) ora·ion-
homo, -inis (m) homin- finis, -is (f) fin-
1abor, -oris (m) 1abor- 1iber·as, -·a·is (f)
1iber·a·-
·empus, -oris (n) ·empor- senec·us, -·u·is (f)
senec·u·-
virgo, -inis (m) virgin- amor, -oris (m) amor-
ENTRY STEM
corpus, -oris (n) ____________________
honor, -oris (m) ____________________
humani·as, -·a·is (f)____________________
fra·er, -·ris (m) ____________________
mu·a·io, -onis (f) ____________________
pa·er, -·ris (m) ____________________
pes·is, -is (f) ____________________
scrip·or, -oris (m)____________________
va1e·udo, -inis (f)____________________
cupidi·as, -·a·is (f)____________________
MOÐIEYING THIRÐ ÐECLENSION NOUNS
Modifving a ·hird dec1ension noun is no·hing ·o cause anv a1arm.
I·'s done ·he same wav vou modifv firs· and second dec1ension
nouns: pu· ·he ad·ec·ive in ·he same number, gender, and case as
·he ·arge· noun, and awav vou go. Wha· causes beginners in La·in
some discomfor· is ·ha· ·hev can'· qui·e bring ·hemse1ves around
·o modifving a ·hird dec1ension noun wi·h an ad·ec·ive which uses
firs· and second dec1ension endings.
Le·'s go ·hrough ·his s·ep bv s·ep. Suppose vou wan· ·o
modifv ·he noun "vir·us, -·u·is (f)" wi·h ·he ad·ec·ive "verus,
-a, -um". You wan· ·o sav "·rue vir·ue". You 'now ·ha· "vir·us"
is nomina·ive, feminine and singu1ar, so for ·he ad·ec·ive
"verus, -a, -um" ·o agree wi·h i·, i· mus· a1so be feminine,
nomina·ive and singu1ar. So 1oo' a· ·he ad·ec·ive's 1is·ing
c1ose1v: how does "verus, -a, -um" become feminine? Erom ·he
second en·rv, vou see ·ha· i· uses endings from ·he firs·
dec1ension ·o modifv a feminine noun. Since "vir·us" is
feminine, verus" wi11 use firs· dec1ension endings. You now
se1ec· ·he nomina·ive singu1ar ending from ·he firs· dec1ension
-- "-a" -- and add i· ·o ·he s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive. The resu1·:
"vera vir·us". Trv some more. Ðec1ine ·he fo11owing
expressions.
evi1 ·ime sma11 ci·v
N/V. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
Gen. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
Ða·. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
Acc. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
Ab1. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
N/V. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
Gen. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
Ða·. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
Acc. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
Ab1. ______________ _____________ ____________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
mos, moris (m) In ·he p1ura1, "mos" ·a'es on a new meaning: in
·he singu1ar in means "habi·", in ·he p1ura1
"charac·er". This isn'· hard ·o unders·and. Wha·
a person does regu1ar1v ·o ·he poin· of being a
habi· even·ua11v becomes wha· he is: i· becomes
his charac·er.
1i··era, -ae (f) Li'e "mos, moris", in ·he p1ura1 "1i··era"
·a'es on an ex·ended meaning. In ·he
singu1ar i· means "a 1e··er of ·he a1phabe·";
in ·he p1ura1 i· means ei·her "a 1e··er
(some·hing vou mai1 ·o someone)" or
"1i·era·ure". To sav "1e··ers", -- as in,
"He used ·o send her manv 1e··ers" -- La·in
used ano·her word. "Li··erae" is one 1e··er.
pos· + acc. Means "af·er", bu· i· is on1v a preposi·ion in
La·in, and canno· be used as a con·unc·ion. Eor
·he Eng1ish "af·er" in ·his sen·ence, "pos·" is
no· a correc· ·rans1a·ion: "Af·er I wen· ·o ·he
zoo, I wen· ·o ·he movies".
sub + acc./ab1. This preposi·ion, 1i'e a few o·hers vou'11
see, can be fo11owed bv ·he accusa·ive or ·he
ab1a·ive case. When i· ·a'es ·he accusa·ive
i· means mo·ion ·o and under some·hing; when
i· ·a'es ·he ab1a·ive i· means "posi·ion
under". "She wa1'ed under ·he ·ree" -- in ·he
sense ·ha· she was no· benea·h ·he ·ree a·
firs· bu· ·hen wa1'ed ·here -- wou1d be "sub"
+ accusa·ive in La·in; "She sa· under ·he
·ree" wou1d be "sub" + ab1a·ive. Simi1ar1v,
if vou sav "She wa1'ed under ·he ·ree" in ·he
sense ·ha· she was wa1'ing around under ·he
·ree, ·ha· wou1d be "sub" + ab1a·ive because
no mo·ion ·oward was invo1ved.
12/31/92
CHARTER 8
"Third Con·uga·ion (duco): Rresen· Infini·ive, Rresen· and
Eu·ure Indica·ive, Rresen· Impera·ive Ac·ive"
RRESENT INEINITIVE ANÐ RRESENT TENSE
You remember ·ha· La·in verbs are divided in·o groups ca11ed
"con·uga·ions", and ·he con·uga·ions are dis·inguished from one
ano·her bv ·heir ·hema·ic vowe1s. The ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he
firs· con·uga·ion is "-a-"; ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he second is
"-e-". You can ·e11 wha· ·he s·em vowe1 (i·s ·hema·ic vowe1) of
a verb is -- and ·herebv i·s con·uga·ion -- bv dropping ·he "-re"
ending from ·he infini·ive, which is given ·o vou in ·he
dic·ionarv.
1audo 1audare s·em: 1auda- 1s· con·uga·ion
moneo monere s·em: mone- 2nd con·uga·ion
Now 1oo' a· ·he dic·ionarv en·rv for ·he verb "·o 1ead" in La·in:
"duco, ducere". Simp1v bv 1oo'ing a· ·he firs· en·rv, vou migh·
·hin' ·ha· ·his verb is going ·o be a firs· con·uga·ion verb --
i· 1oo's 1i'e "1audo". Bu· ·he nex· en·rv 1oo's some·hing 1i'e a
second. Eind ·he s·em: i·'s duce-. You have ·o 1oo' c1ose1v,
bu· ·he "-e-" of ·he s·em is shor·. This is ·he charac·eris·ic
vowe1 of ·he ·hird con·uga·ion: shor· "-e-".
Even if vou're no· wa·ching ·he 1ong mar's, vou can s·i11
·e11 a second con·uga·ion verb in ·he dic·ionarv from a ·hird.
The firs· en·rv for a second con·uga·ion verb wi11 a1wavs end in
"-eo", and ·hen ·he second en·rv wi11 end "-ere". The firs·
dic·ionarv en·rv of a ·hird con·uga·ion ends simp1v wi·h "-o" and
·hen ·he second en·rv is "-ere". So if ·he firs· en·rv of a verb
1oo's 1i'e a firs· con·uga·ion verb in ·he firs· person singu1ar
and if ·he infini·ive 1oo's 1i'e a second con·uga·ion verb, ·hen
vou have a ·hird con·uga·ion verb. Iden·ifv ·he con·uga·ions of
·he fo11owing verbs:
ENTRY CONJUGATION ENTRY
CONJUGATION
doceo, docere __________ audeo, audere __________
amo, amare __________ ·o1ero, ·o1erare __________
duco, ducere __________ va1eo, va1ere __________
scribo, scribere __________ ago, agere __________
We'11 use "duco" as our examp1e (paradigm) of ·hird con·uga·ion
verbs. Now 1e·'s see abou· con·uga·ing a ·hird con·uga·ion verb
in ·he presen· ·ense. You remember ·he formu1a for a11 verbs in
La·in in ·he presen· ·ense: i·'s ·us· ·he s·em p1us ·he persona1
endings "-o", "-s", "-·", e·c. Ei11 ou· ·he fo11owing ·ab1e,
excep· for ·he con·uga·ed form.
RRESENT TENSE OE "duco, ducere"
STEM + RERSONAL ENÐINGS = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· _________ __________
____________________
2nd _________ __________
____________________
3rd _________ __________
____________________
1s· _________ __________
____________________
2nd _________ __________
____________________
3rd _________ __________
____________________
Wha· we need ·o 'now is wha· happens ·o ·he s·em vowe1 when vou
s·ar· a··aching ·he persona1 endings. In ·he firs· and second
dec1ensions ·his presen·ed no prob1em, because ·he s·em vowe1s
are 1ong and s·rong1v pronounced. Bu· shor· vowe1s a1wavs cause
difficu1·ies in 1anguages and are sub·ec· ·o changes. You
a1readv have experience wi·h wha· happens ·o ·he shor· "-e-"
before persona1 endings. Ðo vou remember how vou form ·he fu·ure
·ense of firs· and second con·uga·ion verbs? You inser· ·he
·ense sign "-b-" in be·ween ·he s·em and ·he persona1 endings.
And ·hen ·he shor· "-e-" changes:
1audabo - 1audabo ("-e-" disappears)
1audabs - 1audabis
1audab· - 1audabi·
1audabmus - 1audabimus
1audab·is - 1audabi·is
1audabn· - 1audabun·
This is wha· happens ·o shor· "-e-" before ·he persona1 endings.
In ·hird con·uga·ion verb, ·hen, wha· is going ·o happen ·o ·he
shor· "-e-" of i·s s·em? Righ·. I·'s going ·o undergo precise1v
·he same changes. Now go bac' ·o ·he ·ab1e and fi11 ou· ·he
con·uga·ed forms of "duco". (Chec' ·he answers in Whee1oc', p.
35.)
EUTURE TENSE
Third con·uga·ion verbs form ·he fu·ure ·ense in a wav en·ire1v
differen· from ·ha· of ·he firs· and second con·uga·ion. Eirs·
and second con·uga·ion verbs inser· a ·ense sign -- "-be-"
be·ween ·he s·em and ·he persona1 endings. Third con·uga·ion
verbs do ·wo ·hings:
(1) Eor ·he firs· person singu1ar, ·hev rep1ace ·he s·em
vowe1 wi·h an "-a-" and use ·he a1·erna·e persona1
ending "-m" -- ins·ead of ·he more regu1ar "-o".
(2) Eor a11 ·he o·her forms, ·hev 1eng·hen ·he shor· "-e-"
of ·he s·em ·o 1ong "-e-". Since ·he "-e-" is now
1ong, i· no 1onger goes ·hrough anv of ·he changes i·
wen· ·hrough in ·he presen· ·ense. I· simp1v s·avs
"-e-". (Excep· of course where 1ong vowe1s norma11v
become shor·: before "-·", and "-n·".)
Ei11 ou· ·he fu·ure ·ense of ·he verb "duco".
STEM + TENSE SIGN + RERS. ENÐ. = CONJUGATEÐ EORMS
1s· duc __________ __________ _______________
2nd _____ __________ __________ _______________
3rd _____ __________ __________ _______________
1s· _____ __________ __________ _______________
2nd _____ __________ __________ _______________
3rd _____ __________ __________ _______________
EUTURE OE THIRÐ CONJUGATION VS. RRESENT OE SECONÐ CONJUGATION
The wav a ·hird con·uga·ion verb forms i·s fu·ure presen·s an
in·eres·ing prob1em. Wri·e ou· ·he presen· ·ense of ·he second
con·uga·ion verb "moneo, monere", and nex· ·o i· wri·e ou· ·he
fu·ure of ·he ·hird con·uga·ion verb "mi··o, mi··ere" (·o send).
moneo mi··o
RRESENT EUTURE
1s· __________ __________
2nd __________ __________
3rd __________ __________
1s· __________ __________
2nd __________ __________
3rd __________ __________
As vou can see, excep· for ·he firs· person singu1ar, ·he endings
of bo·h ·hese verbs 1oo' ·he same: ·he persona1 endings in bo·h
·hese verbs are preceded bv an "-e-". The presen· ·ense of a
second con·uga·ion verb a1mos· a1wavs 1oo's 1i'e ·he fu·ure ·ense
of a ·hird con·uga·ion verb, and ·his cou1d cause vou some
prob1ems when vou're reading and ·rans1a·ing. Bu· no· if vou
'eep vour wi·s abou· vou.
Suppose ·ha· vou see a form 1i'e ·his in a ·ex· vou're
reading: "1egen·". Wha· do vou do wi·h i·? Eirs· vou recognize
·he "-n·" as an ending ·ha·'s a··ached ·o verbs, so ·he word
vou're 1oo'ing a· is a verb. You wan· ·o 1oo' ·his verb up in
·he dic·ionarv, so vou mus· simp1ifv i· ·o i·s basic form, which
is ·he firs· person singu1ar. You remember ·ha· a verb is
con·uga·ed bv adding persona1 ending, so ·o reduce ·his form, vou
drop of ·he "-n·". This 1eaves vou wi·h "1ege-".
Now ·he nex· ·hing vou have ·o consider is ·he "-e-": is i·
·he s·em vowe1 of a second con·uga·ion verb, or is i· ·he
1eng·hened "-e-" of a ·hird con·uga·ion verb as ·he ·ense sign
for ·he fu·ure? Tha· is, is ·his a presen· ·ense form of a
second con·uga·ion verb (s·em + persona1 endings), or is i· a
fu·ure of a ·hird (s·em + 1eng·hened "-e-" + persona1 endings).
Wha· do vou do nex· ·o find ou·? You've gone as far as vou can
wi·h vou pre1iminarv ana1vsis of ·he form. Now vou have ·o
proceed provisiona11v.
Suppose ·ha· ·he verb is a second con·uga·ion, wha· wi11 ·he
dic·ionarv en·rv 1oo' 1i'e? The firs· en·rv is ·he firs· person
singu1ar, ·he second is ·he infini·ive, so, if ·his is a second
con·uga·ion verb, ·he en·rv wi11 be "1egeo, 1egere". Righ·?
Because a11 second con·uga·ion verbs end in "-eo" in ·he firs·
person singu1ar. So vou've reduced ·he con·uga·ed form "1egen·"
·o a form vou can 1oo' up.
The nex· s·ep is ·o 1oo' i· up -- bu· 1oo' for exac·1v wha·
vou've supposed ·he form ·o be. Loo' for bo·h "1egeo", and
"1egere". Loo' i· up. You didn'· find i·, did vou? Bu· if vour
ana1vsis was correc·, "1egeo" mus· be ·here. Bu· i·'s no·. Wha·
does ·ha· ·e11 vou? I· ·e11s vou ·ha· "1egen·" is no· a form of
a second con·uga·ion verb. (If i· were, vou wou1d have found
"1egeo" in ·he dic·ionarv, bu· vou didn'·.) Go bac' ·o ·he o·her
possibi1i·v: "1egen·" cou1d be ·he fu·ure of a ·hird con·uga·ion
verb, where ·he "-e-" is ·he sign of ·he fu·ure. So if ·his is
correc·, wha· wi11 ·he dic·ionarv en·rv be? I·'11 be "1ego,
1egere". Chec' i· ou·. This ·ime vou found wha· vou were
1oo'ing for: "1ego" means "·o read". So how do vou ·rans1a·e
"1egen·?"
1eg- -e- -n·
read wi11 ·hev
Or "·hev wi11 read".
The mora1 of ·his is ·ha· vour 1ives used ·o be fair1v
simp1e. An "-e-" before ·he persona1 endings a1wavs used ·o
indica·e a presen· ·ense of a second con·uga·ion verb. Now i·
cou1d mean a fu·ure of a ·hird con·uga·ion verb as we11. You
have ·o proceed cau·ious1v now, and ma'e sure vou have ·horough1v
mas·ered vour grammar before vou s·ar· reading. You'11 a1so have
·o use ·he dic·ionarv more de1ibera·e1v and in·e11igen·1v ·han
vou had ·o before. And ·ha· means ·hin'ing vour forms ·hrough
before vou ·urn ·o ·he dic·ionarv.
IMRERATIVE
Ðo vou remember ·he formu1ae vou fo11owed for forming ·he
impera·ive of firs· and second con·uga·ion verbs? I· was ·his:
Singu1ar: s·em + 0
R1ura1: s·em + ·e
And so vou came up wi·h forms 1i'e ·his: "1auda", "1auda·e",
"mone", "mone·e", e·c. Third con·uga·ion verbs fo11ow ·he same
formu1ae, bu· don'· forge· ·ha· pes'v shor· "-e-" s·em vowe1. If
·here is some·hing added ·o i·, i· changes ·o an "-i-" (or "-u-"
before ·he ending "-n·"); if ·here is no·hing added ·o i·, i·
s·avs shor· "-e-". So how are vou going ·o form ·he impera·ive
of ·he verb "mi··o?" Thin'.
Singu1ar mi··e + 0 = __________
R1ura1 mi··e + ·e = __________
This is how a11 ·hird con·uga·ion verbs wi11 form ·heir
impera·ives -- excep· for four verv common verbs. The verbs
"duco", and ·hree o·her verbs vou'11 ge· 1a·er, form ·heir
singu1ar impera·ives bv dropping ·he s·em vowe1 a1·oge·her: "duc"
no· "duce". Bu· ·he p1ura1 impera·ives are qui·e regu1ar:
"duci·e".
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
scribo, -ere One wav ·o memorize ·he con·uga·ion of verbs
is ·o 1earn ·hem wi·h ·he proper
accen·ua·ion. A second con·uga·ion verb is
accen·ed on ·he s·em vowe1 in ·he infini·ive,
so sav "MOH neh o, moh HEH reh" for ·he
second con·uga·ion verb "moneo, monere". The
s·ress accen· on a ·hird con·uga·ion fa11s on
·he sv11ab1e before ·he s·em vowe1. So sav,
"SREE boh, SCREE beh reh" for ·he ·hird
con·uga·ion verb "scribo, scribere".
Simi1ar1v "ÐOO 'eh re" for "ducere", "MIT ·eh
re" for "mi··ere" and so on.
copia, -ae (f) Ano·her one of ·hose words which have a
differen· meaning in ·he p1ura1. In ·he
singu1ar "copia" means "abundance"; in ·he
p1ura1 -- copiae, -arum (f) -- i· means
"supp1ies, ·roops, forces".
ad + acc Means "·o" and "·oward", a1wavs wi·h a sense
of "movemen· ·o. S·uden·s of·en "ad + acc".
wi·h ·he da·ive case of indirec· ob·ec·,
which we of·en ·rans1a·e in·o Eng1ish wi·h
·he preposi·ion "·o". Con·ras· ·hese ·wo
examp1es: "I am giving vou a do11ar ("vou"
wou1d be da·ive case) and "I am running ·o
vou" ("vou" wou1d be in ·he accusa·ive case
governed bv "ad").
ex, e + ab1. S·uden·s some·imes ge· hung up on when ·o use
"ex" or "e". Use "ex" before anv word vou
1i'e, bu· use "e" on1v before words which
s·ar· wi·h a consonan·. If vou wish, use
"ex" on1v. Tha· wav, vou'11 a1wavs be righ·.
ago, agere An idiom wi·h ·his verb which Whee1oc' is
going use a 1o· is "ago vi·am", which means
"·o 1ive" (·o 1ead a 1ife). Ano·her is "ago
gra·ias" + da·ive, which means "·o ·han'".
The person being ·han'ed is in ·he da·ive
case: "Ropu1us hominibus gra·ias agen·".
duco, ducere Means "·o 1ead", bu· can a1so mean "·o
·hin'". This ex·ension is 1ogica1: we wan·
our 1eaders ·o be ·hin'ers ·oo, don'· we?
12/31/92
CHARTER 9
"Ðemons·ra·ive Rronouns: Hic, I11e, Is·e"
ENGLISH: THIS, THESE; THAT, THOSE
Consider ·he fo11owing expressions:
·his car ·ha· car
·hese cars ·hose cars
The words "·his", "·hese", "·ha·", and "·hose" are obvious1v
·e11ing vou a 1i··1e some·hing more abou· "car" or "cars". Thev
are indica·ing ·he re1a·ive spacia1 1oca·ion "car" or "cars" have
·o ·he spea'er. When we sav "·his car" or ·he p1ura1 "·hese
cars", we are referring ·o ·he car or cars which are nearbv:
"·his car righ· here"; "·hese cars righ· here". Eor ·he mos·
par·, when we sav "·ha· car" or "·hose cars", we mean cars which
are some dis·ance from us: "·ha· car over ·here", or "·hose cars
over ·here". I· wou1d sound odd for someone ·o sav "·ha· car
righ· here" or "·hese cars wav over ·here". So ·he words "·his",
"·hese", "·ha·", and "·hose", are ·e11ing us more abou· ·he words
·hev're a··ached ·o; ·ha· is, ·hev qua1ifv or modifv ·heir nouns.
And we ca11 words which modifv o·her nouns "ad·ec·ives".
As vou 'now, in Eng1ish ad·ec·ives hard1v ever change ·heir
form ·o "agree" wi·h ·he ·hing ·hev're modifving.
"·a11 ·ree" and "·a11 ·rees"
"bad bovs" and "bad gir1s"
This is differen· from La·in ad·ec·ives, which mus· change
endings ·o show ·he differen· numbers, genders, and cases of ·he
nouns ·hev modifv. Bu· 1oo' again a· ·he ad·ec·ives "·his" and
"·ha·". When ·he nouns ·hev modifv become p1ura1, ·he ad·ec·ive
i·se1f changes form: from "·his" ·o "·hese"; from "·ha·" ·o
"·hose". These ·wo are ·he on1v ad·ec·ives in Eng1ish which
ac·ua11v change ·heir forms ·o ma·ch a gramma·ica1 fea·ure of ·he
nouns ·hev're modifving. Thev have s1igh·1v differen· forms ·o
indica·e a change in number of ·he nouns ·hev modifv.
So, ·hese words are ad·ec·ives, since ·hev qua1ifv nouns,
and since ·heir main purpose is ·o "poin· ou·" ·he nouns, we ca11
·hem "demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives" because ·hev "poin· ou·" or
"poin· ·o" (La·in "demons·rare"). This is verv impor·an· ·o
remember: ·hese words are "demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives".
THE LATIN ÐEMONSTRATIVE AÐJECTIVES: ILLE, HIC, ISTE
La·in a1so has demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives rough1v equiva1en· ·o our
"·his" and "·ha·". Now remember, since ·hese words are
ad·ec·ives in La·in, ·hev mus· be ab1e ·o agree wi·h ·he nouns
·hev're modifving. Therefore, ·hese demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives
mus· be ab1e ·o dec1ine ·o agree wi·h a11 ·hree differen·
genders. Eor ·he mos· par·, ·he La·in demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives
dec1ine ·us· 1i'e ·he ad·ec·ives vou've see so far. Tha· is,
·hev add ·he firs· and second dec1ension endings ·o ·heir s·ems.
Bu· ·here are some unexpec·ed irregu1ari·ies which vou simp1v
mus· memorize:
(1) The nomina·ive singu1ars are irregu1ar.
(2) The geni·ive singu1ar for a11 genders is "-ius".
(3) The da·ive singu1ar for a11 genders is "-i".
Keep ·hese irregu1ari·ies in mind and dec1ine ·he demons·ra·ive
ad·ec·ive "·ha·". I·s dic·ionarv 1is·ing inc1udes a11 ·he
nomina·ives -- ·us· as an ad·ec·ive 1i'e "magnus, -a, -um" does
-- so ·ha· vou can see i·s dec1ension pa··ern. The ad·ec·ive for
"·ha·" is "i11e, i11a, i11ud". (You can chec' vour wor' in
Whee1oc', p. 39.)
STEM: i11-
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
As vou can see, ·he inf1ec·ion of ·he demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive
"i11e" is qui·e recognizab1e af·er ·he nomina·ive, geni·ive and
da·ive singu1ars. Wi·h some more ·ime, however, vou'11 become
we11-acquain·ed wi·h ·he irregu1ars forms "-ius" and "-i" of
geni·ive and da·ive singu1ars. A11 ·he demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives
and pronouns in La·in use ·hese a1·erna·ive geni·ive and da·ive
singu1ar endings, as do some ad·ec·ives. In fac·, we ca11 ·his
dec1ensiona1 pa··ern ·he "he·eroc1i·e" dec1ension, because i·
seems ·o be borrowing ·he geni·ive and da·ive singu1ar forms from
somewhere e1se.
Le·'s ·urn now ·o ·he demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive for "·his".
The s·em is "h-", and i· fo11ows ·he pa··ern se· bv "i11e":
unusua1 nomina·ives, a1·erna·ive endings for ·he geni·ive and
da·ive singu1ars. Bu· ·here are four addi·iona1 ·hings ·o no·e
abou· i·s dec1ension:
(1) In ·he geni·ive and da·ive singu1ars, ·he s·em
1eng·hens ·o "hu-" from "h-".
(2) In a11 ·he singu1ar cases and genders, and in ·he
neu·er p1ura1 nomina·ive and accusa·ive, ·he par·ic1e
"-c" is added ·o ·he end of case endings for a 1i··1e
ex·ra emphasis: 1i'e "·his here" in Eng1ish. We ca11
·he "-c" an "epideic·ic" (eh peh ÐAY ·ic') par·ic1e.
(3) When ·he epideic·ic par·ic1e "-c" is added ·o a case
ending which ends in an "-m", ·he "-m" becomes an "-n".
(4) The neu·er nomina·ive and accusa·ive p1ura1 endings are
"-ae", no· "-a", as vou migh· expec· from ·he second
dec1ension.
This is qui·e a 1is· of oddi·ies, and s·uden·s have some
difficu1·v mas·ering ·his demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive. Keep vou
finger on ·his 1is· of irregu1ari·ies and ·rv ·o dec1ine ·he
La·in demons·ra·ive "·his": "hic, haec, hoc".
STEM: h- (or hu-)
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
Eina11v, ·here exis·s in La·in a demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive
·ha· has no rea1 ·rans1a·ion in·o Eng1ish, ·hough we can readi1v
recognize i·s meaning. I· can on1v be rendered in·o Eng1ish bv
an inf1ec·ion of ·he voice, one imp1ving con·emp·, disdain, or
ou·rage. Read ·his exchange:
X: "Ðid vou see ·he movie I was ·e11ing vou abou·?"
Y: "Wha· movie?"
X: "You 'now, ·he one abou· mass 'i11ing, ·or·ure, mora1
ou·rages and genera1 prof1igacv. The one vou said no
one in his righ· mind ough· ·o see?"
Y: "Oh, ·ha· movie".
The fina1 "·ha·" in ·his dia1ogue corresponds ·o ·he La·in
demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive "is·e, is·a, is·ud". There is no·hing
comp1ica·ed abou· ·he dec1ension of "is·e"; I· uses ·he
a1·erna·ive geni·ive and da·ive singu1ar endings "-ius" and "-i",
and ·he neu·er nomina·ive and accusa·ive singu1ar is "-ud" (1i'e
"i11ud"). Aside from ·ha·, i· uses ·he s·andard firs· and second
dec1ension endings.
STEM: is·-
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
USING THE HETEROCLITE ÐECLENSION
As irri·a·ing as i· mav ·o have ·o memorize more endings, ·he
he·eroc1i·e dec1ension has a nice advan·age. I· can of·en he1p vou
es·ab1ish ·he case of a noun. You 'now ·ha· ·he dec1ensions have
forms which over1ap. Eor examp1e, ·he form "consi1io" from ·he
noun "consi1ium, -ii (n) can be ei·her ·he da·ive or ab1a·ive case
singu1ar. Bu· if i·'s modified bv a demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive, vou
can ·e11 immedia·e1v which of ·he ·wo i· is:
huic consi1io (da·ive)
hoc consi1io (ab1a·ive)
Wri·e ou· ·he number, gender and case ·he fo11owing nouns are in:
NUMBER GENÐER CASE
1. i11ae civi·a·es __________ __________ __________
2. i11as civi·a·es __________ __________ __________
3. is·i puero __________ __________ __________
4. is·o puero __________ __________ __________
5. i11i amores __________ __________ __________
6. i11os amores __________ __________ __________
AÐJECTIVES USING THE HETEROCLITE ENÐINGS: -IUS ANÐ -I
As I men·ioned, ·here are some ad·ec·ives in La·in which use ·he
a1·erna·ive geni·ive and da·ive endings. Aside from ·ha·, however,
·hese ad·ec·ives fo11ow ·he norma1 dec1ensiona1 pa··erns. There
are verv few of ·hem, bu· ·hev are impor·an· ad·ec·ives which ge·
a 1o· of use. You've go· ·o 'now ·hem:
a1ius, -a, -ud "o·her"
a1·er, -a, -um "·he o·her"
nu11us, -a, -um "no, none"
so1us, -a, -um "so1e, a1one"
·o·us, -a, -um "who1e; en·ire"
u11us, -a, -um "anv"
unus, -a, -um "one"
Judged bv ·heir dic·ionarv en·ries a1one, ·hese ad·ec·ive 1oo'
decep·ive1v norma1. Thev appear ·o be ·he s·andard varie·v
ad·ec·ives of ·he firs· and second dec1ensions. Bu· ·heir geni·ive
and da·ive singu1ars are no· ·he s·andard 'ind. Wa·ch ·his
dec1ension of ·he expression "·he o·her man a1one":
Nom. a1·er vir so1us
Gen. a1·erius viri so1ius
Ða·. a1·eri viro so1i
Acc. a1·erum virum so1um
Ab1. a1·ero viro so1o
ALIUS ANÐ ALTER
"A1ius, a1ia, a1iud" is ·he ad·ec·ive which means "o·her", and i·'s
one of ·hose ad·ec·ives which fo11ow ·he he·eroc1i·e dec1ension:
"-ius" and "-i" for ·he geni·ive and da·ive singu1ars. Eor a
·o·a11v mvs·erious reason, La·in ·ends ·o rep1ace ·he geni·ive
singu1ar of "a1ius" wi·h ·he geni·ive singu1ar of "a1·er". Hence
we find "a1·erius" in p1ace of ·he expec·ed "a1iius" in ·he
dec1ension of "a1ius". Af·er ·ha· oddi·v, ·he dec1ension of
"a1ius" regains i·s sani·v:
Mascu1ine Eeminine Neu·er
N/V. a1ius a1ia a1iud
Gen. a1·erius a1·erius a1·erius
Ða·. a1ii a1ii a1ii
Acc. a1ium a1iam a1iud
Ab1. a1io a1ia a1io
e·c.
THE ÐEMONSTRATIVE AÐJECTIVES USEÐ AS ÐEMONSTRATIVE RRONOUNS
So far, so good. The demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives "hic", "i11e", and
"is·e" modifv nouns and poin· ·hem ou·. Essen·ia11v ·his is ·heir
na·ure. Thev are demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives. Bu· ·hev have a verv
common ex·ended use. Thev are frequen·1v used as "demons·ra·ive
pronouns". Because ·hese words can be used ei·her as ad·ec·ives or
as pronouns, we of·en ca11 ·hem ·us· "demons·ra·ives". We'11 sav
"hic" is a demons·ra·ive, ins·ead of ca11ing i· a demons·ra·ive
ad·ec·ive or pronoun. So wha· does ·his mean -- demons·ra·ive
pronoun? The demons·ra·ive par· of i· vou unders·and: i· means
some·hing which poin·s ou· or gives emphasis. Bu· wha· is a
pronoun? Wi·hou· ge··ing over1v ambi·ious abou· se··ing down an
e·erna11v unassai1ab1e defini·ion, 1e·'s ·us· sav for now ·ha· a
pronoun is a word which ·a'es ·he p1ace of ano·her word in a
sen·ence. Here are some examp1es of pronouns in Eng1ish:
"I· ·us· missed her".
"She has a mos· in·eres·ing wav of spea'ing".
"Ðoes he have i·"?
As vou can see, ·he under1ined words are referring vou ·o some·hing
or someone which has a1readv been men·ioned some·ime before, so ·o
reca11 ·hem we on1v have ·o use a sign mar'er or abbrevia·ion. The
word or idea which ·he pronoun is rep1acing is ca11ed ·he
"an·eceden·" (an ·e CEE den·). In addi·iona1 ·o rep1acing ·heir
an·eceden·s, pronouns a1so ·e11 vou a 1i··1e some·hing abou· ·he
na·ure of ·he an·eceden·. Eor examp1e, in ·he firs· sen·ence, vou
can ·e11 ·ha· ·he an·eceden· of "i·" is singu1ar and inanima·e; ·he
an·eceden· of "her" is singu1ar and feminine and anima·e. This is
an impor·an· ru1e ·o remember abou· pronouns: "Rronouns ge· ·heir
number and gender from ·heir an·eceden·s".
Le·'s 1oo' a· ·he Eng1ish ·hird person pronouns. We divide
·he ·hird person pronoun in·o ·wo groups -- ·hose which refer ·o
anima·e ob·ec·s (main1v humans) and ·hose which refer ·o inanima·e
ob·ec·s. Our ·hird person pronoun observes ·he dis·inc·ion
be·ween ·he genders mascu1ine and feminine of anima·e ·hings in ·he
singu1ar; in ·he p1ura1, however, ·hev ma'e no dis·inc·ions among
gender or anima·e and inanima·e.
Singu1ar
Mascu1ine Eeminine Neu·er
Nom. he she i·
Ros. his her i·s
Ob·. him her i·
R1ura1
Nom. ·hev
Ros. ·heir
Ob·. ·hem
La·in pronouns are much more observan· of ·he gender of ·heir
an·eceden·s -- as ·hev wou1d 1i'e1v be, because of ·he impor·ance
of gramma·ica1 gender in La·in. Consequen·1v bv 1oo'ing a· ·he
forms of ·he demons·ra·ive pronouns "hic", "i11e", or "is·e", vou
can ·e11 much more abou· ·heir an·eceden·s. This ma'es
cons·ruc·ions in La·in much more f1exib1e. Loo' a· ·his sen·ence.
"Non po·eram haec videre". How wou1d vou ·rans1a·e ·he "haec?"
You can ·e11 ·ha· i· is neu·er, accusa·ive p1ura1 from i·s form and
from ·he wav i·'s being used in ·he sen·ence. (I·'s ·he direc·
ob·ec· of ·he verb "videre".) So i·s an·eceden· is neu·er in
gender, and p1ura1. So wha·'s our p1ura1, accusa·ive ·hird person
pronoun? I·'s "·hem". So ·his sen·ence wou1d be ·rans1a·ed "I was
no· ab1e ·o see ·hem". In Eng1ish, vou see, ·his sen·ence cou1d
mean ·ha· I am 1oo'ing a· men, women, or roc's, since ·he pronoun
on1v ·e11s us ·ha· ·he an·eceden· is p1ura1. Bu· La·in a1so ·e11s
us ·he gender of ·he an·eceden·, so i· can be much more specific.
Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· a pronoun wi·h a 1i··1e more con·ex·.
"Civi·as es· magna, sed non possum hanc videre". (The ci·v is
1arge, bu· I can'· see i·.)
Remember ·ha· a pronoun ge·s i·s number and gender from i·s
an·eceden·, bu· i· ge·s i·s case from ·he wav i·'s being used
gramma·ica11v in ·he sen·ence. The an·eceden· of "hanc" is
"civi·as"; ·hev are bo·h singu1ar and feminine. Bu· "hanc" is
accusa·ive because of ·he wav i·'s being used: i·'s ·he direc·
ob·ec· of ·he verb "videre". We wou1d ·rans1a·e ·his in·o Eng1ish:
"The ci·v is 1arge, bu· I don'· see i·". No·ice ·ha· even ·hough
·he pronoun in La·in is feminine in gender -- "hanc" -- we don'·
·rans1a·e i· "her", because we use "she", "her", and "her" on1v for
·hings which are bio1ogica11v fema1e. Un1i'e La·in, our nouns
don'· have gramma·ica1 gender. Now ·rv ·his: "Es· bona femina, e·
hanc amamus". (She is a good woman, and we 1ove her.) This ·ime,
since ·he an·eceden· is bio1ogica11v feminine, we wou1d ·rans1a·e
"hanc" wi·h our feminine pronoun: "She is a 'ind woman and we 1ove
her". You'11 have ·o ·a'e a 1i··1e care when vou ·rans1a·e ·he
pronouns in·o Eng1ish: vou'11 use our pronouns "he" and "she", and
so on, on1v when ·he an·eceden· of ·he La·in pronouns are
bio1ogica11v mascu1ine or feminine. O·herwise vou'11 use our
neu·er "i·", "i·s", "i·", and "·hem".
One fina1 ·hing ·o remember abou· ·he demons·ra·ives "hic",
"i11e", and "is·e". Thev a11 ·hree show much more emphasis ·han
does our simp1e "he, she, i·", bu· we have no wav ·o ·rans1a·e ·ha·
ex·ra bi· over in·o Eng1ish. La·in has a wea'er ·hird person
demons·ra·ive which is equiva1en· ·o our "he, she, i·" -- vou'11
1earn i· 1a·er -- bu· for now vou'11 be ·rans1a·ing "hic", "i11e",
and "is·e", as if ·hev were equiva1en· ·o "he, she, i·". I·'s ·us·
some·hing we can'· ge· over in·o Eng1ish verv easi1v. Trv a few
shor· exercises. Trans1a·e in·o La·in.
1. Your (sing.) boo's are good, and we 1ove ·hem [use a form of
"hic".|
____________________________________________________________
2. Your (sing.) boo' is good, and we 1ove i· [use "i11e".|
____________________________________________________________
3. The danger is grea·, and I fear ["·imeo"| i· [use "is·e".|
____________________________________________________________
4. The dangers are grea·, and I fear ·hem [use "is·e".|
____________________________________________________________
5. She is vour [p1.| daugh·er, and we are giving her [use "hic"|
·he monev.
____________________________________________________________
6. Thev are vour [p1.| daugh·ers, and we are giving ·hem [use
"i11e"| ·he monev.
____________________________________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
1ocus, -i (m) Some·hing a 1i··1e unusua1 happens ·o "1ocus"
in ·he p1ura1. In ·he singu1ar, "1ocus" means
ei·her a phvsica1 p1ace or a p1ace in a boo'
(a passage in 1i·era·ure). As "1oci, -orum
(m)" i· means on1v passages in 1i·era·ure. To
sav "p1aces" as in phvsica1 p1aces (regions),
La·in use a neu·er deriva·ive from "1ocus":
"1oca, -orum (n)". So "1ocus" ac·ua11v has
·wo differen· forms in ·he p1ura1, each wi·h
differen· meanings: "1oci" means "passages";
"1oca" means "regions".
enim Li'e "igi·ur", "enim" is pos·posi·ive.
in + acc./ab1. Li'e "sub" + accusa·ive or ab1a·ive, "in" wi11
·a'e i·s noun ei·her in ·he accusa·ive or ·he
ab1a·ive case. When i· ·a'es ·he accusa·ive
in means mo·ion in·o; wi·h ·he ab1a·ive i·
shows on1v posi·ion, wi·h no mo·ion in·o
invo1ved. You can 'eep ·hese ·wo s·raigh· bv
·rans1a·ing "in" + accusa·ive a1wavs as
"in·o". Sav "in" for "in" + ab1a·ive.
nunc I·'s ·he ·empora1 "now", no· ·he 1ogica1
"now". "Nunc" wou1d be a ·rans1a·ion for "Now
i·'s raining", no· for "Now i·'s ·ime ·o end
·his chap·er".
12/31/92
CHARTER 10
"Eour·h Con·uga·ion and -io Verbs of ·he Third:
Rresen· and Eu·ure Indica·ive, Rresen· Impera·ive
and Ac·ive Infini·ive"
REVIEW OE VERBS
Ðespi·e i·s epic-sized ·i·1e, vou'11 find ·ha· ·here is rea11v
no· so much ·o 1earn in ·his chap·er af·er a11. You a1readv 'now
·he presen· and fu·ure ·enses of ·he firs· ·hree con·uga·ions,
and vou 'now how ·o form ·heir impera·ives and infini·ive. Le·'s
have a 1oo' a· wha· vou 'now so far abou· ·hese verbs.
1. The Rresen· Tense
To form ·he presen· ·ense of verbs of a11 con·uga·ions, vou
simp1v ·a'e ·he s·em of ·he verb (which inc1udes i·s s·em
vowe1) and add ·he persona1 endings.
2. The Eu·ure Tense
To form ·he fu·ure ·ense of a11 con·uga·ions, vou ·a'e ·he
s·em of ·he verb, ·hen vou add on a ·ense sign for ·he
fu·ure, and ·hen vou add ·he persona1 endings. Eor firs·
and second con·uga·ion verbs, ·he ·ense sign of ·he fu·ure
is "-be-"; for ·he ·hird con·uga·ion, ·he ·ense sign is
"-a-/-e-".
3. The Impera·ive Mood
To form ·he impera·ive mood in ·he singu1ar, vou use ·us·
·he s·em (wi·hou· anv addi·iona1 ending); for ·he p1ura1 vou
add ·he ending "-·e" ·o ·he s·em. (The excep·ions ·o ·his
ru1e are ·he ·hird con·uga·ion verbs "duc" and ·hree o·hers
vou haven'· seen ve· which 1ose ·heir s·em vowe1 shor· "-e"
in ·he singu1ar. Their p1ura1 impera·ives, however,
resurrec· ·he s·em vowe1 and are en·ire1v regu1ar:
"duci·e".)
4. The Infini·ive
The infini·ive is ·us· ·he s·em p1us ·he ending "-re" for
a11 con·uga·ions.
I. Eirs· Con·uga·ion: amo, -are
RRESENT EUTURE IMRERATIVE INEINITIVE
1 _____________ _____________
2 _____________ _____________ _____________
3 _____________ _____________
_____________
1 _____________ _____________
2 _____________ _____________ _____________
3 _____________ _____________
II. Second Con·uga·ion: moneo, -ere
RRESENT EUTURE IMRERATIVE INEINITIVE
1 _____________ _____________
2 _____________ _____________ _____________
3 _____________ _____________
_____________
1 _____________ _____________
2 _____________ _____________ _____________
3 _____________ _____________
III. Third Con·uga·ion: mi··o, -ere
RRESENT EUTURE IMRERATIVE INEINITIVE
1 _____________ _____________
2 _____________ _____________ _____________
3 _____________ _____________
_____________
1 _____________ _____________
2 _____________ _____________ _____________
3 _____________ _____________
EOURTH CONJUGATION: RRESENT, EUTURE, IMRERATIVE, ANÐ INEINITIVE
This is going ·o be easv. Loo' a· ·he en·rv for ·he La·in verb
"·o hear": "audio, -ire". Ta'e a c1ose 1oo'. Wha·'s ·he s·em
vowe1, and wha·, ·herefore, is ·he s·em of ·he verb? Remember,
vou discover ·he s·em of a verb bv dropping ·he "-re" infini·ive
ending. Wha·'s 1ef· is ·he s·em (inc1uding ·he s·em vowe1). So
·he s·em of ·he verb "·o hear" is "audi-". And i·'s ·o ·his s·em
·ha· vou add ·he various ·ense signs, persona1 endings, and so on
·o con·uga·e ·he verb. Eour con·uga·ion verbs are verbs whose
s·em ends in a 1ong "-i-". So how are vou going ·o form ·he
presen· ·ense of ·his verb? The formu1a of ·he presen· ·ense --
as vou 'now a1readv -- is: s·em p1us persona1 endings. (There is
no in·ervening ·ense sign for ·he presen· ·ense). In o·her
words, four·h con·uga·ion verbs are verbs having an "-i-" for i·s
s·em vowe1, and i· fo11ows precise1v ·he same ru1es as ·he o·her
con·uga·ions for forming ·he presen· ·ense, wi·h ·he one
excep·ion ·ha· in ·he ·hird person p1ura1, an ex·ra "-u-" is
inser·ed be·ween ·he s·em vowe1 "-i-" and ·he "-n·" persona1
ending. How abou· ·he fu·ure ·ense? The four·h con·uga·ion uses
·he same ·ense sign as ·he ·hird con·uga·ion for ·he fu·ure
·ense, inser·ing ·he 1e··ers "-a/e-" be·ween ·he s·em and ·he
persona1 endings. Because ·he "-i-" is 1ong i· "survives" ·he
addi·ion of endings. How abou· ·he presen· impera·ive? I·'s ·us·
1i'e ·he o·her con·uga·ions: ·he s·em a1one in ·he singu1ar, and
·he s·em p1us "-·e" for ·he p1ura1. And fina11v ·he presen·
infini·ive? The s·em p1us "-re".
So vou can see ·ha· ·he principa1 difference be·ween ·he
four·h con·uga·ion and ·he o·hers vou've seen so far is ·he
qua1i·v of ·he s·em vowe1. Con·uga·e ·he four·h con·uga·ion verb
"·o come".
IV. Eour·h Con·uga·ion venio, -ire:
RRESENT EUTURE IMRERATIVE INEINITIVE
1 _____________ _____________
2 _____________ _____________ _____________
3 _____________ _____________
___________
1 _____________ _____________
2 _____________ _____________ _____________
3 _____________ _____________
THIRÐ CONJUGATION i-STEM: RRESENT, EUTURE, IMRERATIVE ANÐ
INEINITIVE
The ·hird con·uga·ion con·ains a subse· of verbs, ca11ed
"i-s·ems", ·ha· seem ·o imi·a·e ·he four·h con·uga·ion. The
·hird con·uga·ion, as vou 'now, con·ains verbs whose s·em vowe1
is shor· "-e-". The shor· "-e-" is a1mos· en·ire1v hidden in ·he
con·uga·ion of ·he verbs because i· changes ·o a shor· "-i-" or
shor· "-u-" before ·he persona1 endings in ·he presen· ·ense.
S·i11 i· fo11ows a11 ·he same ru1es as ·he o·her verbs when
deriving i·s differen· forms. Bo·h ·he i-s·em and non i-s·em
·hird con·uga·ion verbs have ·he s·em vowe1 shor· "-e-" -- ·ha·'s
whv ·hev're bo·h ·hird con·uga·ion verbs. Bu· ·he "i-s·em" ·hird
con·uga·ion verbs inser· an ex·ra "-i-" in some p1aces in ·heir
con·uga·ion. These p1aces are rea11v qui·e easv ·o remember, if
vou 'now four·h con·uga·ion verbs: a ·hird con·uga·ion "i-s·em"
verb inser·s an ex·ra "i" evervwhere a four·h con·uga·ion verb
has an "-i-". In fac·, vou migh· wan· ·o ·hin' of a ·hird
con·uga·ion "i-s·em" verb as a fai1ed four·h con·uga·ion verb --
as a verb which "wan·s" ·o be four·h. Here's ·he dic·ionarv
en·rv form manv 3rd con·uga·ion i-s·em verbs. No·ice ·he ex·ra
"-i-" in ·he firs· en·rv, and ·he shor· "-e-" of ·he infini·ive
in ·he second:
capio, -ere
rapio, -ere
cupio, -ere
facio, -ere
fugio, -ere
Le·'s have a c1oser 1oo' a· a11 ·his. Wri·e ou· ·he presen·
·ense of ·he fo11owing verbs. Remember, a ·hird i-s·em verb has
an ex·ra "-i-" everv where ·here's an "-i-" in ·he four·h
con·uga·ion.
THIRÐ (non i-s·em) EOURTH THIRÐ i-STEM
mi··o, -ere venio, -ire capio, -ere
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
As vou can see, ·he four·h and ·hird i-s·em verbs 1oo' iden·ica1.
Bu· ·here is a difference. Go bac' and pu· in ·he 1ong mar's
over ·he s·em vowe1 1ong "-i-" of "venio". The "-i-" is 1ong in
·he second person singu1ar and p1ura1, and in ·he firs· person
p1ura1. Now compare ·he forms of "venio" wi·h ·hose of "capio"
-- vou can see ·he differences. The "-i-" of a four·h
con·uga·ion verb is 1ong bv na·ure and "wan·s" ·o s·av 1ong
wherever i· can. The s·em vowe1 of a ·hird con·uga·ion verb is
shor· "-e-" which ·urns in·o shor· "-i-" or "-u-". Bu· i· wi11
never become 1ong "-i-" regard1ess of wha· ending is added ·o i·.
Now, ·he difference be·ween a shor· and 1ong vowe1 mav seem
ra·her sub·1e ·o us, bu· 1oo' again. In La·in pronuncia·ion, ·he
accen· of a word fa11s on ·o ·he second ·o ·he 1as· sv11ab1e if
·he vowe1 in ·he sv11ab1e is 1ong. If i· is shor·, ·hen ·he
accen· goes bac' ·o ·he ·hird ·o ·he 1as· sv11ab1e. So, wha·'s
·he difference in ·he wav ·hese forms wou1d have been pronounced?
capmus is pronounced CAH peh muhs
audimus is pronounced owh ÐEE muhs
Simi1ar1v
cap·is is pronounced CAH peh ·is
audi·is is pronounced owh ÐEE ·is
So ·he difference for a Roman be·ween ·hese verbs in some ·he
forms wou1d have been qui·e s·ri'ing.
Wha· abou· ·he fu·ure ·ense of ·he ·hird con·uga·ion i-s·em
verbs? Thev 1oo' ·us· 1i'e ·he four·h con·uga·ion verbs: s·em(i)
+ "a/e" + persona1 endings.
THIRÐ (non i-s·em) EOURTH THIRÐ i-STEM
mi··o, -ere venio, -ire capio, -ere
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
Now 1e·'s consider ·he impera·ive mood. In ·his case, ·here
is no difference a· a11 be·ween ·he ·hird i-s·em verbs and ·he
·hird non i-s·ems. And whv shou1d ·here be? Thev bo·h have ·he
same s·em vowe1: shor· "-e-".
THIRÐ (non i-s·em) EOURTH THIRÐ i-STEM
mi··o, -ere venio, -ire capio, -ere
SINGULAR __________ __________ __________
RLURAL __________ __________ __________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
You mus· be more a1er· now when vou're 1oo'ing in ·he dic·ionarv
for a form. The ·hird i-s·em verbs and four·h con·uga·ion verbs
1oo' ·he same in ·he firs· person singu1ar. You mus·n'· decide
-- even unconscious1v -- which con·uga·ion a verb is before
vou've chec'ed wi·h ·he second en·rv. The second en·rv, as vou
'now, ·e11s vou ·he s·em vowe1 -- and ·he s·em vowe1 ·e11s vou
·he con·uga·ion. Rav a··en·ion.
-ficio, -cipio The shor· "-a-" of ·he verbs "facio" and
"capio" change (or "grade") ·o shor· "-i-" in
compound forms of ·he verb -- i.e., when a
prefix is a··ached. I· wi11 save vou a 1o·
of ·ime if vou 1earn ·o recognize ·he roo·
"facio" in ·he verbs "perficio", "conficio",
"in·erficio", e·c. ins·ead of having ·o ·rea·
everv derived form as an en·ire1v new
vocabu1arv i·em.
01/05/93
CHARTER 11
"Rersona1 Rronouns Ego and Tu; Rronouns Is
and Idem"
THE ENGLISH RERSONAL RRONOUNS
You 'now wha· a pronoun is. I·'s a word which ·a'es ·he p1ace of
a noun in a sen·ence. The word i·'s rep1acing is ca11ed ·he
an·eceden·. So we can as', "Wha· is ·he an·eceden· of ·his
pronoun", whenever we see a pronoun in a sen·ence. Tha· is, we
are as'ing, "To wha· noun is ·his pronoun poin·ing?" Read ·he
fo11owing paragraph and pic' ou· ·he pronouns; as' vourse1f wha·
·he an·eceden· is for each pronoun.
"George as'ed Larrv ·o go pic' up ·he app1e. He wan·ed
an app1e so he ·o1d him ·o ge· i·. Bu· Larrv cou1dn'·
find i·, so he cou1dn'· give i· ·o him. Larrv ·o1d
him, 'If I had found i·, I wou1d have given i· ·o vou,
bu· I cou1dn'· find i·.' He ·urned ·o Sue si··ing
nearbv and said ·o her, 'He's a fai1ure. Can vou find
i· for me?' Sue said she didn'· 'now where i· was
ei·her. 'I guess vou're ·us· ou· of 1uc'", she ·o1d
him".
A1righ·, ·ha·'s enough of ·ha·. You see how usefu1 ·hese
pronouns are. If i· weren'· for pronouns, vou'd have ·o repea·
everv noun and everv name each ·ime vou wan·ed ·o refer ·o ·hem,
no ma··er how obvious ·he reference was. If vou don'· be1ieve
me, ·rv reading ·he paragraph again subs·i·u·ing ·he an·eceden·
for each of ·he pronouns. Rronouns are usefu1, and in ·his
paragraph vou saw a11 'inds of pronouns in a11 'inds of shapes
and varie·ies, referring ·o differen· an·eceden·s and performing
differen· gramma·ica1 ·as' in ·heir sen·ences. This varie·v in
form is no· mere1v random. The differences among "he, she, i·",
among "his, her, i·s", and "him, her, i·" are cri·ica1; ·hev ·e11
vou (1) wha· ·he 1i'e1v an·eceden· is, and (2) how ·he pronoun is
being used in ·he sen·ence of which i·'s a par·.
If ·he spea'er is referring ·o him/herse1f, or ·o a group of
peop1e of which he/she considers himse1f ·o be a par·, in a
sen·ence, he/she uses ·he firs· person pronoun. In Eng1ish, ·he
firs· person pronoun has ·hree forms ·o indica·e differen· cases
(gramma·ica1 func·ion).
Case Singu1ar R1ura1
Nomina·ive I we
Rossessive mv our
Ob·ec·ive me us
If ·he spea'er is referring ·o ·he person or peop1e ·o whom
he/she is direc·1v ·a1'ing, he/she uses ·he second person
pronoun. (No·ice ·ha· ·he cases are no· so c1ear1v visib1e in
·he morpho1ogv of ·his pronoun; no·ice a1so ·ha· Eng1ish ma'es no
dis·inc·ion be·ween second person pronoun in ·he singu1ar and
p1ura1.)
Case Singu1ar R1ura1
Nomina·ive vou vou
Rossessive vour vour
Ob·ec·ive vou vou
Now ·a'e a c1ose 1oo' a· ·hese pronouns. Wha· don'· ·hev ·e11
vou abou· ·heir an·eceden·s? You can see ·he difference in
number in ·he firs· person pronoun, bu· vou can'· in ·he second.
Wha· e1se don'· vou 'now abou· ·he an·eceden·s? Ðo vou 'now
·heir genders? Ðo vou 'now simp1v bv 1oo'ing a· ·he form of,
sav, "me" whe·her ·he person referred ·o is ma1e, fema1e, or
neu·er? No. In Eng1ish (as we11 as in La·in), ·he firs· and
second pronouns ma'e no dis·inc·ion in ·he forms among ·he
possib1e genders of ·heir an·eceden·s. Thin' abou· ·his for a
momen·. Whv shou1d ·he 1anguages have evo1ved ·his wav? Whv is
i· no· impor·an· for a spea'er ·o be ab1e ·o indica·e differences
in gender in he firs· and second persons? Trv ·o figure i· ou·.
We11, 1e·'s ·a'e a s·ep bac'wards for a momen·: wha· is ·he firs·
person? I·'s ·he spea'er or spea'ers of ·he sen·ence, righ·?
And wha· is ·he second person? I·'s ·he person or peop1e whom
·he spea'er(s) is (are) direc·1v addressing. So shou1d i· be
necessarv for someone who's spea'ing ·o indica·e his or her own
gender ·o ·he 1is·ener(s)? Loo', I sure1v 'now wha· gender I am,
so ·here's no reason ·o indica·e in ·he grammar of mv sen·ence
wha· gender I am. Eur·hermore, ·he psvcho1ogv of 1anguage is
such ·ha· ·here is an assumed (or rea1) audience ·o whom I am
direc·ing mv ·hough·s. There is a1wavs an imp1ied second person
in everv·hing wri··en. So, if I'm s·anding direc·1v in fron· of
vou, ·a1'ing ·o vou, vou shou1d have no doub· abou· mv gender,
because vou can see me. Therefore i· wou1d be superf1uous for me
·o add specia1 gender mar'ings ·o mv firs· person pronouns ·o
·e11 vou wha· gender I am. Tha· is p1ain1v visib1e. Eor ·his
reason, ·hen, ·he firs· person pronouns ma'e no dis·inc·ions
among ·he genders of ·heir an·eceden·s.
Can vou guess now whv ·he second person ma'es no
dis·inc·ions among ·he genders, ei·her? Righ·, because if I (·he
firs· person) am direc·1v addressing vou (·he second person),
·hen I shou1d be ab1e ·o ·e11 vour gender ·oo. You 'now mv
gender, and I 'now vour gender, because we're s·anding in fron·
of each o·her. As ·he firs· person in our conversa·ion, I don'·
need ·o remind vou, mv audience, of vour own gender, do I?
Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he firs· and second pronouns in La·in.
Thev'11 ma'e dis·inc·ions in number. And, ·o be usefu1 in La·in,
·hev'11 have ·o dec1ine ·hrough a11 ·he cases ·us· 1i'e La·in
nouns. Here ·hev are:
1s· Rerson 2nd Rerson
N/V. ego ·u
[Gen. mei ·ui|
Ða·. mihi ·ibi
Acc. me ·e
Ab1. me ·e
N/V. nos vos
[Gen. nos·rum/nos·ri ves·rum/ves·ri|
Ða·. nobis vobis
Acc. nos vos
Ab1. nobis vobis
Loo' a· ·he fo11owing examp1es. You'11 see how usefu1 ·hese
pronouns are.
1. Mi··am ad vos fi1ium meum. (I wi11 send mv son ·o vou.)
2. Ego scribo has 1i··eras. (I wri·e ·his 1e··er.)
3. Ego vos video, a·que vos me vide·is. (I see vou, and
vou see me.)
4. Cum vobis in ·erram i11am veniam. (I wi11 come in·o
·ha· 1and wi·h vou.)
5. Cum ·e in ·erram i11am veniam. (I wi11 come in·o ·ha·
1and wi·h vou.)
THE "WEAK" ÐEMONSTRATIVE AÐJECTIVE IS, EA, IÐ
So wha· abou· ·he ·hird person pronouns? Here ·here's a prob1em,
one which p1agued, and con·inues ·o p1ague, ·he Romance 1anguages
derived from La·in. Eirs· off, ·he ·hird person pronoun is going
·o have ·o ·e11 vou more abou· ·heir an·eceden·s ·han ·he firs·
and second person pronouns did. If I (·he firs· person) am
·a1'ing ·o vou (·he second person) direc·1v, I cer·ain1v 'now
wha· gender vou are. Bu· if I am ·a1'ing ·o vou abou· some·hing
e1se (which is ·he ·hird person) or if I am ·a1'ing ·o vou abou·
severa1 ·hings, i· wou1d be nice if I cou1d refer ·he gender of
·hese ·opics of conversa·ions. Loo' a· ·he fo11owing passage.
"I've go· ·o ·e11 vou a s·orv. Yes·erdav I saw Be··v and
S·eve. He as'ed her for an app1e. She ·o1d him ·ha· she
didn'· have anv. When he as'ed her again, she ·o1d him ·o
go buv his own app1es".
Le·'s 1oo' a· ·his 1i··1e narra·ive more c1ose1v. The firs·
"He" -- how do vou 'now ·ha· i·'s referring ·o S·eve and no· ·o
Be··v. Tha·'s easv; i·'s because "he" is mascu1ine and no·
feminine. If ·he an·eceden· had been Be··v, ·hen vou wou1d have
had "She" in p1ace of "He". Ano·her ·hing "He" ·e11s vou abou·
·he an·eceden· is ·ha· ·he an·eceden· is singu1ar. If ·he
an·eceden· had been p1ura1, ·hen "He" wou1d have been "Thev".
Righ·? One 1as· ·hing. Loo' a· ·he an·eceden· for "He". Wha·
case is i· in? I·'s in ·he ob·ec·ive (or accusa·ive) case
because i·'s ·he direc· ob·ec· of ·he verb "saw". Now 1oo' a·
·he pronoun "He". Wha· case is i· in? I·'s in ·he nomina·ive
case. Whv? Because in i·s sen·ence i·'s ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb
"as'ed". Now 1oo' a· ·he pronoun "his" in ·he 1as· 1ine. Wha·
case is i· in? This ·ime ·he pronoun is in ·he possessive (or
geni·ive) case, again because ·he grammar of ·he sen·ence i·'s in
requires i· ·o be in ·he geni·ive case. Even ·hough a11 ·he
pronouns are poin·ing ·o ·he same an·eceden·, ·hev are a11 in
differen· cases in ·heir own sen·ences. Here is a ru1e vou mus·
remember:
"A pronoun ge·s i·s number and gender from i·s
an·eceden·, bu· i· ge·s i·s case from ·he wav i·'s
being used gramma·ica11v in i·s own sen·ence".
Remember ·ha·; vou'11 need i· verv soon. Now 1e·'s ge· on
wi·h ·he La·in ·hird person pronoun. Here's wha· ·he La·in ·hird
person pronoun mus· do: i· mus· be ab1e ·o show ·he number and
gender of i·s an·eceden·, and i· mus· be ab1e ·o inf1ec· ·hrough
·he en·ire case svs·em.
Le·'s 1oo' once more a· ·he Eng1ish ·hird person pronoun, so
·ha· vou can see how unbe1ievab1v f1accid and corrup·ed i· is in
comparison ·o ·he ma·es·ic power of ·he La·in 3rd person pronoun.
Singu1ar
Mascu1ine Eeminine Neu·er
Nom. he she i·
Gen. his her i·s
Acc. him her i·
R1ura1
Mascu1ine-Eeminine-Neu·er
Nom. ·hev
Gen. ·heir
Acc. ·hem
As vou can see ·he Eng1ish ·hird person pronoun is so feeb1e i·'s
hard1v wor·h 1earning. In ·he singu1ar, some of ·he case forms
are iden·ica1, and in ·he p1ura1 i· ma'es no dis·inc·ion among
·he genders: "Thev" can refer ·o a group of men, women, or roc's.
So i·'s no· verv usefu1.
Bu· 1oo' a· ·he La·in ·hird person pronoun. The ·hird
person pronoun s·ar·s i·s 1ife as a wea' demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive.
I· means some·hing 1i'e "·he" and i· agrees wi·h ·he noun ·o
which i·'s a··ached: "·he boo'". Then, 1i'e ·he o·her
demons·ra·ives vou've seen -- "i11e", "hic", and "is·e" -- i· can
be used independen·1v as a pronoun. Le·'s see how i· wor's.
Eirs· ·he morpho1ogv. The s·em is "e-" and basica11v i·'s
dec1ined ·us· 1i'e ·he o·her demons·ra·ives vou've seen before.
You remember ·he he·eroc1i·e dec1ension which has ·he irregu1ar
"-ius", and "-i" for ·he geni·ive and da·ive singu1ars? The
nomina·ive singu1ar of ·he ·hird person demons·ra·ive is a 1i··1e
odd, and ·he geni·ive and da·ive singu1ar use ·hese a1·erna·ive
endings Trv ·o fi11 in ·he dec1ension. Ðon'· forge·, now, ·he
s·em of ·he demons·ra·ive is "e-" ·o which ·he case endings are
going ·o be added. Excep· for ·he geni·ive and da·ive singu1ar,
i· wi11 use ·he s·andard firs· and second dec1ension endings
which a11 s·andard ad·ec·ives use.
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. is ea id
Gen. _____________ _____________
_____________
Ða·. _____________ _____________
_____________
Acc. _____________ _____________
_____________
Ab1. _____________ _____________
_____________
N/V. ii, or ei _____________
_____________
Gen. _____________ _____________
_____________
Ða·. _____________ _____________
_____________
Acc. _____________ _____________
_____________
Ab1. _____________ _____________
_____________
Eirs· 1e·'s see how ·he wea' demons·ra·ive "is, ea, id"
wor's as an ad·ec·ive. Ðon'· forge· ·ha· as wi·h ·he
demons·ra·ives "i11e", "hic", and "is·e", "is" can be used bo·h
as an ad·ec·ive and as a pronoun. When used as a demons·ra·ive
ad·ec·ive, "is" has abou· ·he same force as our ar·ic1e "·he",
a1·hough as vou'11 see La·in doesn'· use "is, ea, id" in some
p1aces where we wou1d use our "·he". Brief1v, we mav sav ·his:
La·in uses "is, ea, id" as a demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive ·o give a
1i··1e emphasis ·o some·hing which has a1readv been ·a1'ed abou·.
Li'e ·his:
"I have a boo'".
"We11, ·hen, give me ·he boo'".
"The boo' is on ·he ·ab1e".
"O'av, ·han's. I'11 ge· ·he boo' mvse1f".
The underscored "·he's" are candida·es for ·he La·in "is, ea,
id", because ·he boo' ·he ·wo are ·a1'ing abou· has a1readv been
iden·ified, and ·he spea'ers are ca11ing ·us· a 1i··1e a··en·ion
·o i·. Can vou see a1so how "is, ea, id" differs from ·he s·rong
demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives "i11e" and "hic?" Can vou fee1 ·he
difference be·ween saving "Give me ·he boo'" and "Give me ·ha·
boo'" or "Give me ·his boo'?" In Eng1ish we have a wea' "·his"
·ha· corresponds nice1v ·o ·he La·in "is, ea, id" used as an
ad·ec·ive. We can sav for examp1e "I 1i'e ·his boo'", wi·hou·
p1acing much emphasis on ·he "·his". Tha· is, we're no· saving
"I 1i'e ·his boo' [and no· ·ha· one over ·here|".
Here are some examp1es of "is, ea, id" used as wea'
demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ives. Of course, wi·hou· a con·ex· i· mav be
a 1i··1e difficu1· ·o see precise1v ·he shades of fee1ing, bu· a·
1eas· vou can see ·he grammar invo1ved.
1. Eos 1ibros vobis dabimus. (We wi11 give ·he [or ·hese|
boo's ·o vou.)
2. Eas 1i··eras ad me mi··e·. (He wi11 send ·he [or ·his|
1e··er ·o me.)
3. Ei 1ibri sun· boni. (The [or ·hese| boo's are good.)
4. Animi earum feminarum va1en·. (The courage of ·he [or
of ·hese| women is s·rong.)
5. Nu11a civi·as ea be11a ·o1erare po·era·. (No ci·v was
ab1e ·o endure ·he [or ·hese| wars.)
Now ·rans1a·e ·hese in·o La·in, using "is, ea id" for "·he".
1. Thev wi11 send vou ·he [·his| monev.
_________________________________________________________________
2. I wi11 give vou ·he monev of ·he [·hese| men.
_________________________________________________________________
3. The [·hese| bovs are no· ·hin'ing.
_________________________________________________________________
4. I wi11 come wi·h ·he [·his| ·vran·.
_________________________________________________________________
5. Tha· man wi11 discover ·he [·his| p1o·.
_________________________________________________________________
IS, EA, IÐ AS RRONOUN
Now, how does a mi1d-mannered wea' demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive become
·he redoub·ab1e ·hird person pronoun, ·he g1orv of ·he La·in
1anguage? Le·'s ·hin' bac'. Remember ·he demons·ra·ive
ad·ec·ives "i11e", "hic", and "is·e?" You remember ·ha· ·hev can
be used as ad·ec·ives, ·o add emphasis ·o ·he noun ·hev're
modifving.
"I11e 1iber es· bonus." (Tha· boo' is good.)
"Hic vir es· ma1us." (This man is evi1.)
"Cicero vide· is·as insidias."
(Cicero see ·his p1o·.)
"Rossum superare vi·ia i11a." (I can overcome ·hose fau1·s.)
"Habeo pecuniam i11arum feminarum." (I have ·he monev of ·hose
women.)
Tha·'s a11 fine and good. Bu· vou a1so remember ·ha· ·he
demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive can be used, ·us· 1i'e a11 o·her
ad·ec·ives, wi·hou· a noun exp1ici·1v s·a·ed, bu· on1v imp1ied.
In order ·o supp1v ·he correc· noun, vou mus· do ·wo ·hings: (1)
vou mus· examine ·he form of ·he demons·ra·ive, and (2) vou mus·
examine ·he con·ex·. Wa·ch:
"I11ae feminae sun· ibi, sed i11as videre non possum".
How do vou ·rans1a·e ·he "i11as?" We11, "i11as" is feminine,
accusa·ive p1ura1, righ·? I·'s in ·he accusa·ive because i·'s
·he direc· ob·ec· of ·he verb "videre". Bu· whv is i· feminine
and p1ura1? Because ·he noun which has been 1ef· ou· -- ·ha· is,
·he ·hings ·o which "i11as" is referring -- is feminine and
p1ura1. And wha· is ·ha·? Loo' a· ·he con·ex·. "Eeminae" is
feminine and p1ura1.
"Those women are ·here, bu· I can'· see ·hose women" (or,
more idioma·ica11v in Eng1ish, "bu· I can'· see ·hem").
When ·he demons·ra·ives are used wi·hou· a noun, ·hev are ·a'ing
·he p1ace of a noun. And words which ·a'e ·he p1ace of a noun
are ca11ed pronouns. Hence ·he me·amorphosis from demons·ra·ive
ad·ec·ive ·o demons·ra·ive pronoun is comp1e·e.
Now 1e·'s ·a'e a 1oo' a· ·he wea' demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive
"is, ea, id". I· wi11 undergo ·he same process from ad·ec·ive ·o
pronoun. Because ·here is on1v a wea' demons·ra·ive force
a··ached ·o "is, ea, id", we can ·rans1a·e i· in·o Eng1ish simp1v
as our ·hird person pronoun: "he", "she", "i·", e·c.
"Vides·isne meos amicos?"
"Video eos".
"Ðo vou see mv friends?"
"I see ·hem".
A11 vou have ·o do when vou see ·he wea' demons·ra·ive ad·ec·ive
in a sen·ence wi·hou· a noun is ·o ·rea· i· ·us· 1i'e ·hird
person pronoun: chec' ·he an·eceden· and find ·he appropria·e
Eng1ish equiva1en·. Read ·hese sen·ences (go verv, verv s1ow1v
and be reasonab1e):
"Cicero ama· Romam, e· in ea bea·am vi·am agi·. A·que ego
civi·a·em eius amo. To·i amici eius sun· Romani. Vi·ae
eorum sun· bea·ae. E· eas magna cum sapien·ia agun·. Ei
igi·ur sun· bea·i. Cicero eos ama·, e· ei eum aman·. O1im
civi·as eorum in pericu1is magnis era·, sed ea superare
po·era·, quoniam viros mu1·os bonorum morum invenire
po·era·".
(Cicero 1oves Rome, and he is 1eading a happv 1ife in i·. I
a1so 1ove his ci·v. A11 his friends are Romans. Their
1ives are happv, and ·hev are 1eading ·hem [·hev are 1eading
·heir 1ives| wi·h grea· wisdom. Thev are ·herefore happv.
Cicero 1oves ·hem, and ·hev 1ove him. Eormer1v ·heir ci·v
was in grea· danger, bu· i· was ab1e ·o overcome ·hem [·he
dangers|, since i· was ab1e ·o find manv men of good
charac·er.)
THE ÐEMONSTRATIVE idem, eadem, idem
This is simp1e. La·in adds an undec1inab1e suffix ·o ·he end of
·he inf1ec·ed forms of ·he demons·ra·ive "is, ea, id" and comes
ou· wi·h "·he same". Li'e ·he demons·ra·ive "is, ea, id", ·he
resu1·ing form can be used ei·her an ad·ec·ive -- "eadem femina"
(·he same woman), or as a fu11-b1own pronoun -- "video easdem" (I
see ·he same (feminine) ·hings). Remember, ·he svn·ac·ica11v
impor·an· informa·ion comes before ·he "dem" suffix: "eisdem",
"eaedem", e·c.
The addi·ion of ·he suffix cause some dis·or·ion of ·he
spe11ing of "is, ea, id". Eirs·, in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar
mascu1ine, ·he "s" of "is" co11ides wi·h ·he "d" of "-dem" and
disappears, bu· ·he "i" of "is" becomes 1ong as a resu1·. In ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar neu·er ins·ead of "iddem" we ge· "idem". No
big surprise here. Eina11v, and ·his isn'· much of a surprise
ei·her, wherever ·he case ending of "is, ea, id" ends in an "m",
·he addi·ion of "dem" changes ·he "m" ·o an "n". Ðec1ine "idem,
eadem, idem".
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. _____________ _____________ _____________
Gen. _____________ _____________ _____________
Ða·. _____________ _____________ _____________
Acc. _____________ _____________ _____________
Ab1. _____________ _____________ _____________
N/V. _____________ _____________ _____________
Gen. _____________ _____________ _____________
Ða·. _____________ _____________ _____________
Acc. _____________ _____________ _____________
Ab1. _____________ _____________ _____________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
nemo ·he pronoun for "nobodv" has more ·han i·s share of
oddi·ies:
(1) ·he s·em of ·he word is nemin-;
(2) i· uses ·he ·hird dec1ension endings;
(3) i·'s po·en·ia11v mascu1ine or feminine -- "no man" or
"no woman";
(4) 1i'e Eng1ish "nobodv", i·'s on1v singu1ar;
(5) i· uses ·he geni·ive singu1ar of ·he ad·ec·ive "nu11us,
-a, -um" ins·ead of i·s expec·ed form of "neminis";
(6) in ·he ab1a·ive singu1ar i· uses "nu11o" (m. and n.) or
"nu11a" (f.) ins·ead of ·he expec·ed "nemine".
(Consequen·1v, ·he on1v p1ace "nobodv" in La·in
dis·inguishes among ·he genders is in ·he ab1a·ive.
Whv ·ha· shou1d be I haven'· ·he foggies· idea.)
Nom. nemo
Gen. nu11ius
Ða·. nemini
Acc. neminem
Ab1. nu11o, nu11a
01/05/93
CHARTER 12
"Rerfec· Svs·em Ac·ive of A11 Verbs; Rrincipa1 Rar·s"
VERBS: RRINCIRAL RARTS
Le·'s pre·end vou're na·ive Erench spea'ers 1earning Eng1ish and
vou wan· ·o 1oo' up ·he Eng1ish equiva1en· of ·he Erench verbs
"voir", "avoir", "prendre", and "regarder". Turn ·o vour
Erench-Eng1ish dic·ionarv and vou find ·his:
voir: "·o see", pre·. "saw", p·. "seen"
avoir: "·o have", pre·. "had", p·. "had"
prendre: "·o ·a'e", pre·. "·oo'", p·. "·a'en"
regarder: "·o 1oo'"
Wha·'s a11 ·his abou·? Whv are ·here ·hree en·ries for ·he firs·
·hree verbs? Wou1dn'· i· have been enough for ·he dic·ionarv
·us· ·o have 1is·ed ·he infini·ive "·o see" for "voir", "·o have"
for "avoir", e·c.? Of course no·; and whv no·? Consider our
verb "·o see"? Wha· ·enses of ·he verb are formed from ·he s·em
indica·ed in ·he infini·ive "·o see?" Le·'s 1is· a few.
Rresen· Simp1e: "I see"
Rresen· Rrogressive: "I am seeing"
Rresen· Empha·ic: "I do see"
Impera·ive: "See"
Eu·ure Simp1e: "I wi11 see"
Eu·ure Rrogressive: "I wi11 be seeing"
Imperfec·: "I was seeing"
Rresen· Condi·iona1: "I mav see"
You can see ·ha· if vou 'now a few basic ·ric's, vou can use ·he
infini·ive form "·o see" as ·he basis for severa1 ·enses and
moods in Eng1ish. "To see" provides ·he raw ma·eria1. Bu· ·here
are ·enses Eng1ish uses ·ha· are no· formed from ·he infini·ive
"·o see". How abou· ·he pre·eri· (·he simp1e pas· ·ense)? Can
vou form ·he simp1e pas· from "·o see"? No, Eng1ish uses ano·her
form of ·he verb ·o form ·his ·ense, and un1ess vou 'now wha·
·ha· form is, vou can'· use ·he verb "·o see" in ·he pre·eri·
·ense. Therefore, ·he dic·ionarv mus· give vou ·he form Eng1ish
uses: "saw". So ·he second en·rv in ·he dic·ionarv for ·he
Eng1ish verb "·o see" is ·he pre·eri· form. Loo' a· ·he second
en·ries for "·o have" and "·o ·a'e". Their pre·eri·s are "had"
and "·oo'". Ðo we ge· anv o·her ·enses from ·his form of ·he
verb? No, ·us· one: ·he pre·eri· ·ense.
Loo' a· ·he ·hird en·rv, "seen". Eor wha· ·enses, voices
and moods does Eng1ish use ·his form? A 1o· of ·hem. Here are
some:
Rresen· Rassive: "I am seen"
Rerfec· Ac·ive: "I have seen"
R1uperfec· Ac·ive: "I had seen"
Rerfec· Rassive: "I have been seen"
Eu·ure Rerfec· Ac·ive: "I wi11 have seen"
Eu·ure Rerfec· Rassive: "I wi11 have been seen"
Ras· Condi·iona1: "I migh· have seen"
Wi·h ·he ·hree forms given in ·he dic·ionarv, vou have a11 ·he
raw ma·eria1 from which vou can bui1d everv possib1e ·ense, mood,
voice and number of ·he verb "·o see". Therefore, ·o 'now an
Eng1ish verb ·horough1v, and ·o be ab1e ·o use i· in a11 i·s
possib1e app1ica·ions, vou mus· 'now a11 ·hree of i·s basic
forms. Once vou 'now ·hem, vou simp1v app1v ·he ru1es for ·he
forma·ion of ·he differen· ·enses, voices, and moods. We ca11
·hese ·hree forms ·he principa1 par·s of ·he verb. Eng1ish verbs
have ·hree principa1 par·s: ·he infini·ive, ·he pre·eri·, and ·he
perfec· par·icip1e.
Eine, now 1oo' a· ·he verb "·o 1oo'". Whv aren'· ·here ·wo
more principa1 par·s 1is·ed af·er ·he infini·ive? We11, wha· are
·he nex· ·wo principa1 par·s? The verb goes: "·o 1oo'",
"1oo'ed", and "1oo'ed". As vou can see, ·he second and ·hird
principa1 par·s are derivab1e from ·he firs· principa1 par·: vou
simp1v add "-ed" ·o ·he "1oo'". There are hundreds of verbs in
Eng1ish ·ha· wor' ·his wav. Their second and ·hird principa1
par·s are simp1v ·he firs· principa1 par· wi·h ·he suffix "-ed".
Verbs which opera·e 1i'e ·his are ca11ed "regu1ar" (or wea'). If
a verb is regu1ar, vou don'· need ·o be given ·he second and
·hird en·ries separa·e1v. Tha· is, once vou 'now ·he firs·
principa1 par·, vou 'now ·he nex· ·wo, and ·hus have a11 ·he
basic ma·eria1 vou need ·o form a11 ·he possib1e ·enses, moods
and voices of ·he verb. On ·he o·her hand, verbs whose principa1
par·s are no· readi1v derivab1e from ·he firs· principa1 par· are
ca11ed "irregu1ar" (or s·rong) verbs.
So wha· have I convinced vou of so far? A11 possib1e
·enses, voices and moods of an Eng1ish verb are reducib1e ·o
·hree differen· principa1 par·s. If a verb is irregu1ar
(s·rong), vou mus· 1earn ·he principa1 par·s bv memorv, bu· if i·
is regu1ar (wea'), vou can easi1v derive ·he second ·wo principa1
par·s from ·he firs·.
I'11 go even fur·her. The verb svs·ems of a11 1anguages
opera·e ·his wav. To wor' wi·h ·he verb, ·o 'now i· comp1e·e1v,
vou mus· 'now i·s principa1 par·s. Then vou have ·o 'now wha· ·o
do wi·h ·hem; vou have ·o 'now ·he ru1es and ·he 1aws of ·he
grammar of ·he 1anguage. Bu· firs· vou have ·o have ·he basic
ma·eria1s 1aid ou· in fron· of vou, and ·ha· means 'nowing ·he
principa1 par·s of ·he verb vou're wor'ing wi·h.
LATIN VERBS: RRINCIRAL RARTS
La·in verbs have ·hree principa1 par·s (·hree differen· s·ems),
bu· bv conven·ion we sav ·ha· ·hev have four. Up ·o ·his
chap·er, I've been mis1eading vou s1igh·1v bv ca11ing ·he basic
verb form of ·he presen· and fu·ure ·enses ·he "s·em". Tha· was
·us·ifiab1e when, so far as vou 'new, ·here was on1v one s·em for
verbs. Bu· now vou mus· rea1ize ·ha· ·he word "s·em" is no
1onger 1imi·ed ·o ·us· one possib1e par· of ·he verb. The s·em
wi·h which vou are so fami1iar is rea11v on1v ·he firs· principa1
par·. Le·'s 1oo' again a· ·he firs· principa1 par·.
Wha· ·enses do we ge· from ·he firs· principa1 par·? You
'now ·wo of ·hem a1readv. The firs· principa1 par· is ·he s·em
from which La·in forms ·he presen·, fu·ure, and ·he imperfec·
·enses (vou haven'· had ·he imperfec· ·ense ve·, excep· in ·he
verb "sum" and "possum"). And remember, vou use ·he infini·ive
-- ·he second principa1 par· -- ·o ·e11 vou wha· ·he s·em of ·he
firs· principa1 par· is. Here are ·he formu1ae for ·he presen·
and fu·ure ·enses.
RRESENT: firs· principa1 par· + no ·ense sign+
persona1 endings
EUTURE: firs· principa1 par· + ·ense sign+persona1
endings
Ta'e a coup1e of minu·es ·o review ·hese forms. Wri·e ou· ·he
presen· and fu·ure ·enses, and ·hen ·he impera·ive mood, of ·he
paradigms of ·he four con·uga·ions (inc1uding ·he ·hird i-s·em
verb):
I II III III i IV
1audo, -are moneo, -ere duco, -ere capio, -ere audio, -ire
RRESENT TENSE
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
EUTURE TENSE
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
IMRERATIVES
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
This, ·hen, is ·he big pic·ure of ·he sum ·o·a1 of vour
'now1edge of La·in verbs. A11 ·he ·enses and moods vou 'now are
based on ·he firs· principa1 par· of ·he verb -- ·he firs· en·rv
vou see in ·he dic·ionarv. As I said before, ·here is one o·her
·ense based on ·his s·em, ·he imperfec·, and vou'11 be ge··ing i·
soon enough. Eor reasons which vou needn'· worrv abou· ve·, we
ca11 a11 ·he ·enses derived from ·he firs· principa1 par· of ·he
verb ·he ·enses of ·he "presen· svs·em". So we sav ·ha· ·he
firs· principa1 par· is ·he roo· of ·he presen· svs·em of ·he
La·in verbs. Now on ·o some new ·erri·orv.
THE REREECT SYSTEM OE LATIN VERBS
As vou saw, Eng1ish verbs have ·hree roo·s from which differen·
voices, moods and ·enses are derived. A La·in verb uses i·s
firs· principa1 par· ·o form ·he presen· svs·em: ·he presen·,
fu·ure, and imperfec· ·enses. And ·his wou1d have sui·ed ·he
Romans ·us· fine, if ·heir 1anguage had had on1v ·hree ·enses,
bu· i· has six (one 1ess ·han Eng1ish). We divide ·he ·enses
in·o ·wo ma·or svs·ems: ·he presen· svs·em (which vou 'now), and
·he perfec· svs·em (which vou are abou· ·o 1earn). The perfec·
svs·em uses ·he remaining ·wo principa1 par·s -- ·he ·hird and
·he four·h -- as i·s base. Eor ·his chap·er, we're going ·o be
concerned on1v wi·h ·he ·enses formed off ·he ·hird principa1
par·.
I. The perfec· svs·em is composed of ·hree ·enses: ·he perfec·;
·he p1uperfec·, and ·he fu·ure perfec·.
A. The perfec· ·ense is used in La·in ·us· as we use our
pre·eri· and our perfec· ·enses: "I saw" or "I have
seen".
B. The p1uperfec· ·ense is used ·o ·a1' abou· an ac·ion
which has ·a'en p1ace before ano·her ac·ion in ·he
pas·. In Eng1ish, we use ·he pre·eri· of ·he auxi1iarv
verb "·o have" wi·h ·he pas· par·icip1e (·he ·hird
principa1 par·) of ·he verb: "I had seen". E.g.,
"Before vou came ·o ·he door, I had a1readv seen vour
face ·hrough ·he window."
C. The fu·ure perfec· ·ense is used ·o ·a1' abou· an
ac·ion which wi11 have ·a'en p1ace before ano·her even·
in ·he fu·ure. In Eng1ish we use ·he fu·ure of ·he
auxi1iarv verb "·o have" wi·h ·he pas· par·icip1e of
·he verb: "I wi11 have seen".
The perfec·, p1uperfec·, and fu·ure perfec· ·enses in ·he
ac·ive voice on1v are formed from ·he ·hird principa1 par·. The
perfec· svs·em passive, as vou wi11 see in a few chap·ers, uses
·he four·h principa1 par·, no· ·he ·hird. Le·'s 1oo' firs· a·
·he perfec· ·ense ac·ive.
The perfec· ·ense is formed exac·1v according ·o ·he formu1a
for ·he forma·ion of ·he ·enses vou a1readv 'now. I·'s made up
of persona1 endings which are ·hen added ·o a s·em. The
differences are (1) ·ha· ·he perfec· ·ense uses ·he ·hird
principa1 par· in p1ace of ·he firs· and (2) ·ha· ·he perfec·
·ense uses a differen· se· of persona1 endings. The persona1
endings ·he perfec· ·ense uses are:
1s· -i I
2nd -is·i vou
3rd -i· he, she, i·
1s· -imus we
2nd -is·is vou
3rd -erun· ·hev
You can see how some of ·hese endings resemb1e ·he endings used
in ·he presen· svs·em, bu· ·hev a11 mus· be memorized as en·ire1v
discre·e i·ems. Thev're ac·ua11v verv handv. Eor examp1e, if
vou see a con·uga·ed verb which ends in "-is·i", "is·is", or "-
erun·", vou'11 'now righ· awav ·ha· vou've go· a perfec· ·ense
and ·ha· ·he s·em which ·he ending is a··ached ·o is ·he ·hird,
no· ·he firs·, principa1 par·.
O'av, so where are we now? To form ·he perfec· ·ense, La·in
uses ·hese perfec· persona1 endings and pu·s ·hem on·o ·he ·hird
principa1 par· of ·he verb. So 1e·'s have a 1oo' ·hird principa1
par·s of verbs.
This mav sound 1i'e sma11 conso1a·ion, bu· in ·he perfec·
svs·em, ·he dis·inc·ions be·ween ·he differen· con·uga·ions me1·
awav. You undoub·ed1v remember a11 ·he differences be·ween ·he
con·uga·ions in ·he presen· svs·em: each con·uga·ion has a
differen· s·em vowe1 and, wha·'s even worse, ·he firs· and second
con·uga·ions form ·heir fu·ures en·ire1v differen·1v from ·he
·hird and four·h con·uga·ions. Bu· in ·he perfec· svs·em, once
vou ge· ·o ·he verb's ·hird and four·h principa1 par·s, vou
needn'· worrv anv 1onger whe·her ·he verb is a firs·, second,
·hird, ·hird-i, or four·h con·uga·ion. The four·h con·uga·ion
wi11 no· form, sav, i·s fu·ure perfec· differen·1v from ·he firs·
or second con·uga·ions. A11 ·he con·uga·ions obev exac·1v ·he
same ru1es in ·he perfec· svs·em. Bu· ge··ing ·o ·he ·hird
principa1 par· is ·he firs· ·hing vou've go· ·o ·hin' abou·.
THE EIRST CONJUGATION
Remember ·he verb "·o 1oo'" in Eng1ish? "To 1oo'" is a regu1ar
verb in Eng1ish, which means ·ha· i·s second and ·hird principa1
par·s are formed bv adding "-ed" ·o ·he firs· principa1 par·: "·o
1oo'", "1oo'ed", and "1oo'ed". Because i·'s regu1ar, ·he Erench
dic·ionarv didn'· 1is· ·he second and ·hird principa1 par·s
separa·e1v. Anvbodv wi·h anv business 1oo'ing up Eng1ish verbs
in ·he firs· p1ace shou1d a· 1eas· 'now how regu1ar verbs wor'.
I·'s on1v when ·he second and ·hird principa1 par·s aren'·
regu1ar1v formed ·ha· ·hev need ·o be 1is·ed. The firs·
con·uga·ion in La·in forms i·s principa1 par·s bv predic·ab1e and
regu1ar modifica·ion of ·he firs· principa1 par·. Li'e ·his:
I II III
1audo 1audare 1audavi
Le·'s go s1ow1v. Eirs· off, ·he dic·ionarv 1is·s ·he firs·
principa1 par· in ·he firs· person singu1ar. (There is a good
reason for ·his, as vou'11 see nex· semes·er.) So vou see
"1audo" ins·ead of "1auda-". To see ·he s·em vowe1, and hence ·o
see ·he con·uga·ion, vou mus· 1oo' ·o ·he second principa1 par·,
where ·he s·em vowe1 is revea1ed bv dropping off ·he infini·ive
ending "-re". In ·he same wav, ·he ·hird principa1 is 1is·ed in
·he dic·ionarv in ·he firs· person singu1ar perfec· ·ense; ·ha·
is, wi·h ·he "-i" of ·he firs· person singu1ar. To see ·he s·em,
vou mus· drop of ·he "-i". So ·he ·rue s·em of ·he ·hird
principa1 par· is "1audav-". As vou can see from ·his examp1e,
·he ·hird principa1 par· of ·he verb "1audo" is ·us· ·he s·em of
·he firs· principa1 par· -- "1auda-" p1us "v". And a11 firs·
con·uga·ion verbs form ·he ·hird principa1 par· in ·us· ·his wav.
Eirs· con·uga·ion verbs are ·herefore "regu1ar" in ·he svs·em of
principa1 par·s. If vou recognize a verb is firs· con·uga·ion
from i·s firs· ·wo dic·ionarv en·ries, vou now can derive ·he
·hird principa1 par· on vour own wi·hou· having ·o be given i· bv
·he dic·ionarv. Wri·e ou· ·he second and ·hird principa1 par·s
of some of ·he firs· con·uga·ion verbs vou a1readv 'now:
I II III
amo ____________________ ____________________
cogi·o ____________________ ____________________
·o1ero ____________________ ____________________
supero ____________________ ____________________
As vou can see, ·here's rea11v no·hing ·o ·his. Once vou 'now
·ha· a verb is firs· con·uga·ion, vou can easi1v derive i·s
principa1 par·s. Eor ·his reason, a dic·ionarv need ·e11 vou
on1v a verb is firs· con·uga·ion, and from ·here vou'11 be ab1e
·o derive ·he o·her par·s on vour own. I·'s ·he same as wi·h
regu1ar Eng1ish verbs. Given ·he firs· par·, vou 'now ·he o·her
·wo (provided ·ha· vou remember vour grammar!). A La·in
dic·ionarv ·e11s vou ·ha· a verb is firs· con·uga·ion bv simp1v
pu··ing a (1) (or (I)) direc·1v af·er ·he firs· en·rv. Eor
examp1e, "cer·o (1)". This ·e11s ·he verb is firs· con·uga·ion,
and wi·h ·ha· 'now1edge a1one vou 'now ·he res· of ·he principa1
par·s: "cer·are, cer·avi".
Now 1e·'s pu· ·he ·hird principa1 par· ·o wor'. And
remember, ·hese are ·he ru1es which wi11 govern ·he use of ·he
·hird principa1 par·s of a11 ·he con·uga·ions, firs· ·hrough
four·h. Use ·he firs· con·uga·ion verb "1audo (1)" as vour
paradigm.
REREECT TENSE
Remember ·ha· ·o form ·he perfec· ·ense of a verb vou use ·he
s·em of ·he ·hird principa1 par· (wha·'s 1ef· af·er vou drop ·he
"-i") ·o which vou add ·he perfec· persona1 endings.
3RÐ R.R. + RERS. ENÐ. = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· __________ + __________ = ____________________
2nd __________ + __________ = ____________________
3rd __________ + __________ = ____________________
1s· __________ + __________ = ____________________
2nd __________ + __________ = ____________________
3rd __________ + __________ = ____________________
RLUREREECT TENSE
Ano·her ·ense of ·he perfec· svs·em of ·enses (·enses which use
·he ·hird and four·h principa1 par·s of ·he verb) is ·he
p1uperfec· ·ense. To form ·he p1uperfec· ·ense, vou use ·he
imperfec· ·ense of ·he verb "sum" for ·he persona1 endings which
·hen a··ach ·o ·he ·hird principa1 par·.
3RÐ R.R. + RERS. ENÐ. = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· __________ + __________ = ____________________
2nd __________ + __________ = ____________________
3rd __________ + __________ = ____________________
1s· __________ + __________ = ____________________
2nd __________ + __________ = ____________________
3rd __________ + __________ = ____________________
EUTURE REREECT TENSE
The fu·ure perfec· uses ·he fu·ure of ·he verb "sum" as ·he
persona1 endings (wi·h ·he excep·ion of ·he ·hird person p1ura1
where i· is "-erin·" ins·ead of ·he norma1 fu·ure form "-erun·".
3RÐ R. R. + RERS. ENÐ. = CONJUGATEÐ EORM
1s· __________ + __________ = ____________________
2nd __________ + __________ = ____________________
3rd __________ + __________ = ____________________
1s· __________ + __________ = ____________________
2nd __________ + __________ = ____________________
3rd __________ + __________ = ____________________
Simp1e. And fair1v 1ogica1, ·oo. The ·hird principa1 par·
a1readv con·ains wi·hin i· ·he no·ion of pas· ·ense. To ma'e i·
even more pas·, vou add ·he inf1ec·ed forms of ·he imperfec· of
·he verb "sum" as ·he persona1 endings. Thus ·he name: "p1u"
(more) "perfec·" (comp1e·ed). Eor ·he fu·ure perfec·, vou ·hrow
·he idea of a comp1e·ed ac·ion in·o ·he fu·ure bv adding ·he
inf1ec·ed forms of ·he fu·ure of ·he verb "sum" as ·he persona1
endings. The excep·ion in ·he ·hird person p1ura1 is ac·ua11v
fair1v easv ·o accoun· for. You remember ·he fu·ure ·hird person
p1ura1 of "sum" is "erun·". Bu· if La·in had used ·his form, and
no· "erin·", ·he ·hird person p1ura1 fu·ure perfec· wou1d have
been dangerous1v c1ose ·o ·he ·hird person p1ura1 perfec·:
"1audaverun·".
Now vou have i·. You 'now a11 ·he ru1es for forming ·he
en·ire perfec· svs·em ac·ive of anv La·in verb. Once vou 'now
·he ·hird principa1 par·, vou simp1v app1v ·hese formu1ae and
awav vou go. Le·'s ·rudge on now ·o ·he second con·uga·ion
verbs. There's a 1o· of regu1ari·v ·here ·oo as far as ·he
forma·ion of ·he ·hird principa1 par· goes. Bu· ·he ug1v spec·er
of irregu1ari·v (and hence ·he need for ro·e memoriza·ion) s·ar·s
creeping in.
THE SECONÐ CONJUGATION
Manv, verv manv, second con·uga·ion verbs form ·heir ·hird
principa1 par· regu1ar1v off ·he firs· principa1 par·. Li'e
·his:
I II III
moneo monere monui
doceo docere docui
·imeo ·imere ·imui
·erreo ·errere ·errui
If we 1oo' in·o ·his more c1ose1v, we can see ·ha· ·he ·hird
principa1 of ·hese verbs is formed simp1v bv adding "-v-" ·o ·he
s·em of ·he firs· principa1 par·, ·us· as i·'s done for firs·
con·uga·ion verbs. Bu· when ·he "-v-" of ·he ·hird principa1
par· comes up agains· ·he "-e-" of ·he s·em of a second
con·uga·ion verb, ·he resu1· is one, so1i·arv "-u-". So for ·her
verb "moneo", ·he ·hird principa1 is "monevi" which becomes
"monui". So a1so wi·h manv second con·uga·ion verbs. The ·hird
principa1 par· is formed regu1ar1v.
Now, as I said, manv second con·uga·ion verbs form ·heir
principa1 par·s ·us· ·his wav, and if vou remember ·his, vou
won'· be confron·ed wi·h such a daun·ing 1is· of forms ·o
memorize. There is some order ·o i·. Bu· ·here are enough verbs
differing from ·his regu1ar pa··ern ·ha· vou can'· ·a'e for
gran·ed ·ha· vou can deduce ·he principa1s par·s from ·he firs·
for everv second con·uga·ion verb. The dic·ionarv can'· simp1v
pu· a (2) nex· ·o ·he firs· en·rv and 1eave i· up ·o vou ·o
derive ·he res· of ·he par·s. The dic·ionarv mus· give vou ·he
par·s as separa·e en·ries. Here are ·he second con·uga·ion verbs
vou've had so far. You can see ·ha· ·he ru1es wor' fair1v we11,
bu· ·here are devia·ions.
I II III
debeo debere debui
doceo docere docui
habeo habere habui
va1eo va1ere va1ui
video videre vidi
remaneo remanere remansi
Le·'s conso1ida·e our ground now bv doing a few exercises.
Rroduce ·he fo11owing forms, and ·rv ·o do i· from memorv a·
firs·.
1. Thev wi11 have had. ______________________________
2. I had seen. ______________________________
3. You (p1.) remained. ______________________________
4. We wi11 have ca11ed. ______________________________
5. She wi11 be s·rong. ______________________________
6. You (s.) have ·o1era·ed. ______________________________
7. Thev had ·augh·. ______________________________
8. You (p1.) had had. ______________________________
9. We have 1oved. ______________________________
10. Thev ·hough·. ______________________________
THE THIRÐ CONJUGATION (inc1uding ·he i-s·ems)
Now vou have ·o ba··en down ·he ha·ches; a11 he11 is abou· ·o
brea' 1oose. The ·hird con·uga·ion is where irregu1ari·v is ·he
norm. You mus· simp1v 1earn ·he principa1 par·s of ·hird
con·uga·ion verbs ou·righ·, bu·, as I wi11 ·rv ·o show vou,
reason isn'· comp1e·e1v banished from ·he ·hird con·uga·ion. Our
minds can ge· a ·oe-ho1d in here, ·oo, and impose some order.
Some c1assifiab1e ·hings happen ·o ·hird con·uga·ion verbs as
·hev form ·heir principa1 par·s.
A. Redup1ica·ion of Ini·ia1 Consonan·
Of·en ·he ·hird principa1 par· of a ·hird con·uga·ion wi11
begin bv doub1ing ·he ini·ia1 consonan· of ·he firs·
principa1 par· and pu··ing an "-e-" or "-i-" in be·ween ·he
·wo of ·hem:
pe11o pe11ere pepu1i
disco discere didici
do dare dedi
B. The Aoris·ic (or Sigma·ic) Rerfec·
Manv verbs add an "-s-" ·o ·he end of ·he firs· principa1
par· ·o produce ·he ·hird principa1 par·. Of·en ·he "-s-"
is hidden in an "-x-" or ano·her consonan· which comes abou·
from ·he co11ision be·ween ·he "-s-" and ·he consonan· a·
·he end of ·he verb.
mi··o mi··ere misi
dico dicere dixi
scribo scribere scripsi
vivo vivere vixi
C. Change in ·he Media1 Vowe1 and Loss of S·em Nasa1
Verv of·en a vowe1 in ·he firs· principa1 par· which is near
·he end of ·he verb wi11 change in ·he ·hird principa1 par·:
i· wi11 1eng·hen from a shor· ·o a 1ong vowe1; or i· wi11
grade, of·en from an origina1 "-a-" ·o a 1ong "-e-".
Nasa1s, "-m-" or "-n-", in ·he firs· principa1 par· mav a1so
be dropped in ·he ·hird principa1 par·.
ago agere egi
facio facere feci
fugio fugere fugi
vinco vincere vici
Bv now vou mus· be wondering whv I'm ·roub1ing vou wi11 a11
·hese pa··erns. Isn'· i· enough ·o have ·o memorize ·he
principa1 par·s wi·hou· being burdened wi·h a11 ·his? We11, ves,
vou are going ·o have ·o memorize ·he principa1 par·s of ·he
verbs vou're given in ·he vocabu1arv, ·ha·'s ·rue. Bu·, ·here
are more words ou· ·here in La·in ·han vou can easi1v memorize
before vou begin ·o read La·in. Eor much of vour reading, vou're
going ·o have ·o re1v no· on pre-memorized vocabu1arv i·ems, bu·
on vour powers of deduc·ion. Suppose vou see ·his form in vour
·ex·: "receperan·".
O'av, vou recognize ·he "-eran·" ending as ·he ·hird person
p1ura1 p1uperfec·. Erom ·his rea1iza·ion vou can ma'e ano·her
deduc·ion. If vou're in ·he perfec· svs·em, ·hen ·he "-eran·"
was a··ached ·o ·he ·hird principa1 par· of ·he verb, and vou
'now ·ha· ·he firs· en·rv in a dic·ionarv is ·he firs· principa1
par·, no· ·he ·hird. This cou1d be a prob1em. Can vou 1oo' up
"been" in ·he dic·ionarv in Eng1ish? No, of course no·. Tha·'s
because "been" is a principa1 par· of "·o be" and i·'11 be 1is·ed
under "·o be". So how are vou going ·o 1oo' up "recep-"?
You'11 never find i· ·us· 1i'e ·ha· in a dic·ionarv. You mus·
recrea·e ·he firs· principa1 par· of ·he verb ·o 1oo' i· up.
Wha· are vou going ·o do?
Thin' a 1i··1e. Wha· e1se can vou deduce abou· ·his verb?
Eor one, i·'s no· a firs· con·uga·ion verb. Thev a11 1oo' 1i'e
"-av-" in ·he ·hird principa1 par·. So vou won'· find i· under
"recepo, -are". I· cou1d be a second con·uga·ion verb, even
·hough mos· of ·hose have ·hird principa1 par·s ending in "-u-":
1i'e "habui" and "docui" from "habeo" and "doceo". S·i11, i·
migh· be wor·h a sho·; so vou 1oo' up "recepeo", expec·ing ·o see
"recepere" and "recepi" 1is·ed as i·s principa1 par·s af·er i·.
(Ðon'· forge·, wha· vou're 1oo'ing for is a verb whose ·hird
principa1 par· is "recepi".) Bu· ·here is no "recepeo, -ere,
-cepi". Then in bi··er frus·ra·ion vou forge· mv s·ern warning
no· ·o go browsing in ·he dic·ionarv, and vou 1oo' a· a11 ·he
en·ries beginning wi·h "recep-" hoping ·o find ·ha· ·hird
principa1 par· "recepi". Bu· vou fai1.
Now vou s·ar· ·hin'ing ·o vourse1f. "Suppose ·his is a
·hird con·uga·ion verb? Some·imes s·range ·hings happen ·o
verbs as ·hev go from ·he firs· ·o ·he ·hird principa1 par·. Is
·here anv evidence of redup1ica·ion? No. Anv hidden -s- sound
a· ·he end ·ha· ·hrowing off mv search? No. Wha·s 1ef·? Gro·e
once said some·hing abou· ·he media1 vowe1 changing, so I11 ·rv
·ha·. I 1oo' up r-e-c-?-p-. Because ·ha· -e- cou1d have been
some·hing e1se in ·he firs· principa1 par·, I11 s·av f1exib1e on
i·: ·he verb cou1d be recap- or recip-."
Leave vourse1f some in·e11igen·1v 1imi·ed f1exibi1i·v. Now
vou find i·, "recipio, -ere, -cepi". You see, ·his wor's
some·imes. Tha·'s whv I showed vou ·he ma·or pa··erns of
varia·ions.
EOURTH CONJUGATION
The forma·ion of ·he ·hird and four·h principa1 par·s of a four·h
con·uga·ion verb is qui·e s·raigh· forward. There are enough
irregu1ar forms ·o warran· separa·e 1is·ing in ·he dic·ionarv --
·hev aren'· a11 regu1ar deriva·ives from ·he firs· principa1 par·
as in ·he firs· con·uga·ion -- bu· manv verbs do have regu1ar
principa1 par·s. Here are a few four·h con·uga·ion verbs.
sen·io sen·ire sensi
venio venire veni
invenio invenire inveni
audio audire audivi
MORE ÐRILLS
Trv ·o memorize ·he ·hird principa1 par·s of ·he verbs in ·he
1is· Whee1oc' gives vou on pages 55-6. Here ·hev are again in a
1i··1e more manageab1e form. Ei11 in ·he b1an's using ·he
vocabu1arv 1is· on pp. 56-7, bu· ·rv ·o do as much from memorv as
possib1e. Then vou can use ·his 1is· as a s·udv shee·. Cover up
·he La·in, and ·rv wri·e ou· ·he comp1e·e en·rv for each verb. A
comp1e·e en·rv now is a11 four principa1 par·s. You'11 have ·o
do i· severa1 ·imes for ·hese forms ·o s·ic', bu· ·hese verbs are
abso1u·e1v essen·ia1 for ·he res· of vour s·udv, and a 1i··1e
effor· now wi11 grea·1v simp1ifv vour wor' in ·he fu·ure. You
mus· 'now ·hese words and form from Eng1ish ·o La·in. (You don'·
have ·o memorize ·he four·h principa1 par·s ve·. You shou1d ·us·
'now ·ha· ·hev are ou· ·here.)
I II III
·o 1ove _______________ _______________ _________________
·o ·hin' _______________ _______________ _________________
·o wander _______________ _______________ _________________
·o save _______________ _______________ _________________
·o overcome _______________ _______________ _________________
·o endure _______________ _______________ _________________
·o ca11 _______________ _______________ _________________
ough· _______________ _______________ _________________
·o ·each _______________ _______________ _________________
·o have _______________ _______________ _________________
·o give _______________ _______________ _________________
be s·rong _______________ _______________ _________________
·o see _______________ _______________ _________________
·o remain _______________ _______________ _________________
·o drive _______________ _______________ _________________
·o send _______________ _______________ _________________
·o wri·e _______________ _______________ _________________
·o 1ive _______________ _______________ _________________
·o fee1 _______________ _______________ _________________
·o come _______________ _______________ _________________
·o do _______________ _______________ _________________
·o conquer _______________ _______________ _________________
·o f1ee _______________ _______________ _________________
·o ·a'e _______________ _______________ _________________
·o 1ead _______________ _______________ _________________
·o be _______________ _______________ _________________
·o be ab1e _______________ _______________ _________________
TRANSLATE INTO LATIN
1. "I came, I saw, I conquered (don'· use supero (1))".
__________________________________________
2. I wi11 have begun. ___________________________________
3. She had ·augh·. ___________________________________
4. Thev 1ived. ___________________________________
5. We had. ___________________________________
6. You (p1.) have wri··en. ___________________________________
7. Thev sen·. ___________________________________
8. Thev have been. ___________________________________
9. We have found. ___________________________________
10. He had f1ed. ___________________________________
11. You cou1dn'· see us. ___________________________________
12. You (s.) had seen. ___________________________________
13. Thev came. ___________________________________
14. She remained. ___________________________________
15. We fe1·. ___________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
deus, -i (m) The shor· "-e-" of ·he s·em causes ·he word some
grief in ·he p1ura1:
Nom. di (ins·ead of dei)
Gen. deorum
Ða·. dis (ins·ead of deis)
Acc. deos
Ab1. dis (ins·ead of deis)
01/05/93
CHARTER 13
"Ref1exive Rronouns and Rossessives; ·he In·ensive 'Ipse'"
EIRST ANÐ SECONÐ RERSON REELEXIVE RRONOUNS
In Chap·er 11 vou s·udied ·he firs·, second and ·hird person
pronouns. Here's wha· vou shou1d remember abou· ·hem. The firs·
and second person pronouns don'· show anv gender; ·here aren'·
·hree forms, for examp1e, for "I": one ·ha·'s feminine, one
·ha·'s mascu1ine, and ano·her ·ha·'s neu·er. The firs· and
second person don'· have ·o indica·e differen· gender for reasons
which are grounded psvcho1ogica11v in ·he na·ure of 1anguage
i·se1f. Ano·her ·hing is ·ha· La·in uses ·he wea' demons·ra·ive
ad·ec·ive "is, ea, id" as i·s ·hird person pronoun. Here ma'ing
dis·inc·ions among ·he ·hree genders is verv impor·an·, so ·he
·hird person pronoun has ·hir·v possib1e forms: five cases in
·hree genders in bo·h ·he singu1ar and ·he p1ura1. Remember a11
·ha·? Le·'s go on. Loo' a· ·hese Eng1ish sen·ences.
"We saw vou ·here".
"You saw me ·here".
"You saw us ·here".
"We are coming wi·h vou".
"You are giving i· ·o us".
And so on. If vou had ·o, vou cou1d pu· each of ·hese sen·ences
in·o La·in, using ·he appropria·e number and case of ·he firs·
and second person pronouns. Bu· I have some·hing e1se in mind.
As vou can see in each of ·hese sen·ences ·he person of ·he
pronoun of ·he sub·ec· is differen· from ·he pronoun ·ha· appears
in ·he predica·e. In ·he sen·ence "We saw vou ·here", ·he
sub·ec· pronoun is firs· and ·he pronoun in ·he predica·e is
second. And simi1ar1v for ·he res· of ·he sen·ences. This is
because in each of ·hese sen·ences some one is doing some·hing ·o
or wi·h someone e1se.
Now 1oo' a· ·hese sen·ences. Thev're no· in s·andard
Eng1ish, bu· I'm going ·o ma'e a poin·.
"You saw vou".
"I saw me".
"I bough· me an app1e".
"We 1i'e us".
In ·hese sen·ences, un1i'e ·he firs· ba·ch, ·he person of ·he
sub·ec· pronouns is ·he same as ·he pronouns in ·he predica·e.
In "You saw vou", bo·h ·he sub·ec· and ·he predica·e pronouns are
second person. And so on wi·h ·he o·her ·hree. Now, I warned
vou, ·hese sen·ences are no· in s·andard Eng1ish, bu· suppose a
foreigner who's ·us· 1earning Eng1ish wro·e ·hem ou·. Is ·here
anv ques·ion in ·hese sen·ences abou· who's doing wha· ·o whom?
No. In "I saw me", ·he spea'er is obvious1v ·rving ·o sav ·ha·
he saw himse1f. He's ·rving ·o sav ·ha· ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb
is performing an ac·ion on i·se1f, no· on some·hing or someone
e1se. So even ·hough ·hev don'· qua1ifv as good Eng1ish, ·hese
sen·ence can be unders·ood. The sub·ec· of ·he verb is
performing an ac·ion ·ha· affec· ·he sub·ec· i·se1f; and because
·he person of ·he pronouns in ·he sub·ec· and ·he predica·e is
·he same, vou can see ·ha·.
When ·he sub·ec· of a sen·ence performs an ac·ion which
affec·s i·se1f, ·hen ·he pronouns in ·he predica·e are ca11ed
"ref1exive", because ·hev send vou "bac'" ·hrough ·he verb ·o ·he
sub·ec·. A ref1exive pronoun is a pronoun in ·he predica·e of
·he sen·ence ·ha· refers vou ·o ·he sub·ec·. And in ·he firs·
and second persons, ·his ·as' cou1d be easi1v accomp1ished bv
using pronouns ·ha· have ·he same person. I·'s rea11v no·
necessarv ·o have separa·e forms in ·he firs· and second person
for non-ref1exive pronouns on ·he one hand and ref1exive pronouns
on ·he o·her. One se· of forms can do doub1e du·v. Eng1ish,
however, does have separa·e forms. Rephrase ·he sen·ences above
using ·he Eng1ish ref1exive pronouns. As vou can ·e11, we use a
form of ·he pronoun wi·h ·he suffix "-se1f" a··ached ·o ·hem:
EIRST RERSON SECONÐ RERSON
Singu1ar: mvse1f vourse1f
R1ura1: ourse1ves vourse1ves
La·in, however, being ·he wise and economica1 1anguage i· is, has
no separa·e forms for ref1exive and non-ref1exive pronouns in ·he
firs· and second persons. I· simp1v uses ·he persona1 pronouns
vou've a1readv seen.
Video me. (I see mvse1f.)
Videmus nos. (We see ourse1ves.)
Vide·is vos. (You see vourse1ves.)
Vides ·e. (You see vourse1f.)
And so on, and so on. In ·he firs· and second persons, if ·he
pronoun in ·he predica·e is ·he same number as ·he sub·ec·
pronoun, ·he pronoun in ·he predica·e is referring ·o ·he sub·ec·
and is ·herefore de fac·o ref1exive.
There is one in·eres·ing fea·ure wor·h of commen·. Wi11 a
ref1exive pronoun ever be in ·he nomina·ive case? Thin' abou·
i·. When a pronoun is nomina·ive, i· is ·he sub·ec· of ·he
sen·ence. Bu· a ref1exive pronoun bv defini·ion is in ·he
predica·e and is receiving in some wav ·he ac·ion which ·he
sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence is performing. So a ref1exive pronoun
wi11 never be in ·he nomina·ive case. Tha·'s whv vou see
Whee1oc' 1is·ing ·he ref1exive pronouns 1i'e ·his:
EIRST RERSON SECONÐ RERSON
Nom. ------- -------
Gen. [mei| [·ui|
Ða·. mihi ·ibi
Acc. me ·e
Ab1. me ·e
Nom. ------- -------
Gen. [nos·ri/nos·rum| [ves·ri/ves·rum|
Ða·. nobis vobis
Acc. nos vos
Ab1. nobis vobis
No nomina·ives. Ac·ua11v, a be··er wav ·o sav ·his wou1d be ·o
sav ·ha· La·in has no separa·e forms for ·he ref1exive pronoun in
·he firs· and second persons a· a11; i· simp1v uses ·he exis·ing
pronouns ref1exive1v.
THIRÐ RERSON REELEXIVE RRONOUNS
In ·he ·hird person ·hings are a 1i··1e more comp1ica·ed. You
remember ·ha· ·he ·hird person pronoun needs ·o show gender,
because, un1i'e ·he firs· and second persons, ·he gender of ·he
·opic of conversa·ion mav no· be obvious. The same 'ind
ambigui·v is possib1e in ·he ·hird person wi·h regard ·o
ref1exive and non-ref1exive pronouns. I· mav be possib1e ·ha· ·he
·hird person sub·ec· is performing an ac·ion which is affec·
ano·her ·hird person. Consider ·his:
"He saw him".
"Thev saw ·hem".
"She saw her".
Here ·he person of ·he pronouns is ·he same in each of ·hese
sen·ences, and in ·he firs· and second persons vou need ·o 'now
·ha· ·he sub·ec· is ac·ing on i·se1f. Bu· ·ha·'s no· going ·o
wor' in ·he ·hird person. You can'· ·e11 whe·her ·he "her", for
examp1e, in ·he predica·e of ·he ·hird sen·ence is ·he same
fema1e which is ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence. "She" cou1d be
seeing ano·her fema1e. The ·hird person mus· have one form for
·he ref1exive pronoun and ano·her for ·he non-ref1exive pronoun,
since ·he possibi1i·v of ambigui·v is rea1 if ·he forms were ·he
same. In Eng1ish, we use ·he o1d s·and-bv: ·he suffix "-se1f"
for ·he ref1exive: "He saw himse1f"; "Thev saw ·hemse1ves"; "She
saw herse1f".
In La·in as we11 ·he s·andard ·hird person pronoun "is, ea
id" won'· do; differen· forms are required for ·he ·hird person
ref1exive pronoun -- ·ha· is, for a pronoun which wi11 refer vou
·o ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence and no· ·o some o·her ·hird
person. La·in does indeed have separa·e forms, bu· un1i'e ·he
barbarous pro1ixi·v of Eng1ish, La·in 'eeps i·s forms ·o a bare
minimum.
Loo' a· i· ·his wav. A11 ·he ·hird person ref1exive pronoun
has ·o do is ·o refer vou ·o ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence. The
pronoun i·se1f does no· have ·o ·e11 vou ·he gender or ·he number
of ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence. The sub·ec· i·se1f can ·e11 vou
·ha·. The ref1exive pronoun on1v has ·o poin· vou bac' ·o ·he
sub·ec·, and if vou remember ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence vou're
reading or 1is·ening ·o, vou can men·a11v bring forward ·he
number and gender.
Trv i· ·his wav. Suppose in Eng1ish ·he sign "*" is ·he
ref1exive ·hird person pronoun. I· ·e11s vou ·o go bac' ·o ·he
sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence, so everv ·ime vou see i·, vou p1ug in
·he words "·he sub·ec·"
"He saw *". = "He saw [·he sub·ec·|".
"Thev saw *". = "Thev saw [·he sub·ec·|".
"She bough· i· for *". = "She bough· i· for [·he
sub·ec·|".
Ðo vou see. In a11 ·hree sen·ence vou ge· a fu11
unders·anding of wha·'s going on wi·hou· having ·o be ·o1d bv ·he
ref1exive pronoun wha· ·he gender and number of ·he sub·ec· is.
Bu· in Eng1ish we'd have ·o sav:
"He saw himse1f".
"Thev saw ·hemse1ves".
"She bough· i· for herse1f".
Bu· rea11v, in sen·ence #1, we don'· need ·o be ·o1d again
bv ·he ref1exive pronoun ·ha· ·he sub·ec· is mascu1ine and
singu1ar. Ye· ·his is precise1v wha· Eng1ish does. Simi1ar1v
for ·he o·her ·wo. Ðoes ·he spea'er of ·he Eng1ish sen·ence
rea11v ·hin' our a··en·ion spans are so shor· ·ha· we have ·o be
reminded af·er a second or ·wo wha· ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence
is? Eviden·1v.
In La·in, no such s·upidi·v is impugned ·o us. The La·in
·hird person ref1exive pronoun is simp1v a sign which direc·s us
bac' ·o ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence. I· dec1ines, of course,
because i· mav be used in ·he differen· cases (no· ·he
nomina·ive), bu· i· ·e11s us no·hing abou· ·he number or gender
of ·he sub·ec·. I· ·us· ·e11s us, 'no ma··er wha· ·he sub·ec· of
·his sen·ence was, ·hin' of again.' Here's ·he ref1exive ·hird
person pronoun.
SINGULAR ANÐ RLURAL
Nom. ----------
Gen. [sui|
Ða·. sibi
Acc. se
Ab1. se
How do we ·rans1a·e ·his in·o Eng1ish? Remember ·ha· ·he
Eng1ish ·hird person ref1exive pronoun indica·es number and
gender, so when we bring a La·in ·hird person ref1exive pronoun
over in·o Eng1ish, we have ·o reinser· ·he number and gender of
·he sub·ec·. Li'e ·his: "Ea se vide·". To a Roman ear i· means,
"she sees [·he sub·ec·| Eor us, we have ·o repea· ·he gender and
number in ·he ref1exive pronoun. We wou1d sav, "she sees
herse1f". Le·'s ·rv a few more.
"Ei homines se viderun·". (The men saw ·hemse1ves.)
"Eae se viden·". (The women see ·hemse1ves.)
"Vir se vide·". (The man sees himse1f.)
"Eae 1i··eras ad se mi··en·". (Thev (·he women) wi11 send a
1e··er ·o ·hemse1ves.)
Of course, in ·he sen·ences Whee1oc' gives vou i· mav be
impossib1e ·o sav precise1v wha· ·he gender of ·he ·hird person
sub·ec· is if i· isn'· exp1ici·1v s·a·ed, as in ·he examp1es
above. Eor examp1e, "Se vide·" cou1d be ·rans1a·ed as "he sees
himse1f", "she sees herse1f", or "i· sees i·se1f Wi·hou· a
con·ex·, i·'s impossib1e ·o decide. Choose whichever vou prefer.
ÐRILLS
Trans1a·e in·o La·in.
1. I see vou (p1.). _________________________
2. Thev see us. _________________________
3. Thev wi11 send us ·he 1e··er. _________________________
4. She sees herse1f. _________________________
5. The ·vran· 1oves himse1f. _________________________
6. The ·vran·s 1ove ·hemse1ves. _________________________
7. Give vourse1f ·o phi1osophv! _________________________
8. He gives himse1f ·o phi1osophv. _________________________
9. She wi11 no· see ·hem. _________________________
10. He wi11 no· see him. _________________________
11. The farmers can'· see ·hem. _________________________
12. The farmers can'· see ·hemse1ves. _________________________
So 1e·'s co11ec· ourse1ves. Here's wha· we've covered so
far. (1) In ·he firs· and second persons in La·in ·here are no
new forms for ·he ref1exive pronouns. If a pronoun in ·he
predica·e is ·he same person as ·he sub·ec·, ·hen ·he pronoun is
ref1exive. This is because ·he pronoun in ·he predica·e mus· be
referring ·o ·he same person as ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence.
Addi·iona11v, for ·his reason, ·he ref1exive pronoun wi11 never
be in ·he nomina·ive case. If i· were in ·he nomina·ive case i·
wou1d be ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb and hence no· in ·he predica·e;
and a11 ref1exive pronouns mus· be in ·he predica·e. Ðespi·e
·his inheren· simp1ici·v of ref1exive pronouns in ·he firs· and
second persons, Eng1ish never·he1ess adds "-se1f" or "-se1ves" ·o
·he end of ·he non-ref1exive pronouns ·o form ·he ref1exive
pronouns. S·ric·1v spea'ing, i·'s no· necessarv ·o dis·inguish
forma11v ·he non-ref1exive from ·he ref1exive pronouns in ·he
firs· and second persons; con·ex· cou1d do ·ha· for vou. The
·hird person ref1exive pronoun mus· differ in form from ·he ·hird
person non-ref1exive pronouns. Bu· a11 ·he ·hird person
ref1exive pronoun need do is ·o poin· vou bac' ·o ·he sub·ec· of
·he sen·ence. Because vou remember ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence,
i·'s no· rea11v necessarv for ·he ref1exive pronoun i·se1f ·o
remind vou of ·he gender and ·he number of ·he sub·ec·. The
La·in ·hird person ref1exive pronoun ·herefore does no· in i·se1f
ma'e anv dis·inc·ions in number and gender. I· simp1v wor's as a
sign poin·ing vou bac' ·o ·he sub·ec·. To ·rans1a·e ·he La·in
ref1exive pronoun proper1v in Eng1ish, however, vou mus· resupp1v
·he gender and number ·o ·he pronoun.
REELEXIVE ANÐ NON-REELEXIVE ROSSESSIVES
On ·o new business. Read ·his Eng1ish sen·ence: "I see mv
daugh·er". Now is ·here anv ques·ion whose daugh·er ·his is?
I·'s ·he daugh·er of ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence. And how do vou
'now ·ha·? Because ·he possessive "mv" is firs· person and ·he
sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence is firs· person. So ·he sub·ec· of ·he
sen·ence is being reca11ed in ·he predica·e, because ·he sub·ec·
owns ·he direc· ob·ec· of ·he verb. We can ca11 ·his
re1a·ionship be·ween "I" and "mv" ref1exive possession. The
sub·ec· of ·he verb is possessing some·hing in ·he predica·e.
You can see ·ha· ·o show ref1exive possession no new form of
·he possessive pronoun is needed. "Mv" does ·us· fine. On1v a
do1· wou1d need more informa·ion abou· whose daugh·er ·his is.
Bu· Eng1ish has p1ans for ·he do1·. The spea'er can under1ine
·his ref1exive possession bv inser·ing "own" af·er "mv".
Spea'er: "I see mv daugh·er".
Ðo1·: "Whose daugh·er"?
Spea'er: "I see mv own daugh·er, vou do1·".
More examp1es:
"Ðo vou have vour monev?" (ref1exive possession)
"Ðo vou have mv monev?" (non-ref1exive)
"Have vou seen our friend?" (non-ref1exive)
"Hev, we can see our car from here". (ref1exive possession)
"I haven'· found mv boo' ve·". (ref1exive possession)
La·in has no differen· forms for ref1exive and non-ref1exive
possession in ·he firs· and second persons. There's no need.
La·in simp1v uses ·he exis·ing possessive ad·ec·ives:
EIRST RERSON SECONÐ RERSON
meus, -a, -um ·uus, -a, -um
nos·er, -·ra, -·rum ves·er, -·ra, -·rum
If ·he person of ·he possessive ad·ec·ive in ·he predica·e is ·he
same as ·he person of ·he sub·ec·, ·hen ·he possessive is
ref1exive. Simp1e.
"Vide·is amicos ves·ros". (ref1exive possession)
"Vide·is amicos meos". (non-ref1exive possession)
Le·'s 1oo' ·us· a 1i··1e more c1ose1v a· ·hese possessive
ad·ec·ives. Thev consis·s of ·wo par·s. There's ·he s·em and
·he ad·ec·iva1 ending. The s·ems ·e11 vou abou· ·he possessor,
no· abou· wha· ·he possessor is possessing. The s·em "me-" of
·he ad·ec·ive "meus, -a, -um" ·e11s vou ·ha· ·he possessor is
singu1ar and in ·he firs· person. I· doesn'·, however, ·e11 vou
wha· gender ·he possessor is. The ad·ec·iva1 ending agrees in
number, gender, and case wi·h ·he ob·ec· possessed. Go· ·ha·?
You can ·hin' of ·he possessive ad·ec·ives of ·he firs· and
second persons as having ·wo par·s: ·he s·em which ·e11s vou
abou· ·he possessor, and ·he ad·ec·iva1 ending which ·e11s vou
abou· wha· is being possessed.
Now 1e·'s ge· on wi·h ·he ·hird person. The simp1e ru1e
·ha· wor'ed so we11 in ·he firs· and second persons isn'· going
·o wor' here. Loo' a· ·his sen·ence: "She had her ·ic'e·". The
possessive pronoun "her" is ·he same person as ·he sub·ec· --
·hird person -- bu· can vou ·e11 from ·his sen·ence whe·her "she"
has her own ·ic'e· or ·he ·ic'e· of some o·her fema1e? No, vou
can'·. There is a rea1 ambigui·v here, and of·en in Eng1ish we
have ·o as' for fur·her informa·ion. "Whose ·ic'e·?" If ·he
spea'er hasn'· made i· c1ear, an addi·iona1 "own" can be used ·o
he1p ou·: "She has her own ·ic'e·". Now norma11v we re1v on
con·ex· ·o c1ear up anv possib1e ambigui·ies, bu· some·imes i·'s
rea11v no· c1ear who's owning wha·: "Thev have ·heir boo's"
(Their own or some o·her peop1es' boo's?). The on1v ·hing ·he
possessive pronoun "·heir" ·e11s vou abou· ·he possessors is ·ha·
·here is more ·han one of ·hem. Bu· vou can'· ·e11 whe·her ·hese
peop1e are ·he same fo1's indica·ed bv "·hev".
In La·in, ·he same possibi1i·v for ambigui·v exis·s; so some
so1u·ion ·o ·he prob1em is in order. Eirs· off, how does La·in
show non-ref1exive possession in ·he ·hird person? I· uses ·he
geni·ive of ·he ·hird person pronoun "is, ea, id". Wa·ch:
"Eius 1ibrum habui·". (He/she had his/her boo' (no· his/her
own).)
"Eius g1adium inveni·". (He/she found his/her sword (no·
his/her own).)
"Servavi· pa·riam eius". (He/she saved his/her fa·her1and
(someone e1se's).)
"Servaverun· pa·riam eorum". (The saved ·heir (o·her
peop1es') fa·her1and.)
A coup1e of ·hings ·o no·ice. Eirs·, un1i'e ·he firs· and
second person possessive ad·ec·ives, ·he possessive in ·he ·hird
person is no· an ad·ec·ive. I· does no· agree wi·h ·he ·hing
being possessed. Loo' a· ·he ·hree sen·ences above. "Liber" is
mascu1ine, "g1adium" is neu·er, and "pa·riam" is feminine, ve·
"eius" didn'· change. Simi1ar1v, in ·he 1as· sen·ence, "eorum"
·e11s vou ·ha· ·he owners are p1ura1 and mascu1ine, bu· i· has
no·hing wha·soever ·o do gramma·ica11v wi·h "pa·riam". In ·he
·hird person, ·he possessive pronoun on1v ·e11s vou abou· who's
doing ·he possessing; i· ·e11s vou abso1u·e1v no·hing abou· ·he
ob·ec· possessed.
Second1v, ·he geni·ive of "is, ea, id" is used ·o show on1v
non-ref1exive possession. "Eius 1ibrum habui·" cou1d no·
possib1v mean "he had his own boo'". I· can on1v mean "he has
his [ano·her person's| boo'". In Eng1ish, bv con·ras·, ·he
possessive "his" can be used ·o show ref1exive or non-ref1exive
possession; bu· ·he La·in "eius" and "eorum, earum" can on1v be
used non-ref1exive1v. So wha· does La·in use ·o show ref1exive
possession in ·he ·hird person? How does i· sav "his own", "her
own", "i·s own" and "·heir own?"
To show ref1exive possession in ·he ·hird person, La·in uses
·he "ref1exive possessive ad·ec·ive": "suus, -a, -um". This
ad·ec·ive has a coup1e of in·eres·ing fea·ures. Eirs·, i·'s an
ad·ec·ive, so i· mus· agree wi·h ·he ob·ec· which is being
possessed. You've seen ·ha· a1readv in ·he possessive ad·ec·ives
of ·he firs· and second persons. Second, un1i'e ·he firs· and
second persons, ·he ·hird person ref1exive possessive ad·ec·ive
has no differen· form for ·he p1ura1 number.
Li'e ·his. The "-us, -a, -um" par· of ·he ad·ec·ive agrees
wi·h ·he ob·ec· possessed. The "su-" par· ·e11s vou ·o go bac'
·o ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence. And ·ha·'s a11 i· ·e11s vou.
Li'e ·he ref1exive pronoun "sui, sibi, se, se", ·he possessive
ad·ec·ive on1v ·e11s vou ·ha· ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence is now
invo1ved in ·he predica·e, and vou shou1dn'· have ·o be reminded
of ·he gender and number of ·he sub·ec·.
"Habuerun· suos 1ibros". (Thev had [·he sub·ec·s'| boo's.)
"Habui· suos 1ibros". (He had [·he sub·ec·'s| boo's.)
"Rue11a habui· suos 1ibros". (The gir1 had [·he sub·ec·'s|
boo's.)
Bu· ·o ·rans1a·e ·his in·o Eng1ish, we have ·o reins·a·e ·he
number and gender of ·he sub·ec· in ·he predica·e.
"Habuerun· suos 1ibros". (Thev had ·heir own boo's.)
"Habui· suos 1ibros". (He had his own boo's.)
"Rue11a habui· suos 1ibros". (The gir1 had her own boo's.)
Ðo vou see? The La·in ad·ec·ive "suus, -a, -um" isn'·
changing, bu· our Eng1ish rendi·ion, because in Eng1ish we
c1umsi1v repea· ·he gender and number of ·he sub·ec· of ·he
sen·ence in ·he ref1exive possessive pronoun. La·in doesn'·, and
·here's rea11v no reason i· shou1d. The "su-" par· of ·he
possessive savs, "Go bac' ·o ·he sub·ec·". And ·ha·'s a11 i· has
·o sav ·o ge· ·he message across.
ÐRILL
Trans1a·e (as manv as vou need ·o reassure vourse1f.)
1. I saw vou. ______________________________
2. Thev saw her. ______________________________
3. Thev saw us. ______________________________
4. I saw mvse1f. ______________________________
5. You saw me. ______________________________
6. You saw vourse1f. ______________________________
7. You (p1.) saw vourse1ves. ______________________________
8. We saw ourse1ves. ______________________________
9. I gave i· ·o him. ______________________________
10. We came wi·h vou (p1.). ______________________________
11. We gave i· ·o ourse1ves. ______________________________
12. Thev gave i· ·o her. ______________________________
13. Vidimus nos. ______________________________
14. Id mihi dedi. ______________________________
15. Vidis·is vos. ______________________________
16. Venimus cum vobis. ______________________________
17. Id ei dedi. ______________________________
18. Id vobis dedis·is. ______________________________
19. Vidi· eum. ______________________________
20. Venerun· cum eis. ______________________________
21. Id eis dederun·. ______________________________
22. Se vidi·. ______________________________
23. Se aman·. ______________________________
24. Id sibi dederun·. ______________________________
25. Amo meum canem (dog). ______________________________
26. Vidimus amicos nos·ros. ______________________________
27. Vides ·uos amicos. ______________________________
28. Video ·uos amicos. ______________________________
29. Videmus ves·ros amicos. ______________________________
30. Videbi·is eius amicos. ______________________________
31. Vidi· eius amicos. ______________________________
32. Vidi· suos amicos. ______________________________
33. Viderun· eorum amicos. ______________________________
34. Viderun· suos amicos. ______________________________
35. Ðederun· id eorum amicis. ______________________________
36. Ðederun· id suis amicis. ______________________________
37. He saw himse1f. ______________________________
38. Thev saw our friends. ______________________________
39. We saw vou. ______________________________
40. Thev saw ·hemse1ves. ______________________________
41. I saw vour friends. ______________________________
42. Thev saw vour friend. ______________________________
43. I saw mv friends. ______________________________
44. We saw our friend. ______________________________
45. Thev saw ·hemse1ves. ______________________________
46. Thev saw ·heir friends. ______________________________
47. I gave i· ·o mv friends. ______________________________
48. Thev gave i· ·o ·hem. ______________________________
49. She came wi·h her friend. ______________________________
50. Venis·is cum amicis ves·ris.
_______________________________________________________
51. You (p1.) gave i· ·o vourse1ves.
_______________________________________________________
52. Thev gave i· ·o ·heir own friends.
_______________________________________________________
53. Thev gave i· ·o ·hemse1ves.
_______________________________________________________
54. He came wi·h ·heir friends.
_______________________________________________________
55. He came wi·h his [own| friends.
_______________________________________________________
56. He came wi·h his [no· his own| friends.
_______________________________________________________
57. Thev gave i· ·o our friends.
_______________________________________________________
58. Thev saw ·heir [own| friends.
________________________________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
ipse, ipsa, ipsum This pronoun a1wavs causes some confusion
because of i·s Eng1ish ·rans1a·ion. I·'s an
empha·ic ad·ec·ive or pronoun, and we
·rans1a·e i· wi·h our "him-, her-, i·- or
·hem- se1f (se1ves)". Because i· is ·he same
form we use for our ref1exive pronoun,
s·uden·s of·en mis·rans1a·e i·. "Ipse"
under1ines or emphasizes ·he noun i·'s
modifving or ·he noun i·'s rep1acing. "Ipse
id feci·" wou1d mean "He himse1f did i·", no·
"He did i· himse1f" which means he did i· a11
bv himse1f, or "He did i· ·o himse1f". "Ipsa
id feci·" wou1d mean "She herse1f did i·".
"Vidi ipsos viros:" wou1d mean "I saw ·he
verv men ·hemse1ves". You'11 have ·o
prac·ice wi·h ·his demons·ra·ive some.
an·e + acc. or adv. The preposi·ion means "before" as in "an·e
be11um" (before ·he war). I· can a1so be used
as an adverb, bu· vou won'· see i· in ·his
boo'. Whee1oc' warns vou no· ·o confuse i·
wi·h "an·i", which is a Gree' word which
means "agains·" or "ins·ead of".
01/05/93
CHARTER 14
"I-S·em Nouns of ·he Third Ðec1ension; Ab1a·ive
of Means, Manner, and Accompanimen·"
THIRÐ ÐECLENSION NOUNS
As vou 1earned in Chap·er 7, ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he ·hird
con·uga·ion case endings ·ends ·o be a shor· "-e-". You a1so saw
·ha· ·he shor· "-e-" has a habi· of ·urning in·o an "-i-". Le·'s
·a'e a 1oo' a· ·he ·hird dec1ension endings again. Remember,
par· of ·he prob1em of nouns which be1ong ·o ·he ·hird dec1ension
is ·ha· ·heir s·em -- ·ha· is, ·he roo· ·o which ·he case endings
are added -- mav be a subs·an·ia11v differen· form from ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar. You mus· 1oo' a· ·he dic·ionarv 1is·ing for
·he geni·ive singu1ar ·o ge· ·he ·rue s·em of ·he noun. (And
don'· forge· ·he 1aws of ·he neu·er nouns: (1) ·he accusa·ive is
a1wavs ·he same as ·he nomina·ive; and (2) ·he nomina·ive p1ura1
ending is a shor· "-a-".) Ðec1ine ·he fo11owing nouns:
homo, -inis (m) vir·us, -·u·is (f) ·empus,
-oris (n)
N/V. _______________ _______________
_______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
_______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
_______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
_______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
_______________
N/V. _______________ _______________
_______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
_______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
_______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
_______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
_______________
As vou can see, mascu1ine, feminine and neu·er nouns of ·he
·hird dec1ension use ·he same case endings. The on1v excep·ions
are ·he accusa·ive singu1ar and ·he nomina·ive and accusa·ive
p1ura1 of neu·er nouns. Bu· ·his is wha· neu·er nouns do, no
ma··er wha· dec1ension ·hev be1ong ·o: ·hev obev ·he 1aws of ·he
neu·er. So rea11v, ·he neu·er nouns of ·he ·hird dec1ension use
·he same endings as ·hird dec1ension mascu1ine and feminine
nouns. The on1v differences are where neu·er nouns are obeving
·heir own pecu1iar 1aws.
THIRÐ ÐECLENSION I-STEM NOUNS
There is a c1ass of nouns in ·he ·hird dec1ension which does no·
main·ain ·his regu1ari·v. We ca11 ·his c1ass of ·hird dec1ension
nouns ·he "i-s·ems" because an "-i-" ·urns up in some unexpec·ed
p1aces in ·he case endings. Basica11v, i-s·em nouns use ·he same
endings as ·he norma1, non-i-s·em ·hird dec1ension nouns. Bu· in
a coup1e of p1aces, i-s·em nouns differ. Wha· is more, i-s·em
mascu1ine and feminine nouns don'· behave ·he same wav neu·er
i-s·em nouns behave. So vou're going ·o have ·o 1earn ·hree
·hings in ·his chap·er:
(1) how ·o recognize whe·her a ·hird dec1ension noun is an
i-s·em noun;
(2) how ·o dec1ine mascu1ine and feminine i-s·em nouns;
(3) how ·o dec1ine neu·er i-s·em nouns.
Eirs· off: how can vou ·e11 whe·her a noun is an i-s·em noun
of ·he ·hird dec1ension? The dic·ionarv doesn'· ·e11 vou
exp1ici·1v whe·her a noun is i-s·em or no· because ·here are wavs
·o ·e11 simp1v bv 1oo'ing a· ·he norma1 dic·ionarv en·ries for a
noun: ·he nomina·ive case, ·he geni·ive case (inc1uding ·he
s·em), and ·he gender.
NEUTER I-STEMS
Le·'s s·ar· wi·h ·he easies·.
I. Ru1e for Ðe·ec·ing Neu·er i-s·em Nouns
(a) If a ·hird dec1ension noun is neu·er, and
(b) if i·s nomina·ive case ends in "-a1", "-ar", or "-e",
THEN ·he noun is a neu·er i-s·em.
This is fair1v easv. You 1oo' up a noun and ·he dic·ionarv ·e11s
vou ·his: "anima1, -is (n)". "Anima1" is ·he nomina·ive case.
The nex· en·rv ·e11s vou ·he geni·ive, from which vou spo· anv
s·em changes and 1earn ·he dec1ension of ·he noun. The "-is"
en·rv ·e11s vou ·here are no s·em changes and ·ha· ·he noun is
·hird dec1ension (since "-is" is ·he geni·ive ending in ·he ·hird
dec1ension). The fina1 en·rv is, of course, ·he gender, and for
"anima1" i·'s neu·er. Therefore, vou have a neu·er noun of ·he
·hird dec1ension whose nomina·ive ends in "-a1". So ·he noun is
an i-s·em. Simp1e, isn'· i·. So if vou remember ·his ru1e,
vou'11 be ab1e ·o spo·, from ·he dic·ionarv en·rv a1one, a11
neu·er i-s·em nouns of ·he ·hird dec1ension: if i·'s a neu·er
noun which ends in "-a1", "-ar", or "-e", ·hen i·'s an i-s·em.
And how do neu·er i-s·ems dec1ine? Thev differ from non-i-s·em
nouns in four cases:
(1) ·he ab1a·ive singu1ar is a 1ong "-i" ins·ead of ·he
norma1 shor· "-e";
(2,3) ·he nomina·ive (and ·herefore ·he accusa·ive) p1ura1
is "-ia" ins·ead of ·us· p1ain "-a";
(4) ·he geni·ive p1ura1 is "-ium" ins·ead of "-um".
Le·'s have a 1oo'. Ðec1ine ·he fo11owing neu·er i-s·em nouns,
and compare ·hem ·o a regu1ar neu·er noun of ·he ·hird dec1ension
"corpus, -oris (n)":
corpus, -oris anima1, -is mare, -is exemp1ar,
-is
N/V. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Gen. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Ða·. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Acc. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Ab1. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
N/V. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Gen. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Ða·. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Acc. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
Ab1. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________
MASCULINE ANÐ EEMININE I-STEMS
Mascu1ine and feminine i-s·ems are bo·h easier and more
comp1ica·ed a· ·he same ·ime. On ·he one hand, ·here is on1v one
case where ·he mascu1ine and feminine i-s·ems differ from ·he
regu1ar non-i-s·ems. On ·he o·her hand, ·he de·ec·ion process is
more exquisi·e. Eirs· ·he de·ec·ion.
There are ·wo differen· ru1es for es·ab1ishing whe·her a
mascu1ine or feminine ·hird dec1ension noun is an i-s·em. Bu·
vou can ge· a11 ·he informa·ion vou need bv 1oo'ing a· ·he
s·andard dic·ionarv en·rv. Here are ·he ·wo ru1es.
I. The Rarisv11abic Ru1e (·he Equa1 Sv11ab1e Ru1e)
(a) If a mascu1ine or feminine noun ends in an "-is" or an
"-es" in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar, and
(b) if ·he nomina·ive singu1ar and ·he geni·ive singu1ar
have ·he same number of sv11ab1es,
THEN ·he noun is an i-s·em of ·he mascu1ine and feminine
·vpe.
Le·'s go righ· a1ong ·o ·he second ru1e; af·er ·ha· I'11 show vou
some examp1es.
II. The Ðoub1e Consonan· Ru1e
(a) If a mascu1ine or feminine noun ends in an "-s" or an
"-x", and
(b) if i·s s·em ends wi·h ·wo consonan·s,
THEN ·he noun is an i-s·em of ·he mascu1ine and feminine
·vpe.
Le·'s 1oo' a· an examp1e of bo·h ·hese ru1es. You see ·his
noun in ·he dic·ionarv: "civis, civis (m)". Is i· an i-s·em?
We11, i·'s a mascu1ine noun of ·he ·hird dec1ension. I·'s no·
neu·er, so vou don'· have ·o worrv abou· whe·her ·he nomina·ive
ends in an "-a1", "-ar", or "-e". Bu· vou do have ·o run i·
·hrough ·he ·wo ru1es for mascu1ine and feminine nouns. (The
Rarisv11abic and ·he Ðoub1e Consonan· ru1es app1v ONLY ·o
mascu1ine and feminine nouns.) The nomina·ive ends in an "-s",
so vou have ·o pursue ·he doub1e consonan· ru1e a 1i··1e far·her.
Loo' a· ·he s·em: i·'s "civ-". Ðoes i·s s·em end wi·h ·wo
consonan·s? No, so "civis" fai1s ·he second provision of ·he
Ðoub1e Consonan· ru1e.
Now ·rv ·o run i· ·hrough ·he Rarisv11abic ru1e. The
nomina·ive ends in "-is", which is ·he firs· provision of ·he
ru1e, so vou have ·o go on. Rrovision (b) of ·he Rarisv11abic
ru1e a1so app1ies ·o "civis", since ·he nomina·ive and ·he
geni·ive cases have ·he same number of sv11ab1es. So, according
·o ·he Rarisv11abic ru1e, "civis" is an i-s·em noun of ·he
mascu1ine an feminine ·vpe.
Ano·her noun: "ars, ar·is (m)". Eo11ow ·he s·eps
carefu11v. Is ·his an i-s·em? Whv or whv no·? Of course i· is.
I· ends in "-s" or "-x" in ·he nomina·ive (provision (a) of ·he
Ðoub1e Consonan· ru1e), and i·s s·em, "ar·-", ends in a doub1e
consonan·. I· fu1fi11s bo·h provision of ·he Ðoub1e Consonan·
ru1e, so i· is an i-s·em.
So how do mascu1ine and feminine i-s·em nouns dec1ine? The
on1v case where ·hev differ from ·he non-i-s·em nouns is in ·he
geni·ive p1ura1, where ·he i-s·ems inser· an "-i-" before ·he
norma1 "-um" ending of ·he ·hird dec1ension. And ·ha·'s i·.
Ðec1ine ·he fo11owing nouns.
homo, -inis (m) ars, ar·is (m) civis, civis
(m)
N/V. ________________ ________________
________________
Gen. ________________ ________________
________________
Ða·. ________________ ________________
________________
Acc. ________________ ________________
________________
Ab1. ________________ ________________
________________
N/V. ________________ ________________
________________
Gen. ________________ ________________
________________
Ða·. ________________ ________________
________________
Acc. ________________ ________________
________________
Ab1. ________________ ________________
________________
This mav seem 1i'e a 1o· ·o remember (and i· probab1v is),
bu· ·rv ·o wor' s1ow1v ·hrough ·hese dri11s; be de1ibera·e and
1ogica1. You'11 be surprised a· how quic'1v ·hese ru1es s·ic'.
Which of ·hese nouns are i-s·ems? If anv is an i-s·ems, indica·e
which ru1e app1ies ·o i·.
I-STEM (YES/NO) RELEVANT RULE
ignis, ignis (f) __________
_________________________
dens, den·is (m) __________
_________________________
civi·as, -·a·is (f) __________
_________________________
rex, regis (m) __________
_________________________
opus, operis (n) __________
_________________________
·empus, -oris (n) __________
_________________________
nox, noc·is (f) __________
_________________________
mo1es, mo1is (f) __________
_________________________
urbs, urbis (f) __________
_________________________
so1, so1is (m) __________
_________________________
hos·is, hos·is (m) __________
_________________________
dux, ducis (m) __________
_________________________
ora·or, -·oris (m) __________
_________________________
finis, finis (m) __________
_________________________
gens, gen·is (f) __________
_________________________
1aus, 1audis (f) __________
_________________________
genus, generis (n) __________
_________________________
veri·as, -·a·is (f) __________
_________________________
ae·as, -·a·is (f) __________
_________________________
USES OE THE ABLATIVE: MANNER, ACCOMRANIMENT, MEANS
Wav bac' when I promised vou ·ha· we'd somedav have ·o s·ar·
c1eaning up ·he ab1a·ive case. Todav is ·ha· dav; bu· ·his is
going ·o be ·us· a s·ar·, and ·us· a review. The ab1a·ive case
can be used ei·her wi·h a governing preposi·ion or wi·hou· one.
If ·he ab1a·ive case comp1e·es ·he meaning of a preposi·ion, ·hen
·he ab1a·ive i·se1f poses no rea1 prob1em as far as ·he
·rans1a·ion goes. You simp1v ·rans1a·e ·he preposi·ion and ·hen
·he noun:
de veri·a·e = abou· ·ru·h
e civi·a·e = from ·he ci·v
sub mari = under ·he sea
in Graecia = in Greece
cum meo fi1io = wi·h mv son
In o·her words, ·he fac· ·ha· ·he noun i·se1f is in ·he ab1a·ive
case presen·s no difficu1·ies. I·'s in ·he ab1a·ive case because
·ha· is ·he case required bv ·he preposi·ion which is governing
i·.
A noun can be in ·he ab1a·ive case, however, wi·hou· a
preposi·ion; when i· is, ·he noun ·a'es on a specia1 meaning ·ha·
is derived from ·he ab1a·ive case i·se1f. As ·he wee's go bv
vou'11 be co11ec·ing a 1is· of ·he uses of ·he preposi·ion1ess
ab1a·ive case. Up ·o ·his poin·, vou have on1v one use of ·he
ab1a·ive case wi·hou· a preposi·ion: i·'s ·he Ins·rumen·a1
Ab1a·ive (a1so ca11ed ·he "Ab1a·ive of Means"). Ðo vou remember
·his one:
"Veri·a·em ocu1is animi videre possumus".
Here vou have ·he noun "ocu1is" in ·he ab1a·ive p1ura1 wi·hou· a
preposi·ion, so, as far as vou 'now, ·his mus· be an Ins·rumen·a1
Ab1a·ive (or Ab1a·ive of Means). An Ins·rumen·a1 Ab1a·ive shows
wi·h wha· ·hing ·he ac·ion of ·he verb is performed, and ·here as
manv wavs we can ·rans1a·e i· in·o Eng1ish. We can sav,
"We can see ·ru·h wi·h ·he eves of ·he sou1".
"We can see ·ru·h bv ·he eves of ·he sou1".
"We can see ·ru·h bv means of ·he eves of ·he sou1".
"We can see ·ru·h ·hrough ·he eves of ·he sou1".
A1·hough each of ·hese ·rans1a·ions in Eng1ish have ·heir own
fee1 and associa·ion of meanings, ·hev are a11 1egi·ima·e
·rans1a·ions of ·he La·in Ins·rumen·a1 Ab1a·ive. Use vour own
na·ive Eng1ish sense ·o ·e11 vou which ·rans1a·ion ·o use, bu·
remember ·he essen·ia1 meaning of ·he La·in Ins·rumen·a1
Ab1a·ive: i· shows wi·h wha· ·hing ·he ac·ion of ·he verb is
performed.
CUM + ABLATIVE = ABLATIVE OE MANNER OR ACCOMRANIMENT
One use of ·he ab1a·ive wi·h a preposi·ion needs a 1i··1e fur·her
examina·ion. You probab1v remember ·ha· ·he preposi·ion "cum" +
ab1a·ive" means "wi·h" in ·he sense of accompanimen·. This use
of ·he ab1a·ive is fair1v s·raigh· forward, because i· wor's 1i'e
Eng1ish.
Veniam cum amicis meis ad nos·ram pa·riam.
Invenie·is eum cum nos·ro fi1io.
Tvrannus eri· ibi cum ducibus.
Bu· "cum" + ab1a·ive can a1so mean some·hing ·ha· boarders on our
adverbs. We11 ca11 i· ·he "Ab1a·ive of Manner", because i· gives
vou some informa·ion abou· how or in wha· manner ·he ac·ion was
comp1e·ed. And words which ·e11 vou how ·he ac·ion was performed
are adverbs.
Now 1e·'s pause a second. Ðon'· ge· ·his confused wi·h ·he
Ab1a·ive of Means. The Ab1a·ive of Means wi11 answer ·he
ques·ion "Wi·h wha·" ·he ac·ion is performed; ·he Ab1a·ive of
Manner ·e11s vou "In wha· manner" ·he ac·ion is being performed.
S·udv ·hese examp1es. Where wou1d ·he Eng1ish be represen·ing a
La·in Ab1a·ive of Manner, where an Ab1a·ive of Means, where an
Ab1a·ive of Accompanimen·?
"She saw ·he fire wi·h her binocu1ars".
"Ðogs run wi·h ·heir 1egs".
"He drove ·he nai1 in wi·h his hammer".
"He drove ·he nai1 in wi·h grea· has·e".
"He drove ·he nai1 in wi·h indifference".
"Thev pu· ·he wa11 up wi·h grea· speed".
So how does ·he Ab1a·ive of Manner approach ·he adverb?
Wha· is ano·her wav ·o sav "wi·h grea· has·e"? We cou1d sav
"verv has·i1v", and "has·i1v" is an adverb. How abou· "wi·h
indifference"? "Indifferen·1v". Bu· some of ·he Ab1a·ive of
Manner have no nice one-word adverbia1 equiva1en·. Eor examp1e,
wha· wou1d ·he adverb for "wi·h grea· speed" be? The Ab1a·ive of
Manner affords ·he wri·er ·he oppor·uni·v ·o e1abora·e on ·he
manner in which ·he ac·ion is being performed in a wav a simp1e
adverb does no·. Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· some examp1es in La·in.
Remember, ·rans1a·e ·hem in·o idioma·ic Eng1ish.
1. Cum ce1eri·a·e id feci·.
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2. Cum civibus is·is nos non iungemus.
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3. Cum cura cucurrimus.
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4. Gessimus civi·a·em cum sapien·ia.
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5. Tvrannus civi·a·em pecunia cepi·.
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VOCABULARY RUZZLES
vis, vis (f) In ·he singu1ar i· means "power"; in ·he p1ura1 i·
means "s·reng·h". A verv s·range noun, wi·h a
verv s·range dec1ension. As vou can ·e11 i·'s
·hird dec1ension and i· shou1d be an i-s·em noun.
(The Rarisv11abic ru1e.) In ·he singu1ar i·'s odd
bu· somewha· predic·ab1e; bu· in ·he p1ura1 i·
changes s·ems: from "v-" ·o "vir-". Rav
a··en·ion, ·hough; i·'s easv ·o mix up ·he p1ura1
of "vis" wi·h ·he 2nd dec1ension noun "vir, -i,
(m)". Loo' i· over; and wri·e down ·he p1ura1 of
"vir" nex· ·o i· in ·he p1ura1. Even ·hough, as
vou can see, none of ·he forms of ·he ·wo words
are iden·ica1, s·i11 s·uden·s a1wavs confuse ·hem.
Be1ieve me: vou mus· wor' a 1i··1e ·o 'eep ·he ·wo
s·raigh·.
SINGULAR RLURAL RLURAL OE vir,
-i
N/V. vis vires viri
Gen. vis virium virorum
Ða·. --- viribus viris
Acc. vim vires viros
Ab1. vi viribus viris
01/05/93
CHARTER 15
"The Imperfec· Indica·ive Ac·ive; Ab1a·ive of Time"
EORMING THE IMREREECT TENSE
Up ·o ·his chap·er, vou have 1earned five of ·he six ·enses of
La·in verbs. You've seen ·ha· ·he ·enses fa11 in·o ·wo main
c1asses: ·he presen· svs·em -- ·he ·enses formed off ·he firs·
principa1 par·; and ·he perfec· svs·em -- ·he ·enses which use
·he ·hird and four·h principa1 par·s. The perfec· svs·em ·enses
are ·he perfec·, p1uperfec·, and fu·ure perfec·. The presen·
svs·em ·enses are ·he presen·, fu·ure, and, as vou'11 see now,
·he imperfec·. You remember ·ha· ·he presen· svs·em wor's 1i'e
·his:
EIRST RRINCIRAL RART + TENSE SIGN + RERSONAL ENÐINGS
In ·he presen· ·ense, ·here is no ·ense sign, so ·he persona1
endings are added direc·1v ·o ·he firs· principa1 par·. The ·ense
sign for ·he fu·ure ·ense is "-be-" for ·he firs· and second
con·uga·ions, bu· "-a-" or "-e-" for ·he ·hird and four·h. The
imperfec· ·ense a1so is formed precise1v according ·o ·his
pa··ern: s·em + ·ense sign + persona1 endings. So ·o form ·he
imperfec· ·ense vou need ·o 'now i·s ·ense sign and ·he persona1
endings i· uses.
The ·ense sign for ·he imperfec· ·ense is "-ba-", which is
added ·o ·he 1eng·hened s·em of ·he firs· principa1 par·. So
wha· do we mean bv 1eng·hened? I· means ·ha· ·he s·em vowe1, if
i· is no· a1readv 1ong, is made 1ong. This obvious1v app1ies
on1v ·o ·he ·hird con·uga·ion, where ·he s·em vowe1 is a shor·
"-e-". I· becomes 1ong "-e-". The s·em vowe1 of ·he firs· and
second con·uga·ions are a1readv 1ong -- "-a-" and "-e-" -- so
·hev aren'· affec·ed bv 1eng·hening. Bu· some·hing odd happens
·o ·he s·em vowe1s of ·he ·hird con·uga·ion i-s·em and ·he four·h
con·uga·ion. Their s·ems vowe1s 1eng·hen ·o "-ie-" before ·he
·ense sign "-ba-". Eina11v, ·he imperfec· ·ense uses ·he
a1·erna·ive ending "-m" in p1ace of "-o" for ·he firs· person
singu1ar ending. This ma'es some sense. Suppose ·he imperfec·
were ·o use "-o" for ·he firs· person singu1ar. Wha· wou1d
happen? We11, ·hin' bac': wha· happens in ·he firs· person
singu1ar of firs· con·uga·ion verbs, whose s·em vowe1 is 1ong
"-a-"? The "-a-" is e1ides wi·h ·he "-o-" and is 1os·: "1auda +
o = 1audo". Now if ·he imperfec· were ·o use "-o" ins·ead of
"-m", ·he same ·hing wou1d happen and ·he ending of ·he verb
wou1d be "-bo", which is ·he same as ·he fu·ure. So, perhaps ·o
avoid confusion, ·he imperfec· ·ense uses ·he "-m". Enough on
·ha·. So here, ·hen, is ·he formu1a for forming ·he imperfec·
·ense, wi·h no·es on ·he ·hings ·o remember.
EIRST RRINCIRAL RART + ba + RERSONAL ENÐINGS
(1) ·he s·em vowe1 1eng·hens;
(2) ·he s·em vowe1 for ·hird i-s·em and four·h con·uga·ion verbs
is "-ie-";
(3) ·he firs· person singu1ar ending is "-m".
Now con·uga·e ·he imperfec· ·ense for ·he four con·uga·ions.
(Chec' vour wor' on page 70 of Whee1oc'.)
1 2 3 3i 4
1audo moneo duco capio audio
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
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_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
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_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
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_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
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_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
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_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
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THE MEANING OE THE IMREREECT TENSE
I ·o1d vou bac' in Chap·er 12 ·ha· ·here is a good reason ·he
presen·, fu·ure, and imperfec· are a11 co11ec·ed ·oge·her under one
svs·em -- ·he presen· svs·em. Now I'11 show vou whv. A11 ·hree
·enses have an aspec· of incomp1e·eness abou· ·hem; a sense ·ha·
·he ac·ion ·hev're describing is in a s·a·e of going-on. Wi·h ·he
simp1e fu·ure, obvious1v, ·he ac·ion can'· be ·hough· of as having
been a1readv finished. Then i· wou1dn'· be in ·he fu·ure. The
presen·, ·oo, is used ·o ·a1' abou· some·hing ·ha· is going on
righ· as we're ·a1'ing abou· i·. There's some·hing abou· ·he s·em
of ·hese ·enses ·ha· infec·s ·hem wi·h ·his no·ion of
unfu1fi11men·, of con·inua·ion, ra·her ·han perfec·ion or
comp1e·eness.
The imperfec· ·ense, ·oo, a1·hough i· refers ·o a pas· ac·ion
which, presumab1v, has a1readv been comp1e·ed bv ·he ·ime ·he
spea'er is ·a1'ing abou· i· -- ·he imperfec· ·ense, ·oo, indica·es
an ac·ion ·ha· was going on in ·he pas· over a 1eng·h ·ime, or ·ha·
occurred again and again in ·he pas·, and hence is no· viewed bv
·he spea'er of ever having reached a defini·e poin· of comp1e·ion.
Le·'s 1oo' a· some examp1es of ·he Eng1ish imperfec· ·ense; vou'11
have an ins·inc·ive sense for ·he imperfec·ive idea in ·he verbs,
bu· ·rv ·o deve1op some consciousness abou· i·.
A. Even ·hough ·he game s·i11 was going on, I 1ef· ·he s·adium.
B. Ðavid a1wavs used ·o 1i'e ·o go ·o ·he zoo.
C. She wou1d a1wavs come on Tuesdavs.
In examp1e A, con·ras· ·he imperfec· ·ense "was going on",
wi·h ·he pre·eri· "1ef·". The fac· ·ha· "I 1ef·" is viewed bv ·he
spea'er as an ac·ion ·ha· had a defini·e end; i·'s some·hing he did
in a fini·e amoun· of ·ime and some·hing he comp1e·ed. The fac·
·ha· ·he game was s·i11 going on, however, is viewed as ·he genera1
con·ex· in which he performed ·he ac·ion of 1eaving. The game was
going on before he 1ef·, and, presumab1v, i· con·inued ·o go on
af·er he 1ef·. The game is viewed as an ac·ion wi·h no exp1ici·1v
conceived beginning and no defini·e end. Now, of course, ·he game
did s·ar· a· some defini·e ·ime in ·he pas·, and i·'s probab1v over
bv now, bu· ·he wav ·he spea'er chose ·o represen· i· for his own
needs was as an ac·ion ·ha· ex·ended over an indefini·e period of
·ime. In ano·her con·ex· he migh· sav, "The game s·ar·ed a· 3:30
and ended a· 7:00". The poin· is, ·here's no·hing "inheren·1v"
imperfec·ive abou· ·he game; ·he spea'er's por·rava1 of i· wi11
ma'e i· ei·her perfec· or imperfec·.
In examp1es B and C, we have some·hing s1igh·1v differen·.
Here Eng1ish expressions "used ·o 1i'e" and "wou1d come" are
indica·ing ·hings which occurred repea·ed1v in ·he pas·. The La·in
imperfec· has ·his sense as we11. Because a repea·ed or habi·ua1
ac·ion a1so has ·he sense of incomp1e·eness -- he or she never
s·opped doing wha·ever he or she used ·o do -- ·he imperfec· ·ense
is a1so used ·o express ·his meaning: repea·ed or habi·ua1 ac·ion.
Ano·her use of ·he La·in imperfec· is ·o show a "s·a·e of
being" some·hing was in ·he pas·: "He was six fee· ·a11" or "I was
ab1e ·o see". Here ·he sense of con·inui·v is a1mos· a par· of ·he
meaning of ·he verbs. When vou sav "He was", vou're genera11v
·a1'ing abou· some·hing ·ha· had some dura·ion in ·he pas·: "He was
six fee· ·a11". This is whv ·he imperfec· ·ense of ·he La·in verbs
"sum" and "possum" are used much more frequen·1v ·han ·he perfec·s
"fui" and "po·ui". S·i11, in ac·ua1 prac·ice, ·he differences
be·ween "eram" and "fui", "po·eram" and "po·ui" are of·en
impercep·ib1e. So 1e·'s ga·her our wi·s abou· ·he imperfec· in
La·in.
(1) I·'s formed from ·he 1eng·hened s·em of ·he firs·
principa1 par·. The ·ense sign is "-ba-", and i· uses
·he "-m" ending for ·he firs· person singu1ar.
(2) I·'s used ·o ·a1' abou· an ac·ion in ·he pas· which ·he
wri·er perceives as going on for some·ime when ano·her
ac·ion occurred. Here our Eng1ish equiva1en· migh· be
·he pre·eri· of "·o be" p1us ·he presen· par·icip1e: "was
1oo'ing", "were f1ving", e·c. E.g., "I· was raining hard
in Erisco."
(3) I·'s a1so used ·o ·a1' abou· a repea·ed or habi·ua1
ac·ion in ·he pas·. Our Eng1ish ·rans1a·ions migh· be
"used" p1us ·he presen· infini·ive, or "wou1d". E.gg.,
"George used ·o go ·o ·he par' on Tuesdavs"; "George
wou1d go ·o ·he par' on Tuesdavs".
(4) I·'s a1so used ·o ·a1' abou· a s·a·e of being in ·he
pas·. Eor ·his reason ·he verbs which ·e11 vou ·he
condi·ion of someone or some·hing in ·he pas· are usua11v
in ·he imperfec· ·ense. E.gg., "Magis·er discipu1os
docere non po·era·" (The ·eacher cou1dn'· ·each his
s·uden·s). "Meae fi1iae pu1chrae eran·" (Mv daugh·ers
were beau·ifu1).
Eng1ish has a varie·v of wavs of expressing ·he La·in
imperfec· ·ense, as vou can see in ·hese ·hree examp1es. The
differen· wavs are no· iden·ica1, and vou'11 have ·o decide which
is bes· bv 1oo'ing a· ·he con·ex· of ·he La·in imperfec·.
ÐRILLS
Trans1a·e ·he fo11owing shor· sen·ences.
1. Ra·res suos fi1ios amaban·.
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2. Eram s·u1·us.
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3. Tvrannus mor·em ·imeba·.
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4. Rex is·a pericu1a vici·.
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5. Rex is·a pericu1a vinceba·.
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6. You (p1.) were no· wi·h me.
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7. We cou1d no· see him.
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8. The 'ing was spea'ing for a 1ong ·ime.
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9. The gods used ·o give men freedom.
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10. Caesar himse1f wou1d a1wavs run in ·hese roads.
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ABLATIVE OE TIME: WHEN ANÐ WITHIN WHICH
As vou saw in ·he 1as· chap·er, ·he ab1a·ive case can ei·her be
used wi·h a governing preposi·ion or bv i·se1f. When ·here is a
preposi·ion, ·he ab1a·ive poses no specia1 prob1ems per se. You
simp1v ·rans1a·e ·he preposi·ion and ·hen ·he noun. The meaning of
·he preposi·ion overrides anv specia1 senses a··ached ·o ·he
ab1a·ive case. (The one preposi·ion, however, vou need ·o wa·ch
ou· for is "cum", which can ei·her mean "wi·h" in ·he sense of
accompanimen· or "wi·h" in ·he sense of manner.) The on1v use of
·he ab1a·ive case wi·hou· a preposi·ion vou 'now so far is ·he
ins·rumen·a1 ab1a·ive or ab1a·ive of means.
Ano·her preposi·ion1ess use of ·he ab1a·ive case is ca11ed ·he
Ab1a·ive of Time. You can easi1v spo· such a use in La·in. If vou
see a noun in ·he ab1a·ive case which is no· governed bv a
preposi·ion, and if ·he noun is some uni· of ·ime, ·hen vou have an
Ab1a·ive of Time. Bu· wha· ma'es ·his use of ·he ab1a·ive beas·1v
difficu1·v for Eng1ish spea'ing s·uden·s is no· ·he La·in, bu· ·he
varie·v of Eng1ish ·rans1a·ions we can use ·o represen· ·he La·in
expression of ·ime.
You see, La·in has one cons·ruc·ion -- a noun expressing a
uni· of ·ime in ·he ab1a·ive case -- and Eng1ish has ·wo wavs of
·rans1a·ing i·, and ·hev bo·h mean some·hing qui·e differen·. We
ca11 ·he cons·ruc·ion in La·in ·he Ab1a·ive of Time When or Time
Wi·hin Which, no· because La·in has ·wo differen· cons·ruc·ion, bu·
because Eng1ish does, and when we ·rans1a·e ·he La·in cons·ruc·ion
in·o Eng1ish, we have ·o choose which of ·he ·wo Eng1ish
cons·ruc·ion bes· fi·s ·he con·ex·. Le·'s s·ar· bv 1oo'ing a· some
Eng1ish expressions of ·ime which use preposi·ions.
1. "Thev'11 be here in an hour".
2. "Thev came on Tuesdav".
3. "In 1ess ·han five minu·es ·hev were a11 gone".
4. "Snow never fa11s in ·he summer".
5. "I·'11 be snowing in a coup1e of mon·hs".
6. "A· ·ha· ·ime in human his·orv, ·here were no a1arm
c1oc's".
7. "Wi·hin a coup1e of hours, Caesar had conquered a11 of
Asia".
8. "In ·he Midd1e Ages, ·hings were differen·".
I don'· doub· ·ha· vou had no ·roub1e unders·anding ·hese
sen·ences and recognizing, in par·icu1ar, ·he meaning of ·he
expressions of ·ime. You don'· have ·o scra·ch vour heads and
puzz1e over ·hem because ·heir exac· meanings are embedded
unconscious1v in vour 1inguis·ic reper·oire. Bu· ·o ·rans1a·e ·he
La·in Ab1a·ive of Time, vou mus· force vourse1f ·o unders·and
conscious1v wha· ·hese differen· expressions of ·ime are ·e11ing
vou.
Ðespi·e ·he varie·v of 1exica1 forms, ·hese expressions of
·ime above fa11 in·o on1v ·wo c1asses. Le·'s ·rv some·hing.
Before I ·rv ·o exp1ain ·he differen· expressions ·o vou, read
·hese sen·ences carefu11v and ·rv ·o divide ·hem in·o ·wo groups
based on ·heir expressions of ·ime. Trus· vour ins·inc·s. Hin·s:
(1) don'· re1v so1e1v on ·he preposi·ions ·o ·e11 vou ·he
differences (some preposi·ions can be used in bo·h expressions of
·ime); (2) ·here are an equa1 number of sen·ences in each group.
Give i· a sho· (bu· vou'd probab1v be··er use penci1). Ru· a11 ·he
sen·ences ·ha· have ·empora1 expressions 1i'e ·ha· of sen·ence #1
in·o C1ass A; a11 ·hose 1i'e ·ha· of sen·ence #2 in·o C1ass B
CLASS A
1. "Thev'11 be here in an hour".
2.
3.
4.
CLASS B
1. "Thev came on Tuesdav".
2.
3.
4.
How did vou do? The answer is ·ha· ·he odd numbered sen·ences
comprise one ca·egorv of expressions of ·ime, and ·he even numbered
ano·her. You undoub·ed1v did fair1v we11 a· ·his exercise, again,
because vour na·ive fee1 for Eng1ish he1ped vou "sense" ·he
differences and simi1ari·ies, even ·hough vou migh· no· be ab1e ·o
exp1ain vour reasons ·o a non-na·ive spea'er of Eng1ish. If vou
made errors, correc· ·hem now.
Now 1e·'s do ·he ·ough wor'. Rrecise1v wha· is ·he difference
be·ween ·he ·empora1 expressions in C1asses A and B? We11, imagine
·ha· a foreign s·uden· of Eng1ish is as'ing vou ·his ques·ion. How
wou1d vou answer i·? Trv. I·'s hard, isn'· i·? Le·'s give i· a
·rv.
The expressions of ·ime in C1ass A invo1ve a dura·ion of ·ime
bu· wi·h a defini·e beginning or end ·o ·he ac·ion c1ear1v in mind.
Sen·ence #1 ·e11s vou ·ha· i·'11 wi11 be ano·her hour (·he dura·ion
of ·ime) before ·hev s·ar· being here (s·ar· of some·hing).
Sen·ence #2 ·e11s vou ·ha· i· ·oo' an hour (dura·ion of ·ime), bu·
·hev fina11v did 1eave (end of some·hing). And so on wi·h ·he res·
in C1ass A.
Now no·ice ·ha· ·he preposi·ions "in" or "wi·hin" can bo·h be
used in ·his 'ind of expression. Tha· wou1d presen· no prob1em, if
i· weren'· for ·he fac· ·ha· "in" can be used in ·he o·her 'ind of
·empora1 expression, ·oo. Loo' a· ·he examp1es under C1ass B;
vou'11 see "in" used ·here, ·oo. The wav ·o ·e11 whe·her "in" is
being used in ·he sense of C1ass A is ·o ·rv ·o rep1ace i· wi·h ·he
preposi·ion "wi·hin". If ·he sen·ence s·i11 ma'es good Eng1ish
idiom, ·hen "in" means ·ime in ·he sense exp1ained above. This is
whv we ca11 ·his expression of ·ime "Time Wi·hin Which", because
·he Eng1ish preposi·ion "wi·hin" a1wavs conno·es ·he proper sense.
WORKS: "I'11 see vou in ·wo davs" = "I'11 see vou wi·hin
·wo davs".
ÐOESN'T WORK: "I· rains in ·he summer" ~ "I· rains wi·hin ·he
summer".
How abou· C1ass B; how wou1d vou exp1ain ·he meaning of ·he
expressions of ·ime here? These expression ·e11 vou ·he ·ime a·
which some·hing is, was or wi11 be ·a'ing p1ace. There is no
imp1ied sense of ·he dura·ion of ·he ac·ion wi·h an emphasis on i·
beginning or i·s end. This is whv we ca11 i· "Time When". "I
·each La·in on Mondav" simp1v iden·ifies ·he ·ime I ·each as if i·
were a sing1e poin· on a ·ime 1ine. Again, Eng1ish has a varie·v
of preposi·ions i· uses ·o express ·his 'ind of ·ime, as vou can
see: "See me on Mondav a· five o'c1oc' in ·he af·ernoon".
O'av, so much for Eng1ish. Remember, ·he reason we 1oo'ed a·
a11 ·his was ·ha· ·hese ·wo differen· expression of ·ime in Eng1ish
can bo·h be used for one expression of ·ime in La·in: ·he
preposi·ion1ess ab1a·ive case. Wha· vou have ·o do when vou're
·rans1a·ing from La·in ·o Eng1ish is decide which Eng1ish
expression is ·he more appropria·e. So 1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he La·in.
Consider ·he fo11owing La·in sen·ences. Trv ·o decide how
bes· ·o ·rans1a·e ·he expression of ·ime in·o Eng1ish: "Raucis
horis Caesar in Asiam veni·". Which wou1d be bes·: "wi·hin a few
hours" or "a·, on, or in a few hours"? Undoub·ed1v "wi·hin (or
in) a few hours" is ·he be··er here. No· "A· a few hours, Caesar
wen· in·o Asia", bu· "In (or wi·hin) a few hours, Caesar wen· in·o
Asia". Nex·: "Ae·a·e pueri 1udeban·" ("1udo" = ·o p1av). "Wi·hin
·he summer" or "in ·he summer"? The 1as·, obvious1v, since i· can
be ·hough· ·o answer ·he ques·ion "·ime when", no· "·ime wi·hin
which". One 1as· examp1e: "Una hora Asiam ·o·am vici". Is ·his
·e11ing ·ime "wi·hin which" or "·ime when"? Cer·ain1v "·ime wi·hin
which" because ·here's a sense of dura·ion of ·ime wi·h a ·erminus
of ·he ac·ion in mind: "I conquered a11 Asia wi·hin (or in) one
hour".
I 'now ·ha· some of ·hese dis·inc·ions can be ra·her hair
sp1i··ing. You ·us· have ·o wor' wi·h ·hem a 1o· and 'eep vou mind
in high gear a· a11 ·imes. Here is one 1as· ·es· vou can use ·o
decide whe·her an expression of ·ime is a Time When or Time Wi·hin
Which cons·ruc·ion. Trv ·o rephrase ·he sen·ence in ques·ion in
·he fo11owing wav:
"I· ·a'es (or ·oo' or wi11 ·a'e) X Y Z"
[Where X is ·he sub·ec· of ·he origina1 sen·ence; Y is ·he
expression of ·ime, and Z is ·he infini·ive of ·he origina1
con·uga·ed verb.|
If ·he resu1·ing sen·ence preserves ·he meaning of ·he origina1
sen·ence, ·hen ·he expression of ·ime is Time Wi·hin Which. "In
·hree vears I'11 be ou· of ·his p1ace" = "I· wi11 ·a'e me ·hree
vears ·o be ou· of ·his p1ace". The rewri··en sen·ence means ·he
same ·hing as ·he origina1 sen·ence, so "in ·hree vears" is an
expression of Time Wi·hin Which. "In ·he cenozoic era, dinosaurs
wa1'ed on ·he ear·h" ~ "I· ·oo' dinosaurs ·he cenozoic era ·o wa1'
on ·he ear·h". The rewri··en sen·ence does no· mean ·he same ·hing
as ·he origina1 sen·ence, ·herefore, "in ·he cenozoic era" is no·
an expression of Time Wi·hin Which, bu· Time When.
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
miser, -a, -um You haven'· seen an ad·ec·ive 1i'e ·his for a
whi1e. I· uses ·he case endings of ·he firs·
and second dec1ensions, bu· in p1ace of ·he
"-us" ending for ·he mascu1ine nomina·ive
singu1ar, i· uses ·he o·her ending "-er". Is
·he "-e-" of "-er" par· of ·he s·em?
iacio There is no·hing ·errib1v unusua1 abou· ·his
verb. I·'s a norma1 ·hird con·uga·ion i-s·em.
The ·ric'v par· comes in recognizing i· in a
compound verb (when a prefix is a··ached ·o
i·). The firs· principa1 par· 1oses ·he vowe1
"-a-" a1·oge·her: "e + iacio = eicio", which
is pronounced "eh YI 'i oh". In ·he ·hird
principa1 par·, ·he vowe1 re·urns, bu· ·his
·ime as ·he 1ong "-e-", which is ·he norma1
vowe1 for ·he ·hird principa1 par·: "e + ieci
= eieci", which is pronounced "eh YEAH 'ee.
in·er + acc. I· means ei·her "among or be·ween", so we need
·o fre· over which is ·he bes· Eng1ish
·rans1a·ion. Ðo vou remember when s·andard
Eng1ish ca11s for "among" and when "be·ween"?
Use "be·ween" wi·h ·wo ob·ec·s; "among" for
·hree or more. "This is a secre· ·us· be·ween
vou and me". "This is a secre· we 'eep among
·he fami1v members on1v".
1/08/93
CHARTER 16
"Ad·ec·ives of ·he Third Ðec1ension"
Whee1oc' assures vou ·ha· ·here isn'· much new ma·eria1 ·o 1earn in
·his chap·er, and in a wav he's righ·. You 'now wha· ad·ec·ives
are, and vou 'now ·he case endings of ·he ·hird dec1ension. In
·his chap·er, vou going ·o see ·ha· a c1ass of ad·ec·ives uses ·he
·hird dec1ension endings ·o form ·he differen· numbers, genders,
and cases. Even ·hough ·hese ad·ec·ives use ·he ·hird dec1ension
endings, ·hev mav modifv nouns of a11 ·he dec1ension; i.e., ·hird
dec1ension ad·ec·ives are no· res·ric·ed ·o modifving on1v ·hird
dec1ension nouns. Bu· ·ha·'s no·hing concep·ua11v new: vou've seen
ad·ec·ives of ·he firs· and second dec1ensions modifving nouns of
·he ·hird dec1ension. So, as vou can see, Whee1oc' is righ· ·o sav
·ha· ·his chap·er doesn'· rea11v confron· vou wi11 a mass of new
ma·eria1 ·o memorize.
On ·he o·her hand, peop1e ·end ·o confuse ·hings which are
simi1ar more of·en ·han ·hings which are qui·e dis·inc· from one
ano·her. Third dec1ension ad·ec·ives wor' 1i'e ad·ec·ives of ·he
firs· and second dec1ensions, bu· ·here are some impor·an·
differences which vou mus· 'eep s·raigh·. Addi·iona11v, ·he
endings used bv ·hese ad·ec·ives are a1mos· iden·ica1 ·o ·he
endings which nouns of ·he ·hird dec1ension use, bu· on1v a1mos·.
I'm ·rving ·o warn vou ·ha· ·his isn'· going ·o be an easv chap·er.
You're going ·o have grip ·he boo' firm1v and 'eep a sharpened
penci1 nearbv. Le·'s s·ar·.
AÐJECTIVES
Eirs· 1e·'s ·a'e s·oc' of wha· vou 'now. You 'now ·ha· ad·ec·ives
are words which modifv nouns, and ·ha· ·hev "agree" in number,
gender, and case wi·h ·hev are modifving. To agree wi·h nouns,
which mav be in a11 ·he possib1e cases, numbers and genders,
ad·ec·ives mus· be ab1e ·o dec1ine. The ad·ec·ives vou're fami1iar
wi·h dec1ine in ·he firs· and second dec1ensions: ·hev use firs·
dec1ension case endings ·o modifv nouns which are feminine, second
dec1ension endings ·o modifv nouns which are mascu1ine and neu·er.
The dic·ionarv en·rv for such ad·ec·ives 1oo' 1i'e ·his:
magnus, -a, -um miser, -a, -um
bonus, -a, -um pu1cher, -chra, -chrum
be11us, -a, -um nos·er, -·ra, -·rum
Things ·o no·ice are:
(1) ad·ec·ives have no inheren· gender fixed in ·he s·em, so
·he dic·ionarv doesn'· 1is· a gender for ad·ec·ives;
(2) some·imes ·he ·rue s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive is no· iden·ica1
wi·h ·he mascu1ine, nomina·ive singu1ar, so vou mus· scan
·he o·her 1is·ings for s·em changes (e.g. ·he "-e-" of
"pu1cher" and "nos·er" is no· a par· of ·he ·rue s·em);
(3) firs· and second ad·ec·ives can modifv nouns of anv of
·he o·her dec1ensions, no· ·us· ·hose of ·he firs· and
second dec1ensions.
AÐJECTIVES OE THE THIRÐ ÐECLENSION
The name spea's for i·se1f. Some ad·ec·ives ge· ·heir case endings
from ·he ·hird dec1ension. So vou have ·wo ·hings ·o consider:
(1) wha· are ·he case endings;
(2) how does ·he dic·ionarv dis·inguish be·ween a ·hird
dec1ension ad·ec·ive from one of ·he firs· and second
dec1ension: i.e., how can vou ·e11 where ·he ad·ec·ive is
going ·o ge· i·s case endings simp1v bv 1oo'ing a· ·he
dic·ionarv en·ries.
Le·'s ·a'e up ·he firs· poin· bv reviewing ·he ·hird dec1ension
endings for nouns. Ðec1ine ·he fo11owing ·hird dec1ension nouns,
and don'· forge· ·o chec' whe·her ·he nouns are i-s·ems: "homo,
-inis (m)"; "·empus, -oris (n)"; "vir·us, -·u·is (f)"; "mare, -ris
(n)". (If vou're unsure of ·he ·hird dec1ension endings, vou shou1d
s·op righ· now and review ·hem.)
man ·ime vir·ue sea
N/V. __________ __________ __________ __________
Gen. __________ __________ __________ __________
Ða·. __________ __________ __________ __________
Acc. __________ __________ __________ __________
Ab1. __________ __________ __________ __________
N/V. __________ __________ __________ __________
Gen. __________ __________ __________ __________
Ða·. __________ __________ __________ __________
Acc. __________ __________ __________ __________
Ab1. __________ __________ __________ __________
Here are ·he ·hings ·o remember abou· ·he ·hird dec1ension case
endings:
(1) ·he ·hird dec1ension endings are divided in·o ·wo groups:
·he non-i-s·em endings and ·he i-s·em endings;
(2) ·he nomina·ive singu1ar has manv differen· appearances;
(3) basica11v ·he case endings are ·he same for non-i-s·em
nouns of a11 ·hree genders. The apparen· excep·ion is
wi·h ·he neu·er nouns, where ·he neu·er nouns are
fo11owing ·heir own pecu1iar se· of 1aws: nomina·ive and
accusa·ive cases are a1wavs ·he same, and ·he nomina·ive
(hence accusa·ive a1so) p1ura1 ending is shor· "-a"
(4) Wi·h i-s·em nouns, however, ·he endings used bv mascu1ine
and feminine nouns are s1igh·1v differen· from ·hose used
bv neu·er nouns.
So wha· endings does a ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ives use? An
ad·ec·ive is going ·o have ·o ab1e ·o modifv nouns of a11 ·hree
genders, so a ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ive wi11 have ·o be ab1e ·o
mascu1ine, feminine, and neu·er. To do ·his, a ·hird dec1ension
ad·ec·ive uses ·he pa··ern of ·he i-s·em endings, wi·h one fur·her
refinemen·: ·he ab1a·ive singu1ar of ·he mascu1ine and feminine is
1ong "-i", no· shor· "-e". Cover up ·he ·wo co1umns of endings on
·he righ· and ·rv ·o wri·e down ·he endings ·hird dec1ension
ad·ec·ives are going ·o use. Chec' vour wor' agains· ·he answers
given in ·he ·wo righ· co1umns.
CASE ENÐINGS EOR THIRÐ ÐECLENSION AÐJECTIVES
MASC./EEM. NEUTER MASC./EEM. NEUTER
N/V. ---------- ---------- ------- -------
Gen. __________ __________ -is -is
Ða·. __________ __________ -i -i
Acc. __________ __________ -em -------
Ab1. __________ __________ -i -i
N/V. __________ __________ -es -ia
Gen. __________ __________ -ium -ium
Ða·. __________ __________ -ibus -ibus
Acc. __________ __________ -es -ia
Ab1. __________ __________ -ibus -ibus
So ·hese are ·he variab1e case endings which are going ·o be
a··ached ·o ·he s·em of ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ives. The endings
are a1mos· iden·ica1 ·o ·hose of ·he ·hird dec1ension nouns; so, as
Whee1oc' pu·s i·, ·here's no·hing much new ·o be 1earned.
STEMS OE THIRÐ ÐECLENSION AÐJECTIVES
So vou've seen ·ha· ad·ec·ives of ·he ·hird dec1ension fo11ow ·he
ana1ogv of firs· and second dec1ension ad·ec·ives: s·em + case
endings. And vou've s·udied ·heir case endings. Now 1e·'s 1oo' a·
·he s·ems of ·hese ad·ec·ives and see how ·hev're going ·o be
1is·ed in ·he dic·ionarv.
Eirs·, here's a 1as· 1oo' a· a good o1d fashioned ad·ec·ive of
·he firs· and second dec1ensions:
be11us, -a, -um
ves·er, -·ra, -·rum
The en·rv ·e11s vou (1) which case endings ·he ad·ec·ive uses for
·he differen· genders, cases, and numbers, and (2) whe·her ·he s·em
is ·he no· wha· i· appears ·o be in ·he mascu1ine nomina·ive
singu1ar. Remember ·ha· an ad·ec·ive 1is·ing in ·he dic·ionarv
does no· s·ar· ·o dec1ine ·he ad·ec·ive, as i· does for a noun.
Ins·ead i· gives vou ·he nomina·ive forms, from which vou deduce
·he dec1ension and anv s·em changes. These are ·he ·hings an en·rv
for anv ad·ec·ive mus· ·e11 vou. So how does ·his wor' wi·h ·hird
dec1ension ad·ec·ives?
Bu· before I show vou ·ha· -- do vou ge· ·he fee1ing I'm
·rving ·o pu· ·his off -- 1e· me give vou some good news. There
are on1v ·wo 'ind of ad·ec·ives in ·he La·in 1anguage: ·hose of ·he
firs· and second dec1ensions, and ·hose of ·he ·hird. There are no
o·her possibi1i·ies. Ei·her an ad·ec·ive uses ·he "-us (-er), -a,
-um" endings or ·hose of ·he ·hird dec1ension. So if vou see an
ad·ec·ive in ·he dic·ionarv and ·he ad·ec·ive is no· of ·he firs·
and second dec1ensions, ·hen i· mus· be a ·hird dec1ension
ad·ec·ive. There are no ad·ec·ives of ·he four·h and fif·h
dec1ensions. Tha·'s ·he good news.
Now ·he bad news. There are ·hree differen· ·vpes of
ad·ec·ives of ·he ·hird dec1ension, bu· ·he difference is on1v in
·he nomina·ive singu1ar. A11 ·hree ad·ec·iva1 ·vpes of ·he ·hird
dec1ension use ·he case endings vou s·udied above for a11 ·he case
excep· ·he nomina·ive singu1ar. We need ·o focus now on ·he
nomina·ive singu1ars of ·hese ·hree ·vpes of ad·ec·ives. The
differen· c1ass are:
(1) ad·ec·ives of ·wo ·ermina·ions
(2) ad·ec·ives of one ·ermina·ion
(3) ad·ec·ives of ·hree ·ermina·ions
The dis·inguishing fea·ure among ·hese dec1ensions is how manv
differen· endings are possib1e in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar. Tvpe
(1) ad·ec·ives have one ending in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar for ·he
mascu1ine and feminine genders, and one ending for ·he neu·er
gender; ·ha· ma'es ·wo endings, hence "ad·ec·ive of ·wo
·ermina·ions". Tvpe (2) has on1v one ending in ·he nomina·ive
singu1ar for a11 ·hree genders: hence "ad·ec·ive of one
·ermina·ion". Eina11v, obvious1v, ·vpe (3) has one ending in ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar for ·he mascu1ine gender, one for ·he feminine,
and ano·her for ·he neu·er; ·ha· ma'es endings, hence "ad·ec·ive of
·hree ·ermina·ions". Now, before we zero in on ·hese differen·
·vpes, 1e· me repea·: af·er ·he nomina·ive singu1ar, ·hese
differences among ·he ·hree ·vpes of ad·ec·ives disappear en·ire1v.
A11 ·hree ·vpes use ·he norma1 case endings vou're a1readv good
friends wi·h.
AÐJECTIVES OE TWO TERMINATIONS
Now, un1i'e nouns, an en·rv for an ad·ec·ive (norma11v) 1is·s on1v
·he nomina·ive case. You 'now ·his: in "magnus, -a, -um" ·he "-us,
-a, -um" endings are on1v ·he nomina·ives. Nouns, vou remember,
1is· ·he geni·ive singu1ar ending af·er ·he nomina·ive, and ·ha·'s
for a good reason. You have ·o be ·o1d (1) wha· a noun's
dec1ension is, and (2) whe·her ·here is a s·em change. Eor nouns,
because ·hev can'· change gender, ·he nex· possib1e form af·er ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar is ·he geni·ive singu1ar. So, in effec·, ·he
dic·ionarv mus· s·ar· dec1ining ·he noun for vou so ·ha· vou can
ge· ·he informa·ion vou need. Bu· ad·ec·ives, because ·hev can
have differen· genders, need no· be "dec1ined" for vou. You can
ge· a11 ·he informa·ion vou need abou· s·em changes and case
endings bv simp1v 1oo'ing a· ·he noun in a gender differen· form
·he firs· gender -- ·he mascu1ine. The en·rv, ·herefore, of
ad·ec·ives ·vpica11v does no· inc1ude ·he geni·ive singu1ar; i·
ins·ead moves across ·he genders in ·he nomina·ive case. So wha·
does ·his mean for our ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ives?
A11 ad·ec·ives of ·wo ·ermina·ions 1oo' 1i'e ·his: "s·emis,
-e". E.gg.
omnis, -e "a11; each, everv"
for·is, -e "s·rong"
du1cis, -e "swee·"
diffici1is, -e "difficu1·"
brevis, -e "shor· [in ·ime|; swif·"
Now ·hin'. I ·o1d vou ·ha· ad·ec·ives ·vpica11v wi11 move across
·he genders in ·he nomina·ive case, and here vou have on1v ·wo
differen· forms indica·ed. This means ·ha· ·wo of ·he genders wi11
have iden·ica1 forms in ·he nomina·ive. Eor ad·ec·ives 1is·ed 1i'e
·his, ·he "-is" ending is used bo·h for ·he mascu1ine and feminine
genders; ·he "-e" is used for ·he neu·er in ·he nomina·ive
singu1ar. And, as vou can see, ·he s·em does no· change. I·'s
eviden· in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar of ·he mascu1ine and feminine
genders. You ·us· drop off ·he "-is". Ðec1ine ·he fo11owing
expressions:
everv bov everv gir1 everv war
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
AÐJECTIVES OE ONE TERMINATION
These ad·ec·ives have on1v one form in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar for
a11 ·hree genders. This crea·es an in·eres·ing prob1em. Wha· wi11
i·s dic·ionarv en·rv 1oo' 1i'e? Mos· ad·ec·ives, remember, simp1v
move across ·he nomina·ive en·ries. Bu· an ad·ec·ive of on1v one
·ermina·ion in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar has on1v one form in ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar. I· mus· give vou ·he informa·ion vou need
abou· i· -- s·em changes and dec1ension -- bv beginning i·s
dec1ension. Jus· 1i'e a noun, ·he second en·rv for an ad·ec·ive of
one ·ermina·ion is ·he geni·ive singu1ar. You drop off ·he
geni·ive singu1ar ending "-is" ·o find ·he s·em.
Now wai· a minu·e. If an ad·ec·ive of one ·ermina·ion is
1is·ed in ·he dic·ionarv ·us· 1i'e a noun, wi·h ·he geni·ive
singu1ar as i·s second en·rv, how do vou 'now whe·her ·he en·rv
vou're 1oo'ing a· is ·e11ing vou ·he word is a noun or an
ad·ec·ive. Loo':
po·ens, -n·is "powerfu1"
dens, den·is (m) "·oo·h"
Here vou see ·he nomina·ive singu1ar en·rv "po·ens" fo11owed bv ·he
geni·ive singu1ar "po·en·is". The s·em of ·he word is "po·en·-",
bu· a noun of ·he ·hird dec1ension is 1is· ·us· 1i'e ·his. Loo' a·
·he word for ·oo·h. How do vou 'now, even before vou see ·he
·rans1a·ion, ·ha· "po·ens" is an ad·ec·ive and no· a noun? Righ·!
"Ro·ens" has no gender 1is·ed; ·he noun "dens" does. The form
"po·ens" can be mascu1ine, feminine, or neu·er. I·'s an ad·ec·ive
of one ·ermina·ion. Excep· in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar, ad·ec·ives
of one ·ermina·ion opera·e ·us· 1i'e a11 ·he o·her ad·ec·ives of
·he ·hird dec1ension; ·hev a11 use ·he same case endings and obev
·he same 1aws. HINT: don'· forge· ·he 1aws of ·he neu·er! Ðec1ine
·he fo11owing:
powerfu1 ·oo·h powerfu1 monev powerfu1 p1an
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
AÐJECTIVES OE THREE TERMINATIONS
As ·he name ·e11s vou, ·hese are ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ives which
have ·hree nomina·ive singu1ar endings, one ending for each gender.
Bu· ·here is an added ·wis·. These ad·ec·ives end in "-er" in ·he
mascu1ine singu1ar, and vou 'now wha· ·ha· means. I· means ·ha·
·he "-e-" of ·he "-er" migh· no· be par· of ·he ·rue s·em.
Remember ·his prob1em wi·h firs· and second dec1ension ad·ec·ives
1i'e "miser, -a, -um" and "nos·er, -·ra, ·rum"? Loo' a· ·hese ·wo
en·ries for ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ives of ·hree ·ermina·ions:
ce1er, ce1eris, ce1ere "swif·"
acer, acris, acre "'een; fierce"
Ðo vou see wha· ·he dic·ionarv is ·e11ing vou? The firs· 1is·ing
is ·he mascu1ine nomina·ive singu1ar. The second is ·he feminine
nomina·ive singu1ar, and i·'s here vou need ·o 1oo' for s·em
changes. As vou can see ·he s·em of "ce1er" is "ce1er-"; ·he s·em
of "acer", however, is "acr-". So in a11 i·s forms excep· ·he
mascu1ine, nomina·ive singu1ar, ·he roo· of "acer" ·o which ·he
case endings wi11 be added is "acr-". The fina1 en·rv is ·he
neu·er nomina·ive singu1ar. Now, don'· forge·, ·he on1v p1ace
where ·hese ad·ec·ives have differen· forms for ·he ·hree genders
is righ· here, in ·he nomina·ive singu1ar. Af·er ·he nomina·ive
singu1ar, ·hese ad·ec·ives use ·he norma1 endings of ·hird
dec1ension ad·ec·ives. Ðec1ine ·he fo11owing.
swif· dea·h 'een memorv fierce war
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
ÐRILLS
The ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ives can of·en he1p vou ou· of some
prob1ems. As vou'11 see once vou s·ar· reading is ·ha· one of ·he
main difficu1·ies wi·h La·in is ·ha· i· has ·oo few discre·e case
endings, no· ·oo manv. The case endings over1ap in so manv p1aces
·ha· i·'s of·en difficu1· ·o ·e11 wha· case a noun is in. Having
ve· ano·her se· of endings he1ps vou iden·ifv ·he case of ·he nouns
of nouns ·hese ad·ec·ive are modifving. Eor examp1e, 1oo' a· ·he
form "sapien·iae". Wha· case is "sapien·iae"? We11, i· cou1d be
(1) geni·ive singu1ar, (2) da·ive singu1ar, or (3) nomina·ive
p1ura1. The "-ae" ending in ·he firs· dec1ension is used for ·hree
differen· cases. Bu· suppose vou see a ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ive
nex· ·o i· wi·h an ending "-es". The "-es" ending in ·he ·hird
dec1ension can on1v be nomina·ive or accusa·ive p1ura1. "X"es mus·
be agreeing wi·h "sapien·iae", so "sapien·iae" mus· be nomina·ive
p1ura1 since ·ha·'s ·he on1v number, gender, and case ·he ·wo words
have in common. Wha· vou've done is ·his:
The noun "sapien·iae" can be
geni·ive singu1ar
da·ive singu1ar
nomina·ive p1ura1
The ad·ec·ive "x"es mus· agree wi·h "sapien·iae" and i·s form can
be
nomina·ive p1ura1
accusa·ive p1ura1
Therefore "'x'es sapien·iae" mus· be nomina·ive p1ura1, since i· is
·he on1v case and number where ·he case endings of ·he noun and
ad·ec·ive over1ap.
Wri·e ou· ·he possib1e number(s) and case(s) of ·he fo11owing nouns
and ad·ec·ives. Ðon'· worrv abou· ·he ·rans1a·ions for now, ·us·
focus on ·he endings.
Number(s) Gender Case(s)
1. omnium puerorum __________ _____ ____________________
2. ce1erem pue11am __________ _____ ____________________
3. po·en·i regi __________ _____ ____________________
4. po·en·ibus viris __________ _____ ____________________
5. for·es feminae __________ _____ ____________________
6. for·is feminae __________ _____ ____________________
7. for·i feminae __________ _____ ____________________
8. acres mor·es __________ _____ ____________________
9. acri memoria __________ _____ ____________________
10. acri be11o __________ _____ ____________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
adiuvo Ðespi·e i·s appearance, ·he verb is no· a regu1ar
firs· con·uga·ion. Loo' carefu11v a· i·s
principa1 par·s: "adiuvo, -are, -iuvi, -iu·us".
(The "ad-" prefix on1v adds a 1i··1e ex·ra
emphasis, as wi·h ·he difference in Eng1ish
be·ween "·o he1p" and "·o he1p ou·".)
quam This adverb is used ·o emphasize an ad·ec·ive. I·
doesn'· mean "how" as in "in wha· wav". I·'s used
·o modifv ad·ec·ives and means "how" as in "How
swee· i· is!" or "How ·a11 ·ha· voung man is!"
01/08/93
CHARTER 17
"The Re1a·ive Rronoun"
As has been ·he case in ·he 1as· severa1 chap·ers, ·his chap·er
rea11v doesn'· confron· ·he neophv·e wi·h a 1o· of new
gramma·ica1 concep·s; i· bui1ds on 'now1edge a1readv mas·ered.
S·i11 i·'s going ·o ·a'e a 1i··1e pa·ience, bu· we'11 go s1ow1v.
Before we ge· ·o ·he re1a·ive pronoun per se, we're going ·o
c1ean up a svn·ac·ica1 poin· vou've a1readv been wor'ing wi·h,
bu· mav no· have ve· a firm concep·ua1 unders·anding of. Le·'s
1oo' a· wha· we mean bv a "c1ause".
THE CLAUSE
You a11 remember ·he ·unior high schoo1 defini·ion of a sen·ence:
i·'s a comp1e·e ·hough·. And bv ·ha· we mean a ·hough· which
inc1udes a noun, ei·her expressed or imp1ied, and a verb, ei·her
expressed or imp1ied. Tha· is, a comp1e·e ·hough· mus· invo1ve
some·hing which is doing some·hing or which is being he1d up for
descrip·ion: "The road is b1oc'ed"; "The ·ree fe11 down"; and so
on.
Now, ·he human mind is a wonderfu1 ·hing. I· reasons and
perceives dozens of differen· 'inds re1a·ionships be·ween even·s,
·hings, and ideas. I· arranges even·s and fac·s 1ogica11v and
·empora11v, and in 1eve1s of priori·v. Tha· is ·o sav, i· ·a'es
·wo or more ·hings, ·hings which are separa·e ideas, separa·e
visions, and weaves ·hem ·oge·her concep·ua11v and 1inguis·ica11v
in·o wha· we "reasoning". The wav ·his reasoning is expressed in
1anguage is ca11ed "svn·ax", which 1i·era11v means "arranging
·oge·her"; pu··ing ·oge·her even·s and ·hings and fac·s. Eor
examp1e, ·he ·wo separa·e ideas or visions -- "·he road is
b1oc'ed" and "·he ·ree fe11 down" -- migh· have a causa1
re1a·ionship, which ·he mind ins·an·1v recognizes and expresses
1inguis·ica11v wi·h an appropria·e con·unc·ion: "The road is
b1oc'ed because ·he ·ree fe11 down". The con·unc·ion "because"
in ·his examp1e is spe11ing ou· ·he re1a·ionship ·he spea'er
perceives be·ween ·he ·wo ideas. I·'s arranging ·hem in·o a
cause and effec· re1a·ionship: ·ha· ·he ·ree fe11 down is a fac·,
and because of ·ha· fac·, ·he road is now b1oc'ed.
Each ·hough·, idea, or even·, when i· is expressed in
1anguage, is a ca11ed a c1ause. Hence ·he sen·ence "·he road is
b1oc'ed because ·he ·ree fe11" con·ains ·wo "c1auses": ·he fac·
·ha· ·he ·ree fe11 is expressed in one c1ause, and ·he fac· ·ha·
·he road is b1oc'ed forms ano·her "c1ause". I·'s possib1e for a
sen·ence ·o con·ain on1v one c1ause, as in "Roses are red". I·'s
a1so possib1e for a sen·ence ·o con·ain an ungod1v number of
c1auses. See whe·her vou can spo· a11 ·he c1auses -- ·ha· is
separa·e ·hough·s -- in ·his sen·ence:
"Since we are 1oo'ing for ·he idea1 ora·or, we mus· use
our powers of ora·orv ·o por·rav a spea'er free from
a11 possib1e fau1·s and endowed wi·h everv possib1e
meri·; for ·hough i· is undeniab1e ·ha· ·he 1arge
number of 1awsui·s, ·he grea· varie·v or pub1ic
ques·ions, ·he i11i·era·e masses who ma'e ·he audience
of our pub1ic spea'ers, offer a fie1d ·o ever ·he mos·
defec·ive ora·ors, we wi11 no· for ·ha· reason despair
of finding wha· we wan·" (Cicero, On ·he Ora·or, 26).
Le·'s bac' up and ·a'e a 1oo' a· a s·ring of unsubordina·ed
c1auses. (The spea'er's name is George.)
"The dog is mean. The dog 1ives nex· door. One dav
·he dog bi· George. George 'ic'ed ·he dog. George's
neighbor came ou· of ·he house. George's neighbor owns
·he dog. George's neighbor screamed a· George.
George's neighbor ca11ed ·he po1ice. The po1ice came.
The dog bi· ·he po1ice. The po1ice sho· ·he dog.
George is happv. The dog is dead".
We don'· ·a1' 1i'e ·his because our 1anguage has deve1oped a
who1e svs·em of con·unc·ions and pronouns which a11ows us (1) ·o
avoid a11 ·he unneeded repe·i·ion of nouns and (2) ·o ma'e ·he
1ogica1 and ·empora1 re1a·ionships be·ween ·hough·s exp1ici·.
There are a hundred wavs ·o cas· ·his s·ring of even·s and fac·s
which ma'e fu11 use of range of 1inguis·ic appara·us Eng1ish
ma'es avai1ab1e ·o us. Here's on1v one:
"The dog ·ha· 1ives nex· door is mean, and one dav he
bi· me. So I 'ic'ed him. Mv neighbor, who owns ·he
dog, came ou· of ·he house and screamed a· me. Then he
ca11ed ·he po1ice. When ·hev came, ·he dog bi· ·hem
·oo, so ·hev sho· i·. I am happv ·he dog is dead".
You can see here a11 'inds of 1in'age be·ween ·hese ·hough·s, and
a11 'inds of differen· 1inguis·ic appara·us ·ha· ma'es i·
possib1e. The 'ind of 1in'age we're in·eres·ed in now is ·he
"re1a·ive c1ause". Le·'s 1oo' a· how i·'s done.
ENGLISH RELATIVE CLAUSES
Here's a bare bones defini·ion of a re1a·ive c1ause: "A re1a·ive
c1ause is a subordina·e c1ause which ac·s 1i'e an ad·ec·ive bv
providing addi·iona1 informa·ion abou· a noun in ano·her c1ause".
Now here's an examp1e showing ·he evo1u·ion of ·he re1a·ive
c1ause.
CLAUSE 1: "The five o'c1oc' ·rain is never on ·ime".
CLAUSE 2: "Hundreds of peop1e ·a'e ·he five o'c1oc'
·rain".
The ·wo c1auses have some·hing in common: ·he five o'c1oc' ·rain.
Two separa·e fac·s have been iden·ified abou· ·his ·rain: i·'s
never on ·ime and hundreds of peop1e ·a'e i·. A spea'er mav
arrange ·hese ·wo c1auses however he wishes, sub·ec· on1v ·o ·he
idea he wished ·o convev ·o his 1is·ener. If, for examp1e, ·he
mos· impor·an· ·hing he wan·s his 1is·ener ·o 'now abou· ·he
·rain is ·ha· i· is 1a·e a11 ·he ·ime, c1ause 1 wi11 have ·o be
1ogica11v and svn·ac·ica11v "superior" ·o ·he fac· con·ained in
c1ause 2. Tha· is ·o sav, ·he fac· in c1ause 2 -- ·ha· hundreds
of peop1e ·a'e ·he five o'c1oc' ·rain -- wi11 be added simp1v as
addi·iona1 informa·ion abou· ·he ·rain. In gramma·ica1 circ1es
we ca11 ·he mos· impor·an· e1emen· in ·he sen·ence ·he "main" or
"ordina·e" or "independen· c1ause"; we ca11 anv o·her c1ause a
"subordina·e" or "dependen· c1ause", because i· is, in a rea1
sense, a subordina·e, a wor'er in ·he emp1ovmen· of ·he main
c1ause.
So 1e·'s assume ·ha· ·he mos· impor·an· fac· ·he spea'er
wan·s ·o ge· across is con·ained in c1ause 1, and ·ha· c1ause 2
is going ·o be wor'ed in on1v as subordina·e ma·eria1. How is
·his going ·o happen.
STER 1: Subs·i·u·e "·he five o'c1oc' ·rain" in c1ause 2 wi·h
·he appropria·e pronoun. The pronoun wi11 refer ·he
1is·ener ·o ·he noun s·a·ed in c1ause 1.
CLAUSE 1: "The five o'c1oc' ·rain is never on ·ime".
CLAUSE 2: "Hundreds of peop1e ·a'e i·".
Now ho1d on. Whv did we chose "i·" as ·he appropria·e
pronoun ·o reproduce "·he five o'c1oc' ·rain" in c1ause 2? We11,
·he noun which ·he pronoun has ·o reproduce is singu1ar in number
and inanima·e, so "i·" is ·he correc· choice. Nex·, wha· case is
"i·" in? Loo', i·'s ac·ing as ·he ob·ec· of ·he verb "·a'e" in
i·s c1ause, so "i·" is in ·he ob·ec·ive (or accusa·ive) case.
(This was ·us· a review. You a1readv 'now ·ha· pronouns ge·
·heir number and gender from ·heir an·eceden·s, bu· ge· ·heir
case from ·he wav ·hev're being used in ·heir own c1ause.)
STER 2: Embed ·he subordina·e c1ause in·o main c1ause.
SENTENCE: "The five o'c1oc' ·rain -- hundreds of
peop1e ·a'e i· -- is never on ·ime".
We cou1d a1mos· s·op here. The ·wo sen·ences have been merged
in·o one, and c1ause 2 has been subordina·ed ·o ·he idea in
c1ause 1. Tha· is ·o sav, ·he s·ruc·ure of c1ause 1 forms ·he
main archi·ec·ure of ·he new sen·ence. Bu· Eng1ish deve1oped a
fur·her modifica·ion ·o wor' ·hese ·wo c1auses in·o one sen·ence.
I· rep1aces ·he pronoun of ·he subordina·e c1ause wi·h a pronoun
which indica·es wi·hou· a doub· ·ha· ·he c1ause coming up is
dependen·, or subordina·e ·o, ·he c1ause which has ·us· been
in·errup·ed. We rep1ace ·he pronoun wi·h ·he re1a·ive pronoun
"who, which" in ·he proper case and move i· ·o ·he beginning of
·he c1ause. Now ·he ·wo c1auses have been comp1e·e1v we1ded in·o
one sen·ence.
STER 3: Subs·i·u·e and move ·he pronoun.
SENTENCE: "The five o'c1oc' ·rain, which hundreds of
peop1e ·a'e, is never on ·ime".
And ·here vou have i·. C1ause 2 has been fu11v incorpora·ed in·o
·he message of ·he firs· c1ause. As soon as vou read ·he
re1a·ive pronoun "which" in ·his sen·ence, vour mind
au·oma·ica11v unders·ands ·wo ·hings:
(1) ·he c1ause coming up is no· as impor·an· as ·he c1ause
vou've ·us· 1ef· and
(2) ·he c1ause coming up is going ·o give vou more
informa·ion abou· some ·hing in ·he main c1ause.
So ·his sen·ence is saving some·hing 1i'e ·his: "·he five o'c1oc'
·rain -- which, bv ·he bv, hundreds of peop1e ·a'e -- is never on
·ime". And one 1as· pes'v ques·ion: wha· case is "which" in?
I·'s in ·he ob·ec·ive (or accusa·ive) case because i· is s·i11
·he ob·ec· of ·he verb in ·he re1a·ive c1ause: "·a'e". Remember,
number and gender from ·he an·eceden·, bu· case from i·s c1ause.
Now 1e·'s go bac' ·o ·he ·wo c1auses when ·hev were independen·
·hough·s.
CLAUSE 1: "The five o'c1oc' ·rain is never on ·ime".
CLAUSE 2: "Hundreds of peop1e ·a'e ·he five o'c1oc'
·rain".
I·'s a1so possib1e ·ha· main idea ·he spea'er wishes ·o ge·
across is ·he fac· con·ained in c1ause 2 and wi11 have ·o
subordina·e c1ause 1 in·o c1ause 2, in which case c1ause 2 wi11
provide ·he basic archi·ec·ure for ·he new sen·ence. Li'e ·his:
"Hundreds of peop1e ·a'e ·he five o'c1oc' ·rain, which is never
on ·ime". Now wha· case is "which" in? Loo' a· ·he re1a·ive
c1ause. If ·ha· doesn'· he1p, 1oo' a· ·he sen·ence from which
·he re1a·ive c1ause evo1ved. I· came from c1ause 1, where "·he
five o'c1oc' ·rain" was nomina·ive. The "which" is simp1v
s·anding in for i·, so "which" mus· nomina·ive. And i· is.
THE ENGLISH RELATIVE RRONOUN: CASE SYSTEM
We're going ·o 1oo' a· severa1 more examp1es of ·his in a second,
bu· for now I have a few more ·hings ·o add abou· ·he Eng1ish
re1a·ive pronoun. Li'e ·he o·her pronouns in Eng1ish, ·he
re1a·ive pronoun preserves ·hree dis·inc· case forms and even
dis·inguishes be·ween anima·e and inanima·e. There is no
dis·inc·ion be·ween ·he numbers.
ANIMATE INANIMATE
Nom. who which
Gen. whose whose
Acc. whom which
No·es:
(1) Obvious1v, since Eng1ish has 1os· i·s gramma·ica1
gender, ·he re1a·ive pronoun "who, whose, and whom" are
on1v going ·o be used for 1iving beings, usua11v on1v
human beings, ·hough some·imes for anima1s.
(2) A 1o· of peop1e sniff a· "whom" as archaic and e1i·is·.
Tha·'s possib1e, bu· I 1oo' a· i· ·his wav: vou shou1d
'now how and when ·o use "whom" proper1v. If vou're in
a si·ua·ion where vour audience wi11 denounce vour
pre·ensions ·o aris·ocracv if vou use "whom", ·hen
don'· use i·. Ðon'· go in·o a bar and sav "Is ·his ·he
same ·eam whom ·he Rac'ers bea· 1as· wee'?" On ·he
o·her hand, if vour 1is·ener wi11 dismiss vou as a
bump'in and ignoramus if vou sav "These are ·he ac·ors
who I'd admire", ·hen use "whom". Knowing when ·o use
"whom" correc·1v is 1i'e 'nowing ·he difference be·ween
a sa1ad and ovs·er for'. I·'s no· 'now1edge ·ha·'s
usefu1 everv dav of vour 1ife, bu· when vou need i·
i·'s nice ·o have. In anv case, never use "whom" when
vou shou1d use "who". You'11 ou·rage evervone. If
vou're in doub· as ·o which ·o use, use "who".
(3) The nomina·ive and accusa·ive case of ·he re1a·ive
pronoun "who, which" has been a1mos· en·ire1v rep1aced
in co11oquia1 Eng1ish bv "·ha·": "The bov ·ha· I
saw.."., "The gir1 ·ha· p1avs bas'e·ba11.."., The car
·ha· is in ·he garage..".
(4) Eng1ish a1so has ·he op·ion of omi··ing ·he re1a·ive
pronoun a1·oge·her, and of·en i· does: "The bov whom I
saw is six fee· ·a11" becomes "The bov I saw is six
fee· ·a11". La·in doesn'· have ·his op·ion. I· mus·
a1wavs use ·he re1a·ive pronoun.
ÐRILL
Combine ·hese ·wo Eng1ish sen·ences in·o one. Use ·he case
svs·em of ·he re1a·ive pronoun, and indica·e which number and
case ·he La·in equiva1en· wou1d be in.
Examp1es:
A. "George 'ic'ed ·he dog. The dog 1ives nex· door".
Eng1ish: "George 'ic'ed ·he dog ·ha· (which) 1ives nex·
door".
La·in: nomina·ive singu1ar
B. "The s·uden·s don'· 1i'e La·in. The ·eachers gave ·he
s·uden·s a boo'".
Eng1ish: "The gir1s, ·o whom ·he ·eacher gave a boo', don'·
1i'e La·in".
La·in: da·ive p1ura1
1. "Thev see ·he cars. The cars be1ong ·o George".
Eng1ish:
La·in:
2. "George 1i'es hard boi1ed eggs. George's bro·her is in
·ai1".
Eng1ish:
La·in:
3. "Manv s·uden·s are never prepared for c1ass. The professor
is wri·ing a verv difficu1· fina1 exam for ·he s·uden·s".
Eng1ish:
La·in:
4. "The roc's fe11 off ·he c1iff. The roc's were verv s1ic'".
Eng1ish:
La·in:
5. "Be··v avoids mv bro·her. Mv bro·her's hair is dved
pea-green".
Eng1ish:
La·in:
THE LATIN RELATIVE RRONOUN
We've done a11 ·he difficu1· wor'. You unders·and wha· a
re1a·ive c1ause is: (1) ·hev are subordina·e c1auses; (2) ·hev
are in·roduced bv re1a·ive pronouns; (3) ·he re1a·ive pronoun
agrees in number and gender wi·h i·s an·eceden·, bu· ge·s i·s
case from ·he wav i·'s being used in i·s own c1ause; and (4) ·hev
modifv some·hing in ·he main c1ause. Now vou have on1v ·o 1earn
·he dec1ensiona1 svs·em of ·he La·in re1a·ive pronoun and
prac·ice wi·h i·.
The La·in re1a·ive pronoun has a fu11 dec1ensiona1 svs·em.
Tha· is ·o sav, i· has 30 separa·e forms: five cases in ·hree
genders in bo·h numbers. The s·em is "qu-" and i· fo11ows
basica11v ·he pa··ern se· down bv ·he pronouns "is, ea, id",
"i11e, i11a, i11ud", e·c. Bu· ·here are some subs·an·ia1
varia·ions. Here is ·he fu11 pa··ern. Loo' for regu1ari·ies
firs·; ·hen go bac' and co11ec· ·he devia·ions.
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
Nom. qui quae quod
Gen. cuius cuius cuius
Ða·. cui cui cui
Acc. quem quam quod
Ab1. quo qua quo
Nom. qui quae quae
Gen. quorum quarum quorum
Ða·. quibus quibus quibus
Acc. quos quas quae
Ab1. quibus quibus quibus
Le·'s s·ar· ·he c1ose up examina·ion bv running down ·he
mascu1ine forms firs·.
(1) The nomina·ive case singu1ar is a 1i··1e unusua1: qui,
bu· mos· of ·he demons·ra·ives and pronouns are odd in
·he nomina·ive singu1ar.
(2) The geni·ive and da·ive singu1ars (of ·he genders) use
·he predic·ab1e pronoun case endings "-ius" and "-i",
bu· ·he s·em has changed from "qu-" ·o "cu-".
(3) In ·he accusa·ive singu1ar vou'd expec· "quum" ("qu" +
"um"); bu· no such 1uc': "quem" is ·he form. The "-em"
1oo's as if i·'s "borrowed" from ·he ·hird dec1ension,
doesn'· i·.
(4) Things ca1m down for a whi1e, bu· ·he da·ive and
ab1a·ive p1ura1s use ·he "-ibus" ending which ·hev
eviden·1v impor· from ·he ·hird dec1ension. No·ice
again ·ha· "quibus" is ·he form for a11 ·he genders in
·he da·ive and ab1a·ive p1ura1.
Now 1e·'s have a 1oo' a· ·he feminine.
(1) Nomina·ive's odd: "quae" ins·ead of "qua". Bu· so
wha·?
(2) Geni·ive and da·ive singu1ar: s·em "cu-" + "-ius" and
"-i". Li'e ·he mascu1ine.
(3) Eina11v, ·he da·ive and ab1a·ive p1ura1s aren'· "quis"
bu·, 1i'e ·he mascu1ine, "quibus".
And ·hen ·he neu·er.
(1) Af·er having seen ·he mascu1ine and feminine forms of
·he re1a·ive pronoun, ·he on1v ·ru1v unexpec·ed quir'
of ·he neu·er is ·he nomina·ive, hence a1so accusa·ive,
p1ura1: vou ge· "quae" ins·ead of "qua". Rav
a··en·ion, now, ·he form "quae" can be anv one of four
possibi1i·ies: (a) feminine nomina·ive singu1ar; (b)
feminine nomina·ive p1ura1; (c) neu·er nomina·ive
p1ura1; (d) neu·er accusa·ive p1ura1. Con·ex· wi11 be
vour on1v guide.
Now ·rv ·o wri·e ou· ·he forms of ·he re1a·ive pronoun on vour
own.
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
O'av, now 1e·'s ·a'e apar· a coup1e of La·in sen·ences wi·h
re1a·ive c1auses. Trans1a·e ·hese sen·ences, and ·e11 me ·he
number gender and case of ·he re1a·ive pronouns. Trv fo11owing
·hese s·eps:
(1) Go s1ow1v;
(2) Eirs· read ·he en·ire sen·ence and ·rv ·o iden·ifv ·he
main c1ause and ·he re1a·ive c1ause. The re1a·ive
c1ause wi11 begin wi·h ·he re1a·ive pronoun and
probab1v end wi·h a verb;
(3) Af·er vou've iso1a·ed ·he re1a·ive c1ause, forge· i·
for a momen·, and concen·ra·e on ·rans1a·ing ·he main
c1ause -- ·he main c1ause is, af·er a11, ·he mos·
impor·an· ·hough· in ·he sen·ence;
(4) Nex·, 1oo' a· ·he re1a·ive pronoun and ·rv ·o figure
ou· i· number and gender -- forge· abou· ·he case for
now. You wan· ·o ma·ch up ·he re1a·ive pronoun wi·h
i·s an·eceden·, and ·he re1a·ive pronoun wi11 agree
wi·h i·s an·eceden· in number and gender.
(5) Af·er a11 ·ha·, ·hen vou're readv ·o ·rans1a·e ·he
re1a·ive c1ause. Eor ·ha· vou'11 need ·o 'now ·he case
of ·he re1a·ive pronoun. Loo' carefu11v, and use wha·
vou 'now abou· i·s gender and number ·o chec' off anv
mu1·ip1e possibi1i·ies.
(6) The 1as· s·ep, ·hen, af·er a11 ·he pieces of ·he
sen·ence have been ana1vzed separa·e1v, is ·o pu· i·
a11 bac' ·oge·her.
(7) Go s1ow1v.
1. "Vidi canem qui ex Asia veni·". (canis, -is (m) "dog")
Trans1a·ion: __________________________________________________
Re1a·ive Rronoun: __________
2. "Vidi canes quos amas".
Trans1a·ion: __________________________________________________
Re1a·ive Rronoun: __________
3. "Rue11ae, quarum pa·er es· parvus, sun· magnae".
Trans1a·ion: __________________________________________________
Re1a·ive Rronoun: __________
4. "Vidi pueros quibus 1ibros dedis·is".
Trans1a·ion: __________________________________________________
Re1a·ive Rronoun: __________
5. "Vidi pueros cum quibus venis·is".
Trans1a·ion: __________________________________________________
Re1a·ive Rronoun: __________
6. "Civem quem misera·is 1audaverun·".
Trans1a·ion: __________________________________________________
Re1a·ive Rronoun: __________
Now 1e·'s do i· ·he o·her wav.
1. "The ·vran· des·roved ·he ci·ies from which ·he ci·izens had
f1ed".
____________________________________________________________
2. "He came wi·h ·he ci·izen ·o whom ·hev had en·rus·ed ·heir
1ives".
____________________________________________________________
3. "I saw ·he ci·izens wi·h whom vou had f1ed".
____________________________________________________________
4. "Thev have ·he monev wi·h which ·he ·vran· cap·ured ·he
ci·v".
____________________________________________________________
5. "The fa·her whose sons were s·upid came ou· of Asia".
____________________________________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
au·...au· I· used 1i'e ·his: au· x au· v = ei·her
x or v.
coepi, coepisse, coep·us The firs· en·rv for ·his verb is ·he
perfec· ·ense, firs· person singu1ar.
The second is ·he perfec· infini·ive
(which vou have seen ve·), and ·he ·hird
en·rv is ·he four·h principa1 par·. The
verb is 1is·ed ·his wav because i· has
no firs· principa1 par· -- which mean
1ogica11v ·ha· "coepi" has no presen·
svs·em ·enses: no presen·, fu·ure, or
imperfec·. Ano·her wav ·o 1is· ·his
verb wou1d be: "----------, ----------,
coepi, coep·us". Verbs which 1ac' one
or more principa1 par· are ca11ed
"defec·ive verbs". To sav "I begin", "I
wi11 begin", or "I was beginning", La·in
uses ·he firs· principa1 par· of ·he
verb "incipio, -ere, -cepi, -cep·us.
01/08/93
CHARTER 18
"The Rassive Voice for ·he 1s· and 2nd Con·uga·ions
in ·he Rresen· Svs·em; Ab1a·ive of Agen·"
THE ACTIVE VOICE
Up ·o ·his poin· in La·in, vou've been wor'ing wi·h verbs on1v in
·he "ac·ive voice"; ·ha· is, in forms which show ·ha· ·he sub·ec·
of ·he verb is ·he agen· of ·he ac·ion deno·ed in ·he verb. Eor
examp1e, in ·he sen·ence "Rueri 1i··eras ad amicos suos mi··en·",
·he sub·ec· ("pueri") of ·he verb ("mi··en·"), and i· is ·he
"pueri" who are ac·ua11v performing ·he ac·ion. And how do we
'now ·ha· ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb is ·he au·hor of ·he ac·ion?
In ·he presen· svs·em, ·he verb ·e11s vou so in ·he persona1
ending. Ðo vou remember ·he persona1 endings in La·in in ·he
presen· svs·em:
-o,-m I -mus we
-s vou -·is vou
-· he, she, i· -n· ·hev
You 1earned ·ha· ·hese endings ·e11 vou ·he person and number of
·he sub·ec·, bu· ·hev ac·ua11v were ·e11ing vou more ·han ·ha·,
·hough I 'ep· i· from vou. Now i·'s ·ime ·o come c1ean: ·hese
endings a1so ·e11 vou ·ha· ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb is i·se1f
performing ·he ac·ion of ·he verb. Tha· is ·o sav, ·hese endings
·e11 vou ·he number and person of ·he sub·ec·, bu· addi·iona11v
·hev ·e11 vou ·ha· ·he verb is in ·he "ac·ive voice". So ·hese
endings are more ·han ·he persona1 endings for ·he presen·
svs·em; ·hev are ·he presen· svs·em "ac·ive" persona1 endings.
THE RASSIVE VOICE IN ENGLISH
The grammars of La·in and Eng1ish bo·h recognize ano·her "voice";
·ha· is, ano·her re1a·ionship ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb can have ·o
·he ac·ion of ·he verb. When ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb is i·se1f
represen·ed as ·he direc· recipien· of ·he ac·ion of ·he verb,
·he verb is in ·he "passive voice". In Eng1ish, ·he forma·ion of
·he passive voice is a 1i··1e c1umsv: we use ·he ·hird principa1
par· of ·he verb and use i· as a passive par·icip1e; ·hen we use
·he verb "·o be" in a inf1ec·ed form as ·he auxi1iarv. Li'e ·his
wi·h ·he verb "see, saw, seen".
Rresen·: I am seen.
Rresen· Rrogressive: I am being seen.
Eu·ure: I wi11 be seen.
Imperfec·: I was being seen.
Can vou de·ec· ·his pa··ern: inf1ec·ed form for ·he verb "·o be"
p1us ·he passive par·icip1e of ·he verb vou're con·uga·ing.
No·ice ·ha· ·he verb "·o be" is doing a11 ·he wor'.
THE RASSIVE VOICE OE THE RRESENT SYSTEM IN LATIN
Bv con·ras·, ·he forma·ion of ·he passive voice in ·he presen·
svs·em in La·in is a marve1 of simp1ici·v. To begin wi·h, which
principa1 par· of ·he verb do vou ·hin' ·he passive voice in ·he
presen· svs·em wi11 be bui1· upon? If vou guessed ·he firs·
principa1 par·, vou did we11. Remember, ·he La·in presen·,
fu·ure, and imperfec· ·enses are formed off ·he firs· principa1
par·, regard1ess of ·he voice. Nex· ·he verb endings vou're
fami1iar wi·h are ·he ac·ive voice persona1 endings for ·he
presen· svs·em. Logica11v, ·herefore, i· fo11ows ·ha· ·here mus·
be a se· of "passive" persona1 endings. Here ·hev are; wa·ch for
simi1ari·ies wi·h ·he ac·ive endings:
-or I am [being| -mur we are [being|
-ris [-re| vou are [being| -mini vou
are [being|
-·ur he is [being| -n·ur ·hev are [being|
These are ·he endings vou add ·o ·he norma1 s·ems ·o form ·he
passive voice in ·he presen· svs·em. Ðo vou de·ec· ·he
simi1ari·ies? On1v ·he second person singu1ar and p1ura1 endings
are ·o·a11v differen· from ·heir ac·ive coun·erpar·s. Now 1e·'s
·a'e a c1oser 1oo' a· how a11 of ·his is going ·o come ·oge·her.
RRESENT TENSE RASSIVE EOR ALL CONJUGATIONS
The presen· ·ense in ·he ac·ive voice is formed simp1v bv adding
persona1 endings ·o ·he firs· principa1 par·. (And remember, ·his
s·em inc1udes ·he s·em vowe1: an "-a-" for firs· con·uga·ion
verbs, "-e-" for ·he second, "-e-" for ·he ·hird, and "-i-" for
·he four·h.) To form ·he presen· ·ense passive, vou simp1v
rep1ace ·he ac·ive persona1 endings wi·h ·he passive endings.
The on1v apparen·1v usua1 form vou're going ·o see in a11 ·his
is ·he second person singu1ar of ·hird con·uga·ion verbs. You
remember ·ha· ·he s·em vowe1 of a ·hird con·uga·ion verb is shor·
"-e-" and ·ha· i· changes when vou s·ar· adding persona1 endings.
I· becomes "-i-" and "-u-". Bu· ·hin' bac'. The infini·ive of
·hird con·uga·ion verbs isn'· "-ire" bu· "-ere". Tha·'s because
when ·he shor· "-e-" is fo11owed bv an "-r-" i· s·avs shor·
"-e-". So wha·'s ·ha· going ·o mean for ·he second persona1
singu1ar passive? The passive persona1 ending is "-ris", so,
since ·he ending s·ar·s wi·h an "-r-", ·he s·em vowe1 wi11 no·
change ·o "-i-" as vou migh· expec·, bu· i· wi11 remain shor·
"-e-". So ·he form wi11 end in "-eris", no· "-iris", as vou
migh· have expec·ed. Wri·e ou· ·he presen· ·ense passive of a11
four con·uga·ions:
1audo moneo duco capio audio
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
EUTURE TENSE RASSIVE OE ALL CONJUGATIONS
To form ·he fu·ure ·ense passive, ·us· as in ·he presen· ·ense,
vou simp1v rep1ace ·he ac·ive persona1 endings wi·h ·he passive
persona1 endings. So form ·he fu·ure ·ense of each verb, wi·hou·
·he persona1 endings firs·, ·hen simp1v a··ach ·he passive
persona1 endings. Bu· be carefu1. In ·he second person singu1ar
of a11 con·uga·ions excep· ·he four·h some·hing odd is going ·o
happen. Ðo vou remember ·his ru1e of La·in phone·ics? "When a
shor· '-e-' is fo11owed bv an '-r-' i· remains shor· '-e-'. So
wha· does ·his mean for us? Wa·ch ·his
1auda + be + ris = 1audabris
mone + be + ris = monebris
Wri·e ou· ·he fu·ure ·ense passive of ·he paradigm verbs, and
don'· forge· ·ha· 3rd and 4·h con·uga·ion verbs form ·he fu·ure
·ense differen·1v from ·he 1s· and 2nd.
1audo moneo duco capio audio
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
IMREREECT TENSE RASSIVE OE LATIN VERBS
Eo11ow ·he same procedure vou did wi·h ·he presen· and fu·ure
·enses passive. Cons·ruc· ·he imperfec· ·ense 1ess ·he persona1
endings, ·hen use ·he passive persona1 endings. The firs· person
singu1ar is "-bar", where ·he persona1 ending "-r" is a··ached
direc·1v ·o ·he "-ba- ·ense sign of ·he imperfec·, wi·hou·
inser·ing an "-o-" as vou did in ·he presen· and fu·ure ·enses.
Wri·e ou· ·he imperfec· passive of ·he paradigm verbs:
1audo moneo duco capio audio
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________
THE RASSIVE INEINITIVE
The presen· ac·ive infini·ive passive is form which is a1so
derived from ·he firs· principa1 par·. To form ·he passive voice
of ·he infini·ive of firs·, second, and four·h con·uga·ion verbs,
vou simp1v use ·he ending "-ri" ins·ead of "-re". In ·hird
con·uga·ion verbs, vou rep1ace ·he s·em vowe1 wi·h "-i".
1. 1auda + ri = 1audari "·o be praised"
2. mone + ri = moneri "·o be warned"
3. duc + i = duci "·o be 1ed"
3i. cap + i = capi "·o be cap·ured"
4. audi + ri = audiri "·o be ·a'en"
ÐRILLS
EIRST CONJUGATION VERB: 1audo, -are
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1 _______________ _______________ _______________
2 _______________ _______________ _______________
3 _______________ _______________ _______________
1 _______________ _______________ _______________
2 _______________ _______________ _______________
3 _______________ _______________ _______________
INEINITIVE
_______________
SECONÐ CONJUGATION VERB: de1eo, -ere
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1 _______________ _______________ _______________
2 _______________ _______________ _______________
3 _______________ _______________ _______________
1 _______________ _______________ _______________
2 _______________ _______________ _______________
3 _______________ _______________ _______________
INEINITIVE
_______________
THE RSYCHOLOGY OE THE RASSIVE VOICE
Wha·'s ·he difference be·ween ·hese ·wo sen·ences:
(a) George 'ic'ed ·he ba11.
(b) The ba11 was 'ic'ed bv George.
Obvious1v, in (a) ·he verb is ac·ive, bu· in (b) i· is passive.
Bu· wha·'s ·he difference be·ween ·he ac·ive and passive voice as
a ma··er of presen·a·ion? The ac·ion being described in bo·h
sen·ences is ·he same. Bo·h au·hors are 1oo'ing a· ·he same
ac·ion. Wha·'s ·he difference as far as ·he spea'ers' emphases are
concerned? When we 1is·en ·o or read Eng1ish, we a··ach a cer·ain
priori·v ·o ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb. So in sen·ence (a) ·he
spea'er (or wri·er) re1a·ing ·he even·, bu· wi·h ·he focus of his
a··en·ion on wha· George is doing. In sen·ence (b), however, ·he
princip1e emphasis is on wha· is being done ·o ·he ba11, and ·he
fac· ·ha· George is ·he one who 'ic' ·he ba11 is a··ached on1v as
fur·her de·ai1.
The order of rhe·orica1 impor·ance begins wi·h ·he sub·ec·,
nex· comes ·he ac·ion performed on i·, and ·hen fina11v ·he agen·
who ac·ua11v performed ·he ac·ion. The sen·ence wou1d s·i11 have
been a comp1e·ed ·hough· even if George's agencv had no· been
men·ioned: "The ba11 was 'ic'ed". Simi1ar1v, ·he order of priori·v
in sen·ence (a) begins wi·h ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb, ·hen ·he verb,
and fina11v ·he ob·ec· of ·he ac·ion of ·he verb.
You've probab1v been ·o1d some·ime in vour educa·ion
experience ·o eschew ·he passive voice. Tha·'s probab1v good
advice in genera1, bu· when vou do use i·, ma'e sure ·ha· vour
emphasis in ·he passive voice cons·ruc·ion ref1ec·s ·he rea1
subordina·ion of ideas in vour narra·ive in genera1. La·in ·ends
·o be more s'i··ish of ·he passive voice ·han Eng1ish is, and, as
vou'11 see, i· defini·e1v avoided our impersona1 passive
cons·ruc·ions 1i'e "i· seems ·ha·" or "i· is as'ed ·ha·" and so on.
ABLATIVE OE RERSONAL AGENT: AB + ABLATIVE
Loo' a· sen·ences (a) and (b) again. You can see how sen·ence (b)
is rea11v a modifica·ion of (a). The origina1 direc· ob·ec· in (a)
becomes ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb in (b) and ·he origina1 sub·ec· of
(a) is expressed bv a preposi·iona1 phrase in (b) -- "bv George".
In ·he passive voice cons·ruc·ion in La·in, ·he agen· of ·he
ac·ion, if i· is men·ioned, is expressed bv ·he preposi·ion "ab" +
·he ab1a·ive case. Whee1oc' gives vou a s·ern warning: ·he
"Ab1a·ive of Rersona1 Agen·" is no· ·he "Ab1a·ive of Means" (or ·he
"Ins·rumen·a1 Ab1a·ive"). The "Ab1a·ive of Means" expresses ·he
ins·rumen· wi·h which ·he agen· accomp1ished ·he ac·ion of ·he
verb; ·he "Ab1a·ive of Rersona1 Agen·" expresses ·he agen· i·se1f
in a passive cons·ruc·ion.
"Nu11i ·vranni ab Romanis 1audaban·ur". (No ·vran·s used ·o be
praised bv ·he Romans.)
"Mu1·ae rosae pue11is ab poe·is dabun·ur". (Manv roses wi11 be
given ·o ·he gir1s bv ·he poe·s.)
Bu· when ·he agen· of a passive voice is no· anima·e, ·hen La·in
uses ·he Ab1a·ive of Means.
"Omnes his pericu1is ·erren·ur". (Evervone is frigh·ened bv
·hese dangers.)
"Mu1·ae urbes vi pecuniae capien·ur". (Manv ci·ies wi11 be
cap·ured bv ·he force of monev.)
Bu·
"Omnes a ma1is ·erren·ur". (Evervone is frigh·ened bv ·he evi1
[men|.)
"Mu1·ae urbes is·is ·vrannis capien·ur". (Manv ci·ies wi11 be
cap·ured bv ·hose ·vran·s.)
RASSIVE VOICE LIMITEÐ TO TRANSITIVE VERBS
There is one o·her idem vou'11 have ·o observe. As Whee1oc' ·e11s
vou, ·he passive cons·ruc·ion is on1v possib1e wi·h verbs which are
·ru1v ·ransi·ive: ·ha· is, which ·a'e direc· ob·ec·s. This ma'es
sense. When vou change ·he voice of a verb from ·he ac·ive ·o
passive, ·he origina1 direc· ob·ec· accusa·ive becomes ·he sub·ec·
nomina·ive. Since on1v ·ransi·ive verbs ·a'e direc· ob·ec·
accusa·ives, i· fo11ows ·ha· on1v verbs ·ha· are ·ransi·ive can
have a passive voice.
(a) "Romani nu11os ·vrannos 1audaban·".
(b) "Nu11i ·vranni ab Romanis 1audaban·ur".
(a) "Roe·ae mu1·as rosas pue11is dabun·".
(b) "Mu1·ae rosae pue11is ab poe·is dabun·ur".
ÐRILLS
Change ·he voice of ·he fo11owing sen·ences (ac·ive ·o passive or
passive ·o ac·ive):
1. I11i 1ibri nos adiuvabun·.
____________________________________________________________
2. Haec pericu1a vos ·erreban·.
____________________________________________________________
3. Hi 1ibri a discipu1is meis cum ce1eri·a·e 1egen·ur.
____________________________________________________________
4. Te in via videbo.
____________________________________________________________
5. Magna ira cives moven·.
____________________________________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
videor, -eri, visus sum
The passive voice of ·he verb "video" ·a'es
on a specia1 meaning; one ·ha· is no·
en·ire1v predic·ab1e simp1v bv 'nowing ·he
ru1es of ·rans1a·ing ·he La·in passive voice
in·o Eng1ish. To be sure, "videor" can mean
"I am seen", bu· more of·en i· comes ·o mean
"I seem" or "I appear" and is of·en fo11owed
bv an infini·ive: "videor 1egere" = "I seem
·o be reading". Eor vour fu·ure reference,
·he ·hird person impersona1 passive of
"video" -- "vide·ur" does no· equa1 our
popu1ar cons·ruc·ion "i· seems"; ra·her i·
means "i· seems righ·". La·in never savs "i·
seem ·ha· George is sic'"; i· savs "George
seems ·o be sic'".
01/08/93
CHARTER 19
"Rerfec· Rassive Svs·em of A11 Verbs;
In·erroga·ive Rronouns and Ad·ec·ives"
REREECT RASSIVE SYSTEM
We divide ·he La·in ·ense svs·em in·o ·wo ca·egories. (1) The
presen· svs·em, ac·ive and passive, uses ·he firs· principa1 par·
of ·he verb. I· inc1udes ·he presen·, fu·ure and imperfec·
·enses. No·ice, ·hese ·enses use ·he firs· principa1 par· for
bo·h ·he ac·ive and passive voices. The on1v difference be·ween
·he ac·ive and passive voices in ·he presen· svs·em is ·he
persona1 endings. You 1earned a11 abou· ·his in Chap·er 18. (2)
The perfec· svs·em ac·ive uses ·he ·hird principa1 par· of ·he
verb and a··aches differen· persona1 endings ·o ge· ·he ·hree
differen· ·enses of ·he perfec· svs·em. Wri·e ou· ·he endings:
Rerfec· R1uperfec· Eu·ure Rerfec·
1 __________ ___________ __________
2 __________ ___________ __________
3 __________ ___________ __________
1 __________ ___________ __________
2 __________ ___________ __________
3 __________ ___________ __________
No·ice, now, ·ha· ·he ·hird principa1 par· is ·he s·em for ·he
perfec· svs·em ac·ive on1v. To form ·he perfec· svs·em ·ense in
·he passive voice, La·in uses ·he four·h principa1 par· of ·he
verb. Since i· uses a differen· principa1 par·, ·he Rerfec·
Svs·em Rassive is considered ·o be a differen· ca·egorv of
·enses. So ·here are ·hree ·ense svs·ems in La·in:
(1) ·he Rresen· Svs·em Ac·ive and Rassive;
(2) ·he Rerfec· Svs·em Ac·ive;
(3) ·he Rerfec· Svs·em Rassive.
The ·enses of svs·ems (2) and (3) are ·he same -- Rerfec·,
R1uperfec· and Eu·ure Rerfec·; ·he on1v difference is in ·he
voice, and ·he principa1 par· of ·he verb on which ·hev're bui1·.
THE RASSIVE VOICE IN ENGLISH: THE RARTICIRLE ÐEEINEÐ
Eirs·, 1e·'s 1oo' a· how Eng1ish forms i·s passive voice again.
As we saw in Chap·er 18, Eng1ish uses ·he ·hird principa1 par· of
·he verb and uses an inf1ec·ed form of ·he verb "·o be" as ·he
auxi1iarv or he1ping verb. Tha· is ·o sav, ·he verb "·o be" wi11
indica·e ·he ·ense, ·he number, and ·he mood of ·he verb, whi1e
·he ·hird principa1 par· of ·he verb wi11 define ·he specific
ac·ion invo1ved. Eor examp1e, for ·he verb "·o see, saw, seen":
Be··v is seen bv George.
is being seen
wi11 be seen
wou1d be seen
shou1d be seen
was seen
was being seen
has been seen
had been seen
shou1d have been seen
wou1d have been seen
You can c1ear1v see ·ha· ·he cons·an· in a11 ·hese modifica·ions
is ·he verba1 form "seen". The verb "·o be" is doing a11 ·he
wor'. So 1e·'s 1oo' a· 1i··1e more c1ose1v a· ·he verba1 form
"seen".
The ·hird principa1 par· of ·he Eng1ish verb is ca11ed a
"par·icip1e". Now 1is·en c1ose1v; ·his is going ·o be an
impor·an· defini·ion: A par·icip1e is a "verba1 ad·ec·ive".
Tha· is, an ad·ec·ive which is derived from a verb. In fac·,
·ha·'s whv we ca11 i· a par·icip1e, because i· "par·icipa·es" in
·he essence of bo·h a verb and of an ad·ec·ive. So in ·he
cons·ruc·ions of ·he Eng1ish passive voice, ·he par·icip1e "seen"
is ac·ua11v "modifving" ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb "·o be". I can
sav "Be··v is ·a11" and "Be··v is seen", and ·hese ·wo sen·ences
are ana1ogous. In ·he predica·e of bo·h ·hese sen·ences ·he
sub·ec· fur·her modified, since i· is 1in'ed ·o an ad·ec·ive bv
·he verb "·o be".
I· mav seem bizarre ·o be ·hin'ing of a verba1 cons·ruc·ion
as being essen·ia11v ad·ec·iva1, bu· wa·ch how we can use
par·icip1es where ·heir ad·ec·iva1 force is qui·e obvious:
"·he wri··en ·ex·", "·he spo'en word", "·he
des·roved ci·v", "·he bewi1dered s·uden·s",
"·he be1eaguered professor", e·c.
THE LATIN REREECT RASSIVE RARTICIRLE
So where are we? Eng1ish forms ·he passive voice of a11 i·s
·enses bv using ·he par·icip1e of ·he verb which i· 1in's ·o ·he
sub·ec· wi·h a con·uga·ed form of ·he verb "·o be". Now vou
a1readv 'now ·ha· La·in forms ·he passive voice of some of i·s
·enses -- ·hose of ·he presen· svs·em -- simp1v bv using specia1
passive endings. The forma·ion of ·he passive voice of ·he
perfec· svs·em, however, doesn'· wor' ·ha· wav.
The La·in perfec· passive svs·em is perfec·1v ana1ogous ·o
·he forma·ion of ·he Eng1ish passive voice. The perfec· passive
svs·em in La·in uses ·he four·h principa1 par· of ·he verb, which
is ·hen 1in'ed ·o ·he sub·ec· wi·h an inf1ec·ed form of ·he verb
"sum". The four·h principa1 par· of a La·in verb is ca11ed ·he
"Rerfec· Rassive Rar·icip1e". Le·'s zero in on a11 ·he par·s of
·his descrip·ion.
(1) We ca11 i· "Rerfec·" because ·he ac·ion is considered
·o have been comp1e·ed. This is an impor·an·
difference wi·h ·he Eng1ish par·icip1e. In Eng1ish, we
migh· sav "Be··v is being seen", and ·he par·icip1e
doesn'· force us ·o unders·and ·ha· ·he ac·ion is
finished. In ·his examp1e, ·he ac·ion is c1ear1v s·i11
going on.
(2) We sav "Rassive" since wha·ever ·he par·icip1e is going
wi·h had some·hing done ·o i·, ra·her ·han being ·he
agen· of some ac·ion. Again, ·he Eng1ish par·icip1e
can be used in condi·ions where ·he passive force is
no· so obvious. In ·he sen·ence "I have seen Be··v",
·he par·icip1e "seen" doesn'· s·ri'e us as passive in
force, bu· ra·her as a par· of an ac·ive cons·ruc·ion.
(3) We sav "Rar·icip1e" because i· is a "verba1 ad·ec·ive",
and for La·in, ·his is going ·o have monumen·a1
imp1ica·ions. The par·icip1e is an ad·ec·ive, so i·
mus· agree in number, gender, and case wi·h ·he noun is
modifving. And if i· mus· agree wi·h nouns, ·hen ·he
par·icip1e mus· be ab1e ·o dec1ine ·o ge· ·he differen·
numbers, genders, and cases i· needs. (This is ·he
fea·ure of ·he Rerfec· Svs·em Rassive which causes
s·uden·s ·he mos· ·roub1e. I·'s difficu1· for ·hem ·o
rea1ize ·ha· ·he passive voice in ·he perfec· svs·em is
essen·ia11v ad·ec·iva1: ·he verb "sum" 1in'ing ·he
sub·ec· of ·he verb wi·h a predica·e ad·ec·ive.)
Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he four·h principa1 par· of a verb. As vou
'now, ·he dic·ionarv mus· give vou a11 ·he principa1 par·s of ·he
verb vou're considering.
(1) The firs· en·rv is ·he firs· person singu1ar of ·he
presen· ·ense.
(2) The second is ·he presen· infini·ive, from which vou
drop ·he "-re" ·o ge· ·he presen· svs·em s·em.
(3) The ·hird is ·he firs· person singu1ar of ·he perfec·
·ense, from which vou ge· ·he perfec· ac·ive s·em bv
dropping ·he "-i".
(4) The four·h en·rv is ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e,
which is used wi·h ·he auxi1iarv verb "sum" in ·he
forma·ion of ·he perfec· svs·em passive.
We've said ·ha· ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e is a verba1
ad·ec·ive, so i· mus· be ab1e ·o dec1ine, ·us· 1i'e ad·ec·ives,
in order ·o agree wi·h ·he nouns ·hev're modifving.
The perfec· passive par·icip1es of a11 verbs dec1ines ·us·
1i'e ·he firs· ad·ec·ives vou 1earned: ·us· 1i'e "magnus, -a,
-um". Tha· is, i· uses endings of ·he firs· dec1ension ·o modifv
feminine nouns, endings of ·he second dec1ension "-us" ·vpe ·o
modifv mascu1ine nouns, and endings of ·he second dec1ension
"-um" ·vpe ·o modifv neu·er nouns. The dic·ionaries ·e11 vou
·his in a number of differen· wavs; bu· ·hev're a11 ·e11ing vou
·he same ·hing. Some wri·e ou· ·he who1e "-us, -a, -um"; o·hers
abbrevia·e i· bv using on1v ·he neu·er "-um" or ·he mascu1ine
"-us". So vou mav see ·he en·rv for ·he four·h principa1 par· of
"1audo", for examp1e, given in ·hese ·hree differen· wavs:
(1) 1auda·us, -a, -um
(2) 1auda·um
(3) 1auda·us
REREECT TENSE RASSIVE
So 1e·'s pu· ·his par·icip1e ·o wor'. How wou1d vou ·rans1a·e
·his in La·in: "I was praised". We11, ·he ·ense is obvious1v
perfec· -- ·ha· is, ·he ac·ion was comp1e·ed before i· was
repor·ed -- so we mus· use ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e:
"1auda·us, -a, -um". The person is firs· and ·he number is
singu1ar. Le·'s assume ·ha· ·he "I" is ma1e. Wha· case is "I"?
Obvious1v nomina·ive -- i·'s ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb -- so ·he
form of ·he par·icip1e wi11 be "1auda·us" -- mascu1ine,
nomina·ive singu1ar. Go· ·ha·? The par·icip1e is going ·o agree
wi·h ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb. The sub·ec· of ·he verb is
nomina·ive, so ·he par·icip1e mus· be nomina·ive, ·oo. Now wha·
form of ·he verb "sum" shou1d we use. Of course, we'11 use ·he
firs· person singu1ar, bu· wha· ·ense?
Ðid vou guess "eram" -- "I was"? If vou did, ·ha·'s one
demeri·. Loo', ·he four·h principa1 par· is ·he "perfec· passive
par·icip1e" and ·he "perfec·" ·e11s vou ·ha· ·he ac·ion is
considered ·o have been a1readv comp1e·ed. Tha· is, in ·he
par·icip1e i·se1f is ·he no·ion of a pas· even·, so "1auda·us"
cou1d be ·rans1a·ed as "having been praised". Therefore vou
needn'· repea· ·he idea of pas· comp1e·ion in ·he auxi1iarv verb
"·o be". So ·he correc· form of ·he auxi1iarv is ·he presen·
·ense: "sum". Thin' of i· ·his wav, and I admi· ·his mav seem
c1umsv: "Lauda·us sum" means "I am now in ·he condi·ion of
having been praised". We can bring ·his over in·o Eng1ish as
ei·her "I was praised" or "I have been praised". So ·o form ·he
perfec· ·ense passive in La·in, vou use ·he perfec· passive
par·icip1e + ·he verb "sum" as ·he auxi1iarv in ·he presen·
·ense.
Now 1e·'s suppose ·ha· ·he sub·ec· "I" is feminine. Wha·
changes wou1d ·his necessi·a·e? We11, ·he par·icip1e is a verba1
ad·ec·ive, so i· mus· agree in number, gender and case wi·h
wha·ever i·'s modifving. If ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb is feminine,
·hen ·he par·icip1e has ·o be feminine, nomina·ive, singu1ar ·o
agree wi·h i·. So ·he par·icip1e wi11 have be "1auda·a".
Therefore, if a woman is spea'ing, shou1d wou1d sav "Lauda·a sum"
for "I was praised".
RLUREREECT TENSE RASSIVE
So how do vou imagine La·in forms ·he passive of ·he p1uperfec·
·ense? Thin'. You're s·i11 going ·o use ·he perfec· passive
par·icip1e 1in'ed ·o ·he sub·ec· wi·h a con·uga·ed form of ·he
verb "sum". A11 perfec· svs·em passive ·enses do ·ha·. Bu·
·ense wi11 ·he verb "sum" be in? Righ·! Now vou use ·he
auxi1iarv verb "sum" in ·he imperfec· ·ense. Wha· vou're doing
is adding an addi·iona1 pas· idea in auxi1iarv ·o ·he pas· idea
a1readv imp1ici· in ·he par·icip1e. Therefore "Lauda·us eram"
means "I was in ·he condi·ion of having been praised" or "I had
been praised". And if ·he sub·ec· were feminine: "Lauda·a eram".
EUTURE REREECT TENSE RASSIVE
And ·he fu·ure perfec· ·ense? Yes. You use ·he fu·ure of ·he
verb "sum", ·hus a··aching a fu·ure idea ·o ·he pas· idea in ·he
par·icip1e, and ·ha·'s ·he defini·ion of ·he fu·ure perfec·
·ense. "Lauda·us ero" ·herefore means "I wi11 be in ·he
condi·ion of having been praised", which comes ou· "I wi11 have
been praised". And if ·he sub·ec· were feminine "Lauda·a ero".
REREECT SYSTEM RASSIVE SUMMARIZEÐ
So 1e·'s 1oo' a· a11 ·his. Con·uga·e in fu11 ·he ·hree ·enses of
·he perfec· svs·em passive, using ·he verb "1audo". (Carrv a11
·he possib1e genders and chec' vour wor' agains· 1is· 1is·s on
page 88.)
RARTICIRLE REREECT RLUREREECT EUTURE
REREECT
1auda·us, -a, -um sum eram ero
_________________ __________ __________ __________
_________________ __________ __________ __________
1auda·i, -ae, -a __________ __________ __________
_________________ __________ __________ __________
_________________ __________ __________ __________
THE EOURTH RRINCIRAL RART OE VERBS
In Chap·er 12, vou rea1ized ·ha· vou were going ·o have ·o
memorize ·he ·hird principa1 par· of a11 vour verbs if vou wan·ed
·o be ab1e ·o wor' wi·h ·hem in a11 ·heir ·ense svs·ems.
Simi1ar1v, now vou mus· go bac' and memorize ·he four·h principa1
par·s of vour verbs if vou wan· ·o wor' wi·h ·hem in ·he perfec·
svs·em passive. As wi·h ·he ·hird principa1 par·s, ·he forma·ion
of ·he four·h wi11 fo11ow some regu1ar pa··erns, so ·he ·as' of
memoriza·ion wi11 no· be as ·edious as i· a· firs· migh· seem.
EIRST CONJUGATION VERBS
The vas· ma·ori·v of firs· con·uga·ion verbs, as vou 'now, are
regu1ar. This means ·ha· i·s principa1 par·s are formed
regu1ar1v using ·he firs· principa1 par· as ·he s·em. The ·hird
principa1 par·, as vou reca11, is ·us· ·he firs· principa1 par· +
"vi". The four·h principa1 par· a1so is a regu1ar deriva·ion
from ·he firs· principa1 par·: i·'s ·he firs· principa1 par· +
"·" p1us ·he ad·ec·iva1 endings "-us, -a, -um". So for "1audo",
·he four·h principa1 par· is "1auda·us, -a, -um" (1auda + · + us,
-a, -um) which is of·en abbrevia·ed ·us· as "1auda·us" or
"1auda·um". Here are a11 ·he firs· con·uga·ion verbs vou've had
up ·o ·his chap·er. Ei11 ou· ·he principa1 par·s, and doub1e
chec' vour wor'. You can use ·hese 1is·s ·o review from.
II III IV
amo _______________ _______________ _______________
cogi·o _______________ _______________ _______________
conservo _______________ _______________ _______________
do _______________ _______________ da·us
erro _______________ _______________ _______________
exspec·o _______________ _______________ _______________
iuvo _______________ _______________ _______________
1audo _______________ _______________ _______________
1ibero _______________ _______________ _______________
mu·o _______________ _______________ _______________
paro _______________ _______________ _______________
servo _______________ _______________ _______________
supero _______________ _______________ _______________
·o1ero _______________ _______________ _______________
voco _______________ _______________ _______________
(The ·wo excep·ions ·o ·his regu1ari·v of ·he firs· con·uga·ion
verbs is "do, dare, dedi, da·us", and "[ad|iuvo, -iuvare, -iuvi,
-iu·us". If vou 1oo' c1ose1v, however, vou'11 see ·ha· "do" isn'·
rea11v a firs· con·uga·ion verb, since ·he s·em vowe1 "-a-" is
no· 1ong.)
SECONÐ CONJUGATION VERBS
A1·hough second con·uga·ion verbs are s1igh·1v 1ess regu1ar ·han
firs· con·uga·ion verbs, ·hev do ·end ·o fo11ow a pa··ern in
·heir forma·ion of ·he second, ·hird, and four·h principa1 par·s.
Bu· because ·here are occasiona1 irregu1ari·ies in ·hird second
con·uga·ion verbs, ·he dic·ionarv wi11 1is· a11 four principa1
par·s of a second con·uga·ion verb. Of·en ·he ·hird principa1
par· of a ·hird con·uga·ion verb is ·he firs· principa1 par· +
vi", which ·hem becomes simp1ified from "-evi" ·o ·us· "-ui".
The four·h principa1 par· verv of·en ends "-i·us, -a, -um". So
for ·he paradigm verb "moneo", ·he principa1 par·s are "moneo,
monere, monui, moni·us". Again, here is ·he comp1e·e 1is· of ·he
second con·uga·ion verbs vou've had ·i11 now. I've 1ef· ·he
principa1 par·s of ·he regu1ar verbs b1an' for vou ·o fi11 in on
vour own. When a verb 1ac' one of ·he principa1 par·s, I've 1ef·
no b1an'. Some verbs have unusua1 principa1 par·s, which wou1d
invo1ve some exp1ana·ion. Where verbs have principa1 par·s which
are ou·side our in·eres· here, I've inser·ed dashes. Eor now,
·hev don'· exis· and ·us· memorize ·he principa1 par·s ·he verbs
do have.
audeo _______________ --------------- ---------------
debeo _______________ _______________ _______________
de1eo _______________ de1evi de1e·us
doceo _______________ _______________ doc·us
habeo _______________ _______________ _______________
moneo _______________ _______________ _______________
moveo _______________ movi mo·us
remaneo _______________ remansi remansus
·eneo _______________ _______________ ·en·us
·erreo _______________ _______________ _______________
·imeo _______________ _______________ ---------------
va1eo _______________ _______________ ---------------
video _______________ vidi visus
THIRÐ CONJUGATION VERBS
The ·hird con·uga·ion (-i- s·em and non -i- s·em) disp1avs
severa1 differen· wavs of forming ·hird and four·h principa1
par·s. Each verb is bes· ·rea·ed individua11v as if ·hev were
irregu1ar, bu· cer·ain pa··ers are obvious. Addi·iona11v, a
grea· manv of our Eng1ish deriva·ions come from ·he four·h
principa1 par· of ·he origina1 La·in verb. If vou 'eep ·his in
mind as vou ·rv ·o memorize ·hese forms, vou'11 find ·hev'11
s·ic' more readi1v.
ago _______________ _______________ ac·us
capio _______________ _______________ cap·us
coepi coep·us
commi··o _______________ _______________ commissus
curro _______________ _______________ cursus
dico _______________ _______________ dic·us
duco _______________ _______________ duc·us
di1igo _______________ _______________ di1ec·us
eicio _______________ _______________ eiec·us
facio _______________ _______________ fac·us
fugio _______________ _______________ -------
gero _______________ _______________ ges·us
iacio _______________ _______________ iac·us
incipio _______________ _______________ incep·us
in·e11ego _______________ _______________ -·e11ec·us
iungo _______________ _______________ iunc·us
1ego _______________ _______________ 1ec·us
mi··o _______________ _______________ missus
neg1ego _______________ _______________ neg1ec·us
scribo _______________ _______________ scrip·us
·raho _______________ _______________ ·rac·us
vinco _______________ _______________ vic·us
vivo _______________ _______________ vic·us
EOURTH CONJUGATION VERBS
The four·h con·uga·ion some·imes forms ·hird and four·h principa1
par·s regu1ar1v bv adding "-vi" ·o ·he presen· s·em for ·he ·hird
and bv adding "-·us, -a, -um" for ·he four·h. Bu· ·here are so
manv irregu1ari·ies ·ha· four·h con·uga·ion verbs are 1is·ed wi·h
a11 four principa1 par·s. Here's vour 1is· of a11 ·he four
con·uga·ion verbs vou've had up ·o Chap·er 19.
audio _______________ _______________ audi·us
invenio _______________ _______________ inven·us
sen·io _______________ _______________ sensus
venio _______________ _______________ ven·us
THE INTERROGATIVE RRONOUN
Ðo vou remember how La·in as's a ques·ion? You've 1earned ·ha·
enc1i·ic "-ne" is a··ached ·o ·he end of ·he firs· word of ·he
sen·ence ·o indica·e a ques·ion. La·in mus· do ·his because ·he
word order is so f1exib1e ·ha· no rearrangemen· of ·he words wi11
indica·e necessari1v ·ha· a ques·ion is coming up. In Eng1ish,
we as' a simp1e ques·ion bv inver·ing ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb
wi·h an auxi1iarv. The s·a·emen· "You are wa1'ing ·he dog"
becomes a ques·ion 1i'e ·his: "Are vou wa1'ing ·he dog?" Bu·
La·in doesn'· have a11 ·hese handv auxi1iarv verbs, and besides,
since La·in doesn'· re1v on word order much ·o ·e11 vou ·he
svn·ax of ·he words in ·he sen·ence, inver·ing words won'· he1p.
So La·in uses ·he enc1i·ic, and ·he word ·he enc1i·ic is
a··ached ·o is ·he focus of ·he ques·ion. Eor examp1e, in ·he
ques·ion "Lauda·isne fi1ios huius viri?" ·he poin· of inquirv is
whe·her vou are performing ·he ac·ion of praising. Bu· if we
begin ·he sen·ence wi·h "·he sons" -- "Ei1iosne huius viri
1auda·is?" ·hen ·he focus of ·he ques·ion changes: "Are vou
praising ·his man's sons? We can accomp1ish ·his effec· in
Eng1ish bv inf1ec·ing our voice when we reach ·he word ·ha· is
·he poin· of ·he ques·ion. Now 1oo' more c1ose1v a· each of
·hese ques·ions. Even ·hough each has a differen· emphasis, a11
·he ques·ions are essen·ia11v as'ing one ·hing: "If I shou1d ·urn
·his ques·ion in·o a s·a·emen·, wou1d i· be ·rue?" Tha· is, ·he
ques·ion is abou· ·he va1idi·v of ·he predica·ion.
The ques·ion "Are vou praising ·his man's sons" is as'ing
whe·her i· is ·rue ·o sav "You are praising ·his man's sons". We
ca11 ·his 'ind of ques·ion a simp1e ques·ion; i· as' for no
informa·ion ·ha· is no· con·ained in i·s s·ruc·ure. Now 1oo' a·
·hese ques·ions:
(1) "Whv are vou praising ·his man's sons"?
(2) "When are vou praising ·his man's sons"?
(3) "How are vou praising ·his man's sons"?
Here i· is ·a'en for gran·ed ·ha· ·he predica·ion is ·rue -- vou
are praising ·his man's sons -- and ·he ques·ions being as'ed are
no· whe·her vou're praising ·he sons, bu· whv, when, or how?
These ques·ions are ca11ing for informa·ion ·ha· is no· con·ained
wi·hin ·he svn·ax of ·he ques·ion; ·hev are as'ing for specific
'inds of addi·iona1 informa·ion. And ·he 'ind of informa·ion
·hev're as'ing for is indica·ed in ·he words "whv, when, and
how". We ca11 words which as' for specific 'inds of informa·ion
"in·erroga·ives". Some more ques·ions wi·h ano·her 'ind of
in·erroga·ive:
(1) "Who's ·here?"
(2) "Wha·'s ·ha·?"
(3) "Whose mess is ·his?"
(4) "Whom are vou accusing?"
(5) "Wha· are vou ·rving ·o sav?"
In ·hese ques·ions, ·he predica·ion is ·a'en as ·rue: (1) someone
is ·here; (2) ·ha· is some·hing; (3) ·he mess does be1ong ·o
someone; (4) vou are accusing someone; (5) vou are ·rving ·o sav
some·hing. The informa·ion ·he ques·ions are as'ing for,
however, is ·emporari1v rep1aced wi·h ano·her word, and ·he hope
is ·ha· soon ·he informa·ion wi11 be p1ugged in·o ·he spo· where
i·s rep1acemen· now s·ands. Wha· do we ca11 a word which ·a'es
·he p1ace of ano·her word or idea? Righ·! We ca11 ·hem
pronouns, so ·hese words are in·erroga·ive (because ·hev're
as'ing ques·ions) and pronouns (because ·hev're rep1acing o·her
nouns or ideas): "in·erroga·ive pronouns".
The Eng1ish in·erroga·ive pronouns, as vou can see in ·he
examp1es above, have differen· cases and even genders. The
gender is de·ermined bv wha· is be fi11ed in for, bu· ·he case is
de·ermined bv ·he wav ·he pronoun is being used in ·he ques·ion.
MASCULINE ANÐ EEMININE INANIMATE
Nom. who wha·
Gen. whose whose
Acc. whom wha·
Ðo vou see anv simi1ari·v be·ween ·he in·erroga·ive pronouns and
·he re1a·ive pronouns? Of course vou do. "Who, whose, and whom"
are a11 forms ·ha· can a1so be used as re1a·ive pronouns. On1v
·he in·erroga·ive pronoun "wha·" has no use as an re1a·ive
pronoun.
The La·in in·erroga·ive pronoun a1so resemb1es ·he La·in
re1a·ive pronoun. In ·he p1ura1, ·he forms of ·he in·erroga·ive
pronoun are iden·ica1 ·o ·hose of ·he re1a·ive pronoun. In ·he
singu1ar manv of ·he forms of ·he in·erroga·ive pronouns over1ap
wi·h ·hose of ·he re1a·ive pronouns, bu· ·here are some
differences:
(1) Eor one, ·he forms for ·he mascu1ine and feminine are
·he same. Consequen·1v, ·here are on1v ·wo forms for
·he nomina·ive singu1ar: one for ·he mascu1ine and
feminine genders, and one for ·he neu·er. Simi1ar1v,
·here are on1v ·wo forms for ·he geni·ive singu1ar --
one mascu1ine and feminine, and one neu·er. And so on
for a11 ·he cases in ·he singu1ar. On1v ·wo forms.
(2) Nex·, ·wo of ·he forms are ·us· p1ain differen· from
·hose of ·he re1a·ive pronoun. (a) Eor ·he mascu1ine
and feminine nomina·ive singu1ar, ·he form is "quis",
no· "qui" or "quae" as vou migh· expec·. (b) You migh·
expec· "quod" for neu·er nomina·ive and accusa·ive
singu1ar, bu· ·he form is "quid". (c) Eor ·he
remaining cases of ·he mascu1ine/feminine forms, ·he
in·erroga·ive pronoun uses ·he mascu1ine forms of ·he
re1a·ive pronoun.
Loo' ·his descrip·ion c1ose1v over and ·rv ·o wri·e ou· ·he La·in
in·erroga·ive pronoun (see Whee1oc', page 89).
MASCULINE ANÐ EEMININE NEUTER
Nom. _______________
_______________
Gen. _______________
_______________
Ða·. _______________
_______________
Acc. _______________
_______________
Ab1. _______________
_______________
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
Nom. _______________ _______________
_______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
_______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
_______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
_______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
_______________
Le·'s 1oo' a· some examp1es of how ·he in·erroga·ive pronoun
wor's in La·in. You'11 ·ha· i· has some surprising proper·ies,
which ·he Eng1ish in·erroga·ive pronoun "who, wha·", e·c.
doesn'· have. "Quis 1ibrum ·ibi dedi·?" ("Who gave vou ·he
boo'?") You can ·e11 ·his sen·ence is a ques·ion, obvious1v,
because i· is in·roduced wi·h ·he in·erroga·ive pronoun and
because i· ends wi·h a ques·ion mar'. Bu· ·he Eng1ish
·rans1a·ion isn'· as precise as ·he La·in. Whv no·? Loo' a·
"quis". I·'s nomina·ive because i· is used as ·he sub·ec· of ·he
verb. Bu· wha· abou· i·s number and gender? I·'s
mascu1ine/feminine in gender and singu1ar in number.
Tha· means ·ha· ·he ques·ion was formed in such a wav as ·o
imp1v ·ha· ·here was on1v one person who gave vou ·he boo'. Now
1oo' a· ·he Eng1ish "who". Can vou ·e11 whe·her ·he person
as'ing ·he ques·ion expec·s ·here ·o be on1v one person who gave
vou ·he boo'? No, vou can'·. So, in La·in, ·he ques·ioner
revea1s more abou· ·he 'ind of answer expec·ed because ·he
pronoun revea1s more abou· ·he possib1e an·eceden·. How wou1d we
·rans1a·e ·hese in·o Eng1ish:
(a) "Qui 1ibrum ·ibi dederun·?"
(b) "Quae 1ibrum ·ibi dederun·?"
We'd have ·o ·rans1a·e ·hem bo·h as "Who gave vou ·he boo'?", bu·
1oo' more c1ose1v a· ·he La·in. In (a), ·he ques·ion imp1ies
·ha· more ·han one person gave vou ·he boo' and ·ha· ·hev are
ei·her a11 ma1e or mixed ma1e and fema1e. In (b), ·hose who gave
vou ·he boo' are imp1ied ·o be p1ura1 and a11 feminine. Loo' a·
ano·her examp1e. A11 of ·hese La·in ques·ion can be ·rans1a·ed
in·o Eng1ish as "Whose boo' did Cicero give vou?":
"Cuius 1ibrum Cicero ·ibi dedi·?"
"Quorum 1ibrum Cicero ·ibi dedi·?"
"Quarum 1ibrum Cicero ·ibi dedi·?"
The in·erroga·ive pronoun in each of ·hese ques·ion is in ·he
geni·ive case because ·he poin· of ·he ques·ion is ·o 1earn more
abou· ·he owner(s) of ·he boo'. Bu· each ques·ion sugges·s an
differen· 'ind of answer. Can vou spo· ·he differen·
expec·a·ions?
INTERROGATIVE AÐJECTIVE
O'av, vou 'now ·ha· ·he in·erroga·ive pronoun is a word which
·a'es ·he p1ace of ano·her noun or idea abou· which cer·ain
informa·ion is being sough·. Because i· as's a ques·ion we ca11
i· "in·erroga·ive"; because i· s·ands in for some·hing e1se, we
ca11 i· a "pronoun": "in·erroga·ive pronoun".
So wha· is an "in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ive". S·ar· from ·he
beginning. "In·erroga·ive" means ·ha· i· wi11 be as'ing a
ques·ion. "Ad·ec·ive" means ·ha· i· wi11 be modifving a noun in
·he sen·ence and ·o modifv a noun an ad·ec·ive mus· agree wi·h i·
in number, gender, and case. Ru··ing ·hese ·wo par·s ·oge·her,
we come up wi·h ·his: an "in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ive" is a word
which modifies an noun in a wav ·ha· as's more informa·ion abou·
i·. How does ·his wor'? Loo' a· ·hese Eng1ish ques·ions:
(a) "Wha· chi1d is ·his?"
(b) "Which wav did he go?"
(c) "Eor wha· reason are we doing ·his?"
In each of ·hese ques·ions, more informa·ion is being reques·ed
abou· some·hing which is a1readv expressed in ·he ques·ion. Li'e
·his. Wha·'s ·he difference be·ween "Wha· is ·his"? and "Wha·
chi1d is ·his"? In (a), ·he answer sough· is no· res·ric·ed ·o
anv·hing specified in ·he sen·ence i·se1f. Bu· in ·he second,
·he po·en·ia1 responder is direc·ed ·o 1imi· his rep1v ·o
some·hing in par·icu1ar; name1v, "·he chi1d". The same is ·rue
wi·h (b) and (c). (B) is no· as'ing whe·her he's gone, bu· which
wav he wen·; (c) is no· as'ing wha· we're doing, bu· for wha·
reason. So Eng1ish uses ·he ad·ec·ive "which or wha·" ·o as' for
informa·ion specific ·o some·hing a1readv expressed in ·he
sen·ence.
La·in a1so has in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ives for ·his purpose,
bu· because La·in is a fu11v inf1ec·ed 1anguage, ·he
in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ive has manv more forms ·han i·s Eng1ish
ana1ogue. Af·er a11, ·he La·in in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ive is going
·o have ·o agree wi·h mascu1ine, feminine, or neu·er nouns in anv
one of ·he ·en cases and numbers. You'11 be p1eased ·o 'now,
however, ·ha· vou're no· going ·o have ·o 1earn anv·hing new,
because ·he La·in in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ive uses ·he forms of i·s
re1a·ive pronoun. Go ahead and wri·e ou· ·he forms of ·he
in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ive ·o refresh vour memorv. (Remember, i·'s
exac·1v ·he same as ·he re1a·ive pronoun).
INTERROGATIVE AÐJECTIVE
MASCULINE EEMININE NEUTER
Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________ _______________
Because ·he in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ive is an ad·ec·ive, i·s form is
de·ermined en·ire1v bv ·he noun wi·h which i· is agreeing in ·he
sen·ence. Li'e ·his:
"Quem 1ibrum 1egeba·is?" (Wha· (or which) boo' were
vou reading?)
The in·erroga·ive ad·ec·ive "quem" is singu1ar, accusa·ive,
mascu1ine because ·he noun abou· which ·he ques·ion is see'ing
more informa·ion is singu1ar, accusa·ive, and mascu1ine. S·udv
·hese examp1es:
(a) "Quibus feminis 1ibros i11os dedis·is?" (To which women
did vou give ·hose boo's?)
(b) "A quo viro admoni·i sun·?" (Bv which (or wha·) man
were ·hev warned?)
(c) "A quibus viris admoni·i sun·?" (Bv which (or wha·)
men were ·hev warned?)
(d) "A qua femina admoni·i sun·?" (Bv which woman were
·hev warned?)
ÐRILLS
Trans1a·e ·he fo11owing shor· sen·ences.
1. Cui 1ibros dederun·?
__________________________________________________
2. Qui ei 1ibros dederun·?
__________________________________________________
3. A quo 1ibri da·i sun·?
__________________________________________________
4. A quibus hi 1ibri 1ec·i eran·?
__________________________________________________
5. A quibus discipu1is hi 1ibri 1ec·i sun·?
__________________________________________________
6. Quis ab omnibus civibus ama·us es·?
__________________________________________________
7. Cuius civi·a·is i11e homo era·?
__________________________________________________
8. E qua urbe is·e ·vrannus veni·?
__________________________________________________
9. E quorum urbe is·e ·vrannus veni·?
__________________________________________________
10. Qui vir ab omnibus civibus ama·us es·?
__________________________________________________
11. Who came from ·ha· ci·v?
__________________________________________________
12. Which boo's did vou read?
__________________________________________________
13. To whom were ·hese boo's given?
__________________________________________________
14. Which s·uden·s read ·hese boo's?
__________________________________________________
15. Which ci·izens 1oved ·his man?
__________________________________________________
16. Whose ci·v was 1oved bv ·ha· ·vran·?
__________________________________________________
17. Bv whom were ·hose boo's given ·o ·he s·uden·s?
__________________________________________________
18. Bv whom was ·his ci·v 1oved?
__________________________________________________
19. To which women was ·he boo' given?
__________________________________________________
20. To which woman was ·he boo' given?
__________________________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
senex, senis This word is much more bizarre ·han Whee1oc'
1e·s on. You'11 see i· main1v as a noun,
meaning "o1d man" or "o1d woman". Ðon'·
expec· ·o see i· modifving a neu·er noun.
I·'11 a1wavs be mascu1ine or feminine.
Because i·'s rea11v a ·hird dec1ension
ad·ec·ive, i·'11 dec1ine 1i'e:
senex senes
senis senium
seni senibus
senem senes
seni senibus
novus, -a, -um Li'e mos· ancien· civi1iza·ions, ancien· Rome
didn'· care much for change. So a wav of
as'ing "Wha·'s wrong"? was "Quid novum es·"?
01/08/20
CHARTER 20
"Eour·h Ðec1ension;
Ab1a·ives of R1ace from Which and Separa·ion"
EOURTH ÐECLENSION NOUNS
Le·'s review a momen·. You 'now ·ha· a noun wi11 be1ong ·o one
dec1ension and one dec1ension on1v; and vou 'now ·ha· a dec1ension
is a pa··ern of case endings. There are five dec1ensions in La·in,
and in each of ·hem some case endings resemb1e ·hose ·he o·her
dec1ensions. You 'now, ·he "-m" is a1mos· a1wavs ·he ending of ·he
accusa·ive singu1ar; "-s" is a1mos· a1wavs ·he ending of ·he
accusa·ive p1ura1; e·c. So wha· ma'es ·hese dec1ensions ·ru1v
differen· from each o·her? The ·ru1v dis·inc·ive charac·eris·ic of
·hese dec1ensions is ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 (·ha· is, ·he vowe1 which
regu1ar1v appears in ·he case endings):
(1) The ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he firs· dec1ension is "-a-".
(2) The ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he second dec1ension is "-o-" (·he
"-u-" in ·he dec1ension was rea11v an "-o-" which has
been changed).
(3) The ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he ·hird dec1ension is shor· "-e-"
(which of·en changes ·o a shor· "-i-").
And now ·he four·h and fif·h dec1ensions:
(4) The ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he four·h dec1ension is "-u-".
(5) The ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he fif·h dec1ension is "-e-".
(We'11 1oo' a· fif·h dec1ension nouns 1a·er.)
So, how can vou ·e11 ·o which dec1ension a noun be1ongs? The
dic·ionarv mus· give vou ·ha· informa·ion. Bu· ins·ead of 1is·ing
a number nex· ·o ·he noun, ·he dic·ionarv does some·hing e1se. The
dic·ionarv ac·ua11v s·ar·s ·o dec1ine ·he noun for vou. The firs·
en·rv in ·he dic·ionarv is ·he nomina·ive singu1ar, fo11owed bv ·he
geni·ive singu1ar, which is ·hen fo11owed bv ·he gender. You
deduce ·he dec1ension bv 1oo'ing a· ·he geni·ive singu1ar ending,
which means vou mus· 'now ·he forms of ·he geni·ive singu1ars for
a11 ·he dec1ensions:
(1) An "-ae" geni·ive ending means ·he noun dec1ines in ·he
firs· dec1ension, because "-ae" is ·he geni·ive singu1ar
ending of ·he firs· dec1ension.
(2) An "-i" geni·ive ending means ·he noun is second
dec1ension.
(3) An "-is" geni·ive ending means ·he noun is ·hird
dec1ension.
So now 1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he four·h dec1ension. Li'e ·he ·hird
dec1ension, ·he four·h dec1ension can have nouns of a11 ·hree
genders be1onging ·o i·: ·he mascu1ine and feminine nouns wi11
fo11ow one pa··ern of endings; ·he neu·er nouns wi11 fo11ow
ano·her. (Now i· happens ·ha· ·he vas· ma·ori·v of four·h
dec1ension nouns are mascu1ine and ·ha· ·here are hard1v anv
feminine nouns; bu· vou shou1d 'eep vour guard up anvwav.) So here
are ·he differen· case endings:
MASCULINE ANÐ EEMININE NEUTER
Nom. -us -u
Gen. -us -us
Ða·. -ui -u
Acc. -um -u
Ab1. -u -u
Nom. -us -ua
Gen. -uum -uum
Ða·. -ibus -ibus
Acc. -us -ua
Ab1. -ibus -ibus
Le·'s ·a'e a c1oser 1oo' a· ·hese endings. Eirs· ·he
mascu1ine and feminine endings:
(1) The nomina·ive singu1ar is shor· "-us", so ·his ending
1oo's exac·1v 1i'e ·he "-us" ·vpe second dec1ension
ending for ·he nomina·ive singu1ar. So, 1oo'ing a· ·he
dic·ionarv en·rv for ·he nomina·ive singu1ar of a four·h
dec1ension mascu1ine or feminine noun, vou migh· be 1ured
in·o ·hin'ing ·ha· i·'s of ·he second dec1ension. To see
·he difference vou mus· go ·o ·he nex· en·rv -- ·he
geni·ive singu1ar.
(2) The geni·ive singu1ar is 1ong "-us", so ·he dic·ionarv
en·rv for a four·h dec1ension noun wi11 1oo' 1i'e ·his:
'x'us, -us (m./f.), where 'x' is ·he s·em of ·he noun.
(3) The da·ive singu1ar ending is ·he "-i" vou've seen in ·he
·hird dec1ension and on ·he pronouns, which is a··ached
·o ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 "-u-".
(4) The accusa·ive singu1ar ending is en·ire1v predic·ab1e:
i·'s ·us· ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 wi·h ·he ending "-m"
a··ached. This is ·he wav a11 accusa·ive singu1ars of
mascu1ine and feminine nouns are formed.
(5) Equa11v predic·ab1e is ·he ab1a·ive singu1ar: i·'s ·us·
·he ·hema·ic vowe1.
(6) The nomina·ive p1ura1 wor's on ·he ana1ogv of ·he ·hird
dec1ension: ·he 1ong ·hema·ic vowe1 p1us ·he ending "-s".
(7) The geni·ive p1ura1 is odd-1oo'ing -- "-uum" -- bu· i·'s
made up of ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 p1us ·he geni·ive p1ura1
ending "-um" vou're a1readv fami1iar wi·h from ·he ·hird
dec1ension.
(8) The da·ive and ab1a·ive p1ura1s "-ibus" 1oo' 1i'e ·he
·hird dec1ension endings; no·ice a1so ·ha· ·he ·hema·ic
vowe1 "-u"- has been rep1aced. I·'s "-ibus", no·
"-ubus". S·range.
(9) The accusa·ive p1ura1 is ·he same as ·he nomina·ive
p1ura1. You've seen ·his phenomenon before in ·he ·hird
dec1ension.
Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he neu·er side of ·he four·h dec1ension.
Whee1oc' ·e11s vou correc·1v ·ha· ·hese are rare. And we're 1uc'v
·hev are, because ·hev're somewha· odd.
(1) The nomina·ive singu1ar ends in ·us· a 1ong "-u". Odd.
(2) According ·o ·he 1aws of neu·ers, ·herefore, ·he
accusa·ive singu1ar wi11 a1so end in 1ong "-u".
(3) You wou1d expec· ·he da·ive singu1ar ·o have a
predic·ab1e ending, bu· 1oo' a· i·: ·he ending is 1ong
"-u". Ta'e a 1oo' a· ·he endings in ·he singu1ar, now.
Eour of ·he cases in ·he singu1ar have ·he same ending --
1ong "-u" -- which means vou mav have a devi1 of a ·ime
deciding which case a noun is in when i· ends in 1ong
"-u". Con·ex· has ·o he1p vou.
(4) No·hing irregu1ar happens in ·he p1ura1 -- if vou
remember ·ha· proposi·ion ·wo of ·he 1aw of neu·ers ·e11s
vou ·ha· a11 neu·er nomina·ive and accusa·ive p1ura1s end
in shor· "-a".
One more ·hing abou· ·he four·h dec1ension which migh· in·eres· vou
is ·ha· ·here are no four·h dec1ension ad·ec·ives. You reca11 ·ha·
·he firs·, second and ·hird dec1ensions are pa··erns of endings
which nouns and ad·ec·ives can use. The four·h dec1ension con·ains
on1v nouns.
A 1is· for a four·h dec1ension noun in ·he dic·ionarv wi11
1oo' 1i'e ·his:
me·us, -us (m)
fruc·us, -us (m)
manus, -us (f)
cornu, -us (n)
versus, -us (m)
The firs· en·rv is ·he nomina·ive singu1ar, ·he second ·e11s vou
·he dec1ension and indica·es whe·her ·here are anv s·em changes
from ·he nomina·ive form. Bu·, ·here are no s·em changes in four·h
dec1ension nouns. Isn'· ·ha· nice? So dec1ine ·hese nouns. Chec'
vou wor' agains· Whee1oc' page 93.
me·us, -us (m) cornu, -us (n)
Nom. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
Nom. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
ABLATIVE OE RLACE EROM WHICH ANÐ SERARATION
There's no·hing rea11v difficu1· abou· ·his bi· of 'now1edge.
You've seen for qui·e some ·ime now ·ha· preposi·ions ·a'e cer·ain
cases and ·ha· ·he meaning of such expressions is se· bv ·he
meaning of ·he preposi·ion. The case ·he noun is in rea11v has
no·hing ·o con·ribu·e ·o ·he meaning of ·he expression. Eor
examp1e, "ad" means "·o" or "·oward" and i· ·a'es i·s ob·ec· in ·he
accusa·ive case. Therefore "ad urbem" means "·o/·oward ·he ci·v".
The preposi·ions "ab, ex, de" mean some·hing 1i'e "from" or
"ou· of" or "awav from" and ·hev ·a'e ·he ab1a·ive case. So we can
sav, "Veniun· ex urbe". ("Thev are coming ou· of ·he ci·v".) Go·
·ha·? Now here's a new ·wis·. If ·he verb being used exp1ici·1v
con·ains ·he idea of phvsica1 separa·ion, ·hen ·he preposi·ions
indica·ing separa·ion ("ab, ex, de") are no· used. Ins·ead, ·he
·hing from which ·he separa·ion is being made is simp1v pu· in·o
·he ab1a·ive case. We ca11 ·his preposi·ion1ess use of ·he
ab1a·ive case ·he "Ab1a·ive of Separa·ion". Li'e ·his. The verb
"·o free", "1ibero (1)", a1so carries wi·h i· ·he sense "·o free
from". Hence ·he idea of separa·ion from some·hing is exp1ici· in
·he verb. So if we wish ·o sav some·hing 1i'e ·his -- "The ·ru·h
wi11 free us from fear" -- we wri·e "Veri·as nos me·u 1iberabi·
(no· "ab me·u")". Loo' a· ·he fo11owing examp1es:
"Eruc·ibus bonis numquam carebamus". (We never used ·o 1ac' good
frui·s.)
"Liberavis·is nos sce1eribus is·ius ·vranni". (You have freed us
from ·he crimes of ·ha· ·vran·.)
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
fruc·us, -us (m) Ðon'· forge· ·he ex·ended senses of ·he
word "frui·": "frui·s of our 1abor", for
examp1e.
communis, -e I· doesn'· mean "common" in ·he nega·ive
sense of "ordinarv"; i· means "common" in
·he sense ·ha· manv share i·. "Genera1"
is a be··er firs· ·rans1a·ion. "Communis
opinio" means "genera1 opinion";
"communis sa1us", "genera1 safe·v".
careo (2), carui, ----- Rav no a··en·ion ·o ·he four·h principa1
par· for now, bu· do 1oo' a· ·he
cons·ruc·ion which fo11ows ·he verb.
"Careo" ·a'e ·he "Ab1a·ive of
Separa·ion", no· ·he accusa·ive case, as
vou migh· be 1ed ·o expec· bv our use of
·he verb "·o 1ac'".
01/08/93
CHARTER 21
"Third and Eour·h Con·uga·ions: Rassive Voice
of Indica·ive and Rresen· Infini·ive"
SYSTEMS OE VERBS REVIEWEÐ
In Chap·er 18 vou 1earned ·he passive voice of ·he presen· svs·em
of ·enses -- ·he presen·, fu·ure and imperfec· -- for firs· and
second con·uga·ion verbs. I a1so added in mv no·es ·he ·hird and
four·h con·uga·ions, a1·hough Whee1oc' didn'· ·a'e ·hem up.
You'11 see in ·he chap·er ·ha· ·he ·hird and for·h con·uga·ion
verbs fo11ow ·he same ru1es for forming ·he passive voice in ·he
presen· svs·em as ·hose governing firs· and second con·uga·ion
verbs. Le·'s do a 1i··1e review for a momen·. La·in verbs have
four principa1 par·s. Le·'s 1oo' a· ·hem in reverse order.
The four·h principa1 par· is ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e,
and i· is used wi·h a con·uga·ed form of ·he verb "sum" ·o form
·he perfec· passive svs·em:
Rerfec· Rassive: 4·h prin. par·.+ presen· of "sum"
R1uperfec· Rassive: 4·h prin. par· + imperfec· of "sum"
Eu·ure Rerfec· Rassive: 4·h prin. par· + fu·ure of "sum"
An impor·an· fea·ure ·o no·ice abou· ·he perfec· svs·em passive
is ·ha· ·he formu1ae given above for ·he ·hree ·enses app1v ·o
a11 four con·uga·ions of La·in verbs. Once vou ge· ·o ·he four·h
principa1 par· of a verb, ·here is on1v one se· of formu1ae for
forming ·he differen· perfec· ·enses passive. How do vou form
·he perfec· ·ense passive of a firs· con·uga·ion verb; sav
"1audo"? The four·h principa1 par· is "1auda·us (-a, -um)", so
i·'s 1i'e ·his:
1auda·us (-a, -um) sum
1auda·us (-a, -um) es
1auda·us (-a, -um) es·
1auda·i (-ae, -a) sumus
1auda·i (-ae, -a) es·is
1auda·i (-ae, -a) sun·
Now form ·he perfec· ·ense passive of a four·h con·uga·ion verb;
"audio, -ire, audivi, audi·us". You fo11ow precise1v ·he same
formu1a se· ou· above: ·he four·h principa1 par· + "sum"
audi·us (-a, -um) sum
audi·us (-a, -um) es
audi·us (-a, -um) es·
audi·i (-ae, -a) sumus
audi·i (-ae, -a) es·is
audi·i (-ae, -a) sun·
Ðo vou see? Even ·hough "1audo" and "audio" are verbs of
differen· con·uga·ions, ·heir perfec· svs·em passive are formed
according ·o ·he same ru1es.
The perfec· svs·em ac·ive, simi1ar1v, fo11ows ·he same ru1es
for a11 four con·uga·ions. To form ·his svs·em of ·enses, vou
simp1v find ·he ·hird principa1 par· of ·he verb vou wish ·o
con·uga·e and add ·he perfec· svs·em persona1 endings:
REREECT RLUREREECT EUTURE REREECT
-i -eram -ero
-is·i -eras -eris
-i· -era· -eri·
3rd prin. par· +
-imus -eramus -erimus
-is·is -era·is -eri·is
-erun· -eran· -erin·
The purpose of ·his review is ·o remind vou ·ha· verbs of
differen· con·uga·ions differ from one ano·her on1v in ·he
presen· svs·em. S·ric·1v spea'ing, ·herefore, i· is meaning1ess
·o ·a1' abou· forming ·he perfec· svs·em of a firs·, second,
·hird or four·h con·uga·ion verb. A11 La·in verb wor' ·he same
wav in ·he perfec· svs·em -- ac·ive and passive.
So, ·he on1v ·ense svs·em in which ·he differen·
con·uga·ions fo11ow differen· ru1es is ·he presen· svs·em -- in
·he svs·em which uses ·he firs· principa1 par· as i·s s·em. The
four con·uga·ions, never·he1ess, share manv common fea·ures.
Le·'s review ·hese differences and simi1ari·ies.
(1) A11 four con·uga·ions use ·he same persona1 endings in
·he ac·ive and passive voices for a11 ·hree ·enses.
Wri·e ou· ·he persona1 endings for ·he presen· svs·em
·enses:
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________ ____________
2nd ____________ ____________
3rd ____________ ____________
1s· ____________ ____________
2nd ____________ ____________
3rd ____________ ____________
(2) The impera·ive mood is formed ·he same wav -- firs·
principa1 par· + endings. Wha· are ·he formu1ae?
SINGULAR: 1s· principa1 par· + __________
RLURAL: 1s· principa1 par· + __________
(3) The ac·ive infini·ives from a11 con·uga·ions are formed
·he same wav: 1s· principa1 par· + "-re".
(4) The imperfec· ·ense in a11 ·he con·uga·ions is formed
·he same wav:
Eirs· Rrincipa1 Rar· + ba + ac·ive or passive pers. end.
Bu· ·here are a1so differences among ·he con·uga·ions in ·he
presen· svs·em:
(1) The firs· and mos· obvious difference among ·he
con·uga·ions in ·he presen· svs·em is ·he s·em (or
·hema·ic) vowe1s. This is vowe1 which appears a· ·he end
of ·he s·em, direc·1v before ·he con·uga·ed endings of ·he
verb. Wha· are ·he s·em vowe1s for ·he con·uga·ions?
CONJUGATION STEM VOWEL
EIRST __________
SECONÐ __________
THIRÐ __________
EOURTH __________
(2) Ano·her subs·an·ia1 difference among ·he dec1ensions has
·o do wi·h ·he forma·ion of ·he fu·ure ·ense.
(a) Eirs· and second con·uga·ion verbs form ·he fu·ure bv
inser·ing ·he ·ense sign "-be-" (shor· "-e-") be·ween
·he firs· principa1 par· and ·he persona1 endings
(whe·her ac·ive or passive).
(b) Bu· ·he ·hird and four·h con·uga·ions use ·he vowe1s
"-a-" and "-e-" as ·heir ·ense signs for ·he fu·ure.
Then ·hev add on ·he persona1 endings. Le·'s do a
fas· review of a11 ·he con·uga·ions in ·he fu·ure
·ense ac·ive voice. Wri·e ou· ·he fu·ure ·ense of
·hese verbs.
I II III III-i IV
1audo moneo duco capio audio
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
REVIEW OE THE RRESENT SYSTEM IN THE RASSIVE VOICE
You 'now ·he presen· svs·em passive for ·he firs· and second
con·uga·ion verbs, and vou saw ·ha· ·here was no·hing verv
difficu1· abou· i·. The on1v difference be·ween ·he ac·ive and
passive voices is ·he differen· se· of persona1 endings each uses.
(1) To form ·he presen· ·ense passive, vou add ·he passive
persona1 endings ·o ·he end of ·he firs· principa1 par·.
(2) To form ·he fu·ure ·ense passive, vou add ·he passive
persona1 endings ·o ·he s·em + ·he ·ense sign for ·he
fu·ure. (In ·he firs· and second con·uga·ions ·he ·ense
sign for ·he fu·ure is "-be-".)
(3) To form ·he imperfec· ·ense passive, vou add ·he passive
persona1 endings ·o ·he firs· principa1 par· + ·he ·ense
sign for ·he imperfec· ·ense -- "-ba-".
Wri·e ou· ·he presen· svs·em passive of ·hese firs· and second
con·uga·ion verbs: "amo"; "de1eo".
EIRST CONJUGATION: RRESENT SYSTEM, RASSIVE VOICE
amo (1)
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
SECONÐ CONJUGATION: RRESENT SYSTEM, RASSIVE VOICE
de1eo (2)
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE VOICES OE THE THIRÐ CONJUGATION
Now 1oo' again a· ·he ru1es for forming ·he presen· svs·em passive
up above. Third and four·h con·uga·ion verbs fo11ow ·hese ru1es ·o
·he 1e··er.
(1) Rresen· ·ense passive is ·he firs· principa1 par· +
passive persona1 endings.
(2) The fu·ure passive is ·he firs· principa1 par· + ·he
·ense sign for ·he fu·ure + passive persona1 endings.
(3) The imperfec· passive is ·he firs· principa1 par· + ·he
·ense sign for ·he imperfec· + ·he passive persona1
endings.
Essen·ia11v wha· vou're doing is simp1v rep1acing ·he ac·ive
persona1 endings wi·h ·he passive. Le·'s have a 1oo' a· ·he
presen· ·ense passive for a ·hird con·uga·ion verb. The s·em vowe1
of a ·hird con·uga·ion verb is shor· "-e-", bu· ·he vowe1 undergoes
some changes when vou s·ar· adding persona1 endings ·o i·:
(a) i· is comp1e·e1v absorbed bv ·he "-o" of ·he firs· person
singu1ar;
(b) i· becomes shor· "-i-" before a11 ·he o·her persona1
endings excep· ·he ·hird person p1ura1;
(c) i· becomes shor· "-u-" before ·he "-n·" of ·he ·hird
person p1ura1.
O'av, now ·rv ·o guess wha· ·he presen· passive forms of a ·hird
con·uga·ion verb are going ·o be. Eirs· wri·e down ·he presen·
·ense ac·ive of "duco", ·hen go bac' and change ·he persona1
endings from ·he ac·ive ·o ·he passive. (Chec' vour answers in
Whee1oc', p. 97.)
RRESENT TENSE: ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
Now 1e·'s do ·he same ·hing for ·he fu·ure of "duco". Remember,
a11 vou're doing is changing ·he ac·ive endings ·o ·he passive
endings.
EUTURE TENSE: ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
Now for some·hing ·ru1v horrifving. Wri·e ·he presen· and ·he
fu·ure ·ense passive 2nd person singu1ar of "duco" nex· ·o each
o·her:
RRESENT EUTURE
_______________ _______________
The on1v difference be·ween ·hese ·wo ·enses is ·he 1eng·h of ·he
vowe1 "-e-". In ·he presen· ·ense, i·'s shor·, because i·
represen·s ·he origina1 s·em vowe1, which is a shor· "-e-" in ·he
·hird con·uga·ion. In ·he fu·ure ·ense, ·he "-e-" is 1ong, because
·his ·ime ·he "-e-" is ·he ·ense sign for ·he fu·ure. The 1eng·h
of ·he vowe1 -- and hence ·he 1oca·ion of ·he s·ress accen· -- is
·he on1v difference be·ween ·he presen· and fu·ure second person
passive: ·he presen· "ducris" is pronounced "ÐOO 'i ris"; ·he
fu·ure "duceris" is pronounced "doo KEH ris".
Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he imperfec· ·ense of ·he "duco". Eirs·
wri·e down ·he form for ·he ac·ive voice, ·hen change i· ·o ·he
passive voice bv subs·i·u·ing ·he ac·ive persona1 endings wi·h ·he
passive persona1 endings.
IMREREECT TENSE: ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE VOICES OE THIRÐ CONJUGATION I-STEM
So 1e·'s go on ·o ·he ·hird con·uga·ion "i-s·em". The firs· ·hing
·o do is ·o remain ca1m. The ·hird con·uga·ion "i-s·em" forms i·s
passive voice according ·o ·he same ru1es ·he "non i-s·em"
con·uga·ion fo11ows. You're simp1v going ·o a1·er ·he ac·ive forms
bv rep1acing ·he ac·ive persona1 endings wi·h ·he passive endings.
This means ·ha· wherever ·he ex·ra "-i-" shows up in ·he ac·ive
voice, i·'11 show up in ·he passive voice as we11. Wri·e down ·he
ac·ive forms firs·, and ·hen change ·hem ·o ·he passive: "capio".
THIRÐ CONJUGATION I-STEM
RRESENT
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
EUTURE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
IMREREECT
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE VOICES OE THE EOURTH CONJUGATION
And now, fina11v, ·he four·h con·uga·ion. You'11 have no ·roub1e
wi·h ·his con·uga·ion, if vou remember ·ha· ·he s·em vowe1 is 1ong
"-i-". Use "audio".
EOURTH CONJUGATION
RRESENT
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
EUTURE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
IMREREECT
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
THE RASSIVE INEINITIVES OE THE THIRÐ ANÐ EOURTH CONJUGATIONS
To form ·he passive infini·ive of firs· and second con·uga·ion
verbs, vou simp1v rep1ace ·he norma1 "-re" ending wi·h "-ri". This
is how vou form ·he passive infini·ive of four·h con·uga·ion verbs
as we11. Hence,
1s· Con·uga·ion amare "·o 1ove" amari "·o be 1oved"
2nd Con·uga·ion de1ere "·o des·rov" de1eri "·o be
des·roved"
4·h Con·uga·ion audire "·o hear" audiri "·o be heard"
No·ice ·ha· ·hese ·hree con·uga·ion have some·hing in common. In
each ·he s·em vowe1 is 1ong: "ama-", "de1e", and "audi-". Hence
·hev form ·heir presen· passive infini·ives ·he same wav. Bu· ·his
1eave ·he ·hird con·uga·ion, bo·h "i-s·em" and "non i-s·em"
unaccoun·ed for, because ·hird con·uga·ion verbs have a shor· s·em
vowe1: shor· "-e-". To form ·he passive infini·ive of ·hird
con·uga·ion verbs, vou drop ·he s·em vowe1 and rep1ace i· wi·h 1ong
"-i". Hence
Non I-S·em ducere "·o 1ead" duci "·o be 1ed"
I-S·em capere "·o cap·ure" capi "·o be cap·ured"
ÐRILLS
Wor' ·hrough Whee1oc''s Se1f-He1p Tu·oria1s for ·his chap·er ·o see
whe·her vou've ·horough1v unders·ood ·he ma·eria1. Then ·rv ·hese
exercises for a 1i··1e more prac·ice. Reverse ·he voice of ·hese
sen·ences.
1. Homines saepe ma1am 1audem audiun·.
____________________________________________________________
2. Ab quibus discipu1is hi versus 1egeban·ur?
____________________________________________________________
3. Is·e ·vrannus omnes civi·a·es capie·.
____________________________________________________________
4. Nos·ri amici nos adiuvaban·.
____________________________________________________________
5. Tui amici ·e non neg1egen·.
____________________________________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
causa, -ae (f) No·e we11 ·he common use of causa ·o mean "for
·he sa'e of". In ·his usage, causa is used
1i'e a preposi·ion: i· is pu· in·o ·he
ab1a·ive case and i·s ob·ec·, which ac·ua11v
precedes i·, is in ·he geni·ive case. E.g.
"ar·is causa" = "for ·he sa'e of ar·".
finis, -is (m) Loo' a· wha· i· means in ·he p1ura1.
quod You have ·o be carefu1 wi·h ·his word. As vou
probab1v remember, quod is ·he form used bv
·he re1a·ive pronoun for ·he neu·er nomina·ive
and accusa·ive singu1ar.
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Sub·ec·: Chap·er 21
To: 1wrigh·@u.washing·on.edu
S·a·us: RO
X-S·a·us:
CHARTER 21
"Third and Eour·h Con·uga·ions: Rassive Voice
of Indica·ive and Rresen· Infini·ive"
SYSTEMS OE VERBS REVIEWEÐ
In Chap·er 18 vou 1earned ·he passive voice of ·he presen· svs·em
of ·enses -- ·he presen·, fu·ure and imperfec· -- for firs· and
second con·uga·ion verbs. I a1so added in mv no·es ·he ·hird and
four·h con·uga·ions, a1·hough Whee1oc' didn'· ·a'e ·hem up.
You'11 see in ·he chap·er ·ha· ·he ·hird and for·h con·uga·ion
verbs fo11ow ·he same ru1es for forming ·he passive voice in ·he
presen· svs·em as ·hose governing firs· and second con·uga·ion
verbs. Le·'s do a 1i··1e review for a momen·. La·in verbs have
four principa1 par·s. Le·'s 1oo' a· ·hem in reverse order.
The four·h principa1 par· is ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e,
and i· is used wi·h a con·uga·ed form of ·he verb "sum" ·o form
·he perfec· passive svs·em:
Rerfec· Rassive: 4·h prin. par·.+ presen· of "sum"
R1uperfec· Rassive: 4·h prin. par· + imperfec· of "sum"
Eu·ure Rerfec· Rassive: 4·h prin. par· + fu·ure of "sum"
An impor·an· fea·ure ·o no·ice abou· ·he perfec· svs·em passive
is ·ha· ·he formu1ae given above for ·he ·hree ·enses app1v ·o
a11 four con·uga·ions of La·in verbs. Once vou ge· ·o ·he four·h
principa1 par· of a verb, ·here is on1v one se· of formu1ae for
forming ·he differen· perfec· ·enses passive. How do vou form
·he perfec· ·ense passive of a firs· con·uga·ion verb; sav
"1audo"? The four·h principa1 par· is "1auda·us (-a, -um)", so
i·'s 1i'e ·his:
1auda·us (-a, -um) sum
1auda·us (-a, -um) es
1auda·us (-a, -um) es·
1auda·i (-ae, -a) sumus
1auda·i (-ae, -a) es·is
1auda·i (-ae, -a) sun·
Now form ·he perfec· ·ense passive of a four·h con·uga·ion verb;
"audio, -ire, audivi, audi·us". You fo11ow precise1v ·he same
formu1a se· ou· above: ·he four·h principa1 par· + "sum"
audi·us (-a, -um) sum
audi·us (-a, -um) es
audi·us (-a, -um) es·
audi·i (-ae, -a) sumus
audi·i (-ae, -a) es·is
audi·i (-ae, -a) sun·
Ðo vou see? Even ·hough "1audo" and "audio" are verbs of
differen· con·uga·ions, ·heir perfec· svs·em passive are formed
according ·o ·he same ru1es.
The perfec· svs·em ac·ive, simi1ar1v, fo11ows ·he same ru1es
for a11 four con·uga·ions. To form ·his svs·em of ·enses, vou
simp1v find ·he ·hird principa1 par· of ·he verb vou wish ·o
con·uga·e and add ·he perfec· svs·em persona1 endings:
REREECT RLUREREECT EUTURE REREECT
-i -eram -ero
-is·i -eras -eris
-i· -era· -eri·
3rd prin. par· +
-imus -eramus -erimus
-is·is -era·is -eri·is
-erun· -eran· -erin·
The purpose of ·his review is ·o remind vou ·ha· verbs of
differen· con·uga·ions differ from one ano·her on1v in ·he
presen· svs·em. S·ric·1v spea'ing, ·herefore, i· is meaning1ess
·o ·a1' abou· forming ·he perfec· svs·em of a firs·, second,
·hird or four·h con·uga·ion verb. A11 La·in verb wor' ·he same
wav in ·he perfec· svs·em -- ac·ive and passive.
So, ·he on1v ·ense svs·em in which ·he differen·
con·uga·ions fo11ow differen· ru1es is ·he presen· svs·em -- in
·he svs·em which uses ·he firs· principa1 par· as i·s s·em. The
four con·uga·ions, never·he1ess, share manv common fea·ures.
Le·'s review ·hese differences and simi1ari·ies.
(1) A11 four con·uga·ions use ·he same persona1 endings in
·he ac·ive and passive voices for a11 ·hree ·enses.
Wri·e ou· ·he persona1 endings for ·he presen· svs·em
·enses:
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________ ____________
2nd ____________ ____________
3rd ____________ ____________
1s· ____________ ____________
2nd ____________ ____________
3rd ____________ ____________
(2) The impera·ive mood is formed ·he same wav -- firs·
principa1 par· + endings. Wha· are ·he formu1ae?
SINGULAR: 1s· principa1 par· + __________
RLURAL: 1s· principa1 par· + __________
(3) The ac·ive infini·ives from a11 con·uga·ions are formed
·he same wav: 1s· principa1 par· + "-re".
(4) The imperfec· ·ense in a11 ·he con·uga·ions is formed
·he same wav:
Eirs· Rrincipa1 Rar· + ba + ac·ive or passive pers. end.
Bu· ·here are a1so differences among ·he con·uga·ions in ·he
presen· svs·em:
(1) The firs· and mos· obvious difference among ·he
con·uga·ions in ·he presen· svs·em is ·he s·em (or
·hema·ic) vowe1s. This is vowe1 which appears a· ·he end
of ·he s·em, direc·1v before ·he con·uga·ed endings of ·he
verb. Wha· are ·he s·em vowe1s for ·he con·uga·ions?
CONJUGATION STEM VOWEL
EIRST __________
SECONÐ __________
THIRÐ __________
EOURTH __________
(2) Ano·her subs·an·ia1 difference among ·he dec1ensions has
·o do wi·h ·he forma·ion of ·he fu·ure ·ense.
(a) Eirs· and second con·uga·ion verbs form ·he fu·ure bv
inser·ing ·he ·ense sign "-be-" (shor· "-e-") be·ween
·he firs· principa1 par· and ·he persona1 endings
(whe·her ac·ive or passive).
(b) Bu· ·he ·hird and four·h con·uga·ions use ·he vowe1s
"-a-" and "-e-" as ·heir ·ense signs for ·he fu·ure.
Then ·hev add on ·he persona1 endings. Le·'s do a
fas· review of a11 ·he con·uga·ions in ·he fu·ure
·ense ac·ive voice. Wri·e ou· ·he fu·ure ·ense of
·hese verbs.
I II III III-i IV
1audo moneo duco capio audio
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
REVIEW OE THE RRESENT SYSTEM IN THE RASSIVE VOICE
You 'now ·he presen· svs·em passive for ·he firs· and second
con·uga·ion verbs, and vou saw ·ha· ·here was no·hing verv
difficu1· abou· i·. The on1v difference be·ween ·he ac·ive and
passive voices is ·he differen· se· of persona1 endings each uses.
(1) To form ·he presen· ·ense passive, vou add ·he passive
persona1 endings ·o ·he end of ·he firs· principa1 par·.
(2) To form ·he fu·ure ·ense passive, vou add ·he passive
persona1 endings ·o ·he s·em + ·he ·ense sign for ·he
fu·ure. (In ·he firs· and second con·uga·ions ·he ·ense
sign for ·he fu·ure is "-be-".)
(3) To form ·he imperfec· ·ense passive, vou add ·he passive
persona1 endings ·o ·he firs· principa1 par· + ·he ·ense
sign for ·he imperfec· ·ense -- "-ba-".
Wri·e ou· ·he presen· svs·em passive of ·hese firs· and second
con·uga·ion verbs: "amo"; "de1eo".
EIRST CONJUGATION: RRESENT SYSTEM, RASSIVE VOICE
amo (1)
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
SECONÐ CONJUGATION: RRESENT SYSTEM, RASSIVE VOICE
de1eo (2)
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE VOICES OE THE THIRÐ CONJUGATION
Now 1oo' again a· ·he ru1es for forming ·he presen· svs·em passive
up above. Third and four·h con·uga·ion verbs fo11ow ·hese ru1es ·o
·he 1e··er.
(1) Rresen· ·ense passive is ·he firs· principa1 par· +
passive persona1 endings.
(2) The fu·ure passive is ·he firs· principa1 par· + ·he
·ense sign for ·he fu·ure + passive persona1 endings.
(3) The imperfec· passive is ·he firs· principa1 par· + ·he
·ense sign for ·he imperfec· + ·he passive persona1
endings.
Essen·ia11v wha· vou're doing is simp1v rep1acing ·he ac·ive
persona1 endings wi·h ·he passive. Le·'s have a 1oo' a· ·he
presen· ·ense passive for a ·hird con·uga·ion verb. The s·em vowe1
of a ·hird con·uga·ion verb is shor· "-e-", bu· ·he vowe1 undergoes
some changes when vou s·ar· adding persona1 endings ·o i·:
(a) i· is comp1e·e1v absorbed bv ·he "-o" of ·he firs· person
singu1ar;
(b) i· becomes shor· "-i-" before a11 ·he o·her persona1
endings excep· ·he ·hird person p1ura1;
(c) i· becomes shor· "-u-" before ·he "-n·" of ·he ·hird
person p1ura1.
O'av, now ·rv ·o guess wha· ·he presen· passive forms of a ·hird
con·uga·ion verb are going ·o be. Eirs· wri·e down ·he presen·
·ense ac·ive of "duco", ·hen go bac' and change ·he persona1
endings from ·he ac·ive ·o ·he passive. (Chec' vour answers in
Whee1oc', p. 97.)
RRESENT TENSE: ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
Now 1e·'s do ·he same ·hing for ·he fu·ure of "duco". Remember,
a11 vou're doing is changing ·he ac·ive endings ·o ·he passive
endings.
EUTURE TENSE: ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
Now for some·hing ·ru1v horrifving. Wri·e ·he presen· and ·he
fu·ure ·ense passive 2nd person singu1ar of "duco" nex· ·o each
o·her:
RRESENT EUTURE
_______________ _______________
The on1v difference be·ween ·hese ·wo ·enses is ·he 1eng·h of ·he
vowe1 "-e-". In ·he presen· ·ense, i·'s shor·, because i·
represen·s ·he origina1 s·em vowe1, which is a shor· "-e-" in ·he
·hird con·uga·ion. In ·he fu·ure ·ense, ·he "-e-" is 1ong, because
·his ·ime ·he "-e-" is ·he ·ense sign for ·he fu·ure. The 1eng·h
of ·he vowe1 -- and hence ·he 1oca·ion of ·he s·ress accen· -- is
·he on1v difference be·ween ·he presen· and fu·ure second person
passive: ·he presen· "ducris" is pronounced "ÐOO 'i ris"; ·he
fu·ure "duceris" is pronounced "doo KEH ris".
Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he imperfec· ·ense of ·he "duco". Eirs·
wri·e down ·he form for ·he ac·ive voice, ·hen change i· ·o ·he
passive voice bv subs·i·u·ing ·he ac·ive persona1 endings wi·h ·he
passive persona1 endings.
IMREREECT TENSE: ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE VOICES OE THIRÐ CONJUGATION I-STEM
So 1e·'s go on ·o ·he ·hird con·uga·ion "i-s·em". The firs· ·hing
·o do is ·o remain ca1m. The ·hird con·uga·ion "i-s·em" forms i·s
passive voice according ·o ·he same ru1es ·he "non i-s·em"
con·uga·ion fo11ows. You're simp1v going ·o a1·er ·he ac·ive forms
bv rep1acing ·he ac·ive persona1 endings wi·h ·he passive endings.
This means ·ha· wherever ·he ex·ra "-i-" shows up in ·he ac·ive
voice, i·'11 show up in ·he passive voice as we11. Wri·e down ·he
ac·ive forms firs·, and ·hen change ·hem ·o ·he passive: "capio".
THIRÐ CONJUGATION I-STEM
RRESENT
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
EUTURE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
IMREREECT
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE VOICES OE THE EOURTH CONJUGATION
And now, fina11v, ·he four·h con·uga·ion. You'11 have no ·roub1e
wi·h ·his con·uga·ion, if vou remember ·ha· ·he s·em vowe1 is 1ong
"-i-". Use "audio".
EOURTH CONJUGATION
RRESENT
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
EUTURE
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
IMREREECT
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
THE RASSIVE INEINITIVES OE THE THIRÐ ANÐ EOURTH CONJUGATIONS
To form ·he passive infini·ive of firs· and second con·uga·ion
verbs, vou simp1v rep1ace ·he norma1 "-re" ending wi·h "-ri". This
is how vou form ·he passive infini·ive of four·h con·uga·ion verbs
as we11. Hence,
1s· Con·uga·ion amare "·o 1ove" amari "·o be 1oved"
2nd Con·uga·ion de1ere "·o des·rov" de1eri "·o be
des·roved"
4·h Con·uga·ion audire "·o hear" audiri "·o be heard"
No·ice ·ha· ·hese ·hree con·uga·ion have some·hing in common. In
each ·he s·em vowe1 is 1ong: "ama-", "de1e", and "audi-". Hence
·hev form ·heir presen· passive infini·ives ·he same wav. Bu· ·his
1eave ·he ·hird con·uga·ion, bo·h "i-s·em" and "non i-s·em"
unaccoun·ed for, because ·hird con·uga·ion verbs have a shor· s·em
vowe1: shor· "-e-". To form ·he passive infini·ive of ·hird
con·uga·ion verbs, vou drop ·he s·em vowe1 and rep1ace i· wi·h 1ong
"-i". Hence
Non I-S·em ducere "·o 1ead" duci "·o be 1ed"
I-S·em capere "·o cap·ure" capi "·o be cap·ured"
ÐRILLS
Wor' ·hrough Whee1oc''s Se1f-He1p Tu·oria1s for ·his chap·er ·o see
whe·her vou've ·horough1v unders·ood ·he ma·eria1. Then ·rv ·hese
exercises for a 1i··1e more prac·ice. Reverse ·he voice of ·hese
sen·ences.
1. Homines saepe ma1am 1audem audiun·.
____________________________________________________________
2. Ab quibus discipu1is hi versus 1egeban·ur?
____________________________________________________________
3. Is·e ·vrannus omnes civi·a·es capie·.
____________________________________________________________
4. Nos·ri amici nos adiuvaban·.
____________________________________________________________
5. Tui amici ·e non neg1egen·.
____________________________________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
causa, -ae (f) No·e we11 ·he common use of causa ·o mean "for
·he sa'e of". In ·his usage, causa is used
1i'e a preposi·ion: i· is pu· in·o ·he
ab1a·ive case and i·s ob·ec·, which ac·ua11v
precedes i·, is in ·he geni·ive case. E.g.
"ar·is causa" = "for ·he sa'e of ar·".
finis, -is (m) Loo' a· wha· i· means in ·he p1ura1.
quod You have ·o be carefu1 wi·h ·his word. As vou
probab1v remember, quod is ·he form used bv
·he re1a·ive pronoun for ·he neu·er nomina·ive
and accusa·ive singu1ar.
01/08/93
CHARTER 22
"Eif·h Ðec1ension; Summarv of Ab1a·ives"
THE EIETH ÐECLENSION
Af·er vour considerab1e experience wi·h ·he morpho1ogv of La·in
nouns, ·he fif·h dec1ension is prac·ica11v no·hing bu· a review.
There are no new concep·s vou have ·o ·ugg1e whi1e vou're wor'ing
on memorizing ano·her se· of forms. This chap·er, in fac·,
shou1d give vou a 1i··1e brea·her. The fif·h dec1ension is
simp1e -- probab1v ·he simp1es· dec1ension in La·in:
(1) i· has no subca·egories or devian· se· of endings;
(2) ·he nouns of ·he fif·h dec1ensions never have s·ems
which are no· ·he same as ·he nomina·ive singu1ar;
(3) i·s ·hema·ic vowe1 "-e-" is ·ransparen· in a11 ·he case
endings;
(4) ·here are no ad·ec·ives which use ·he fif·h dec1ension
endings;
(5) ·here is on1v one nomina·ive singu1ar ending;
(6) and ·he vas· ma·ori·v of fif·h dec1ension nouns are
feminine.
Here are ·he endings. Ta'e a c1ose 1oo' a· ·hem.
EIETH ÐECLENSION CASE ENÐINGS
N/V. -es
Gen. -ei
Ða·. -ei
Acc. -em
Ab1. -e
N/V. -es
Gen. -erum
Ða·. -ebus
Acc. -es
Ab1. -ebus
The nomina·ive singu1ar is a1wavs "-es", which ma'es ·his
dec1ension much easier ·han ·he second and ·he ·hird dec1ensions,
in which ·here are a varie·v of possib1e endings for ·he
nomina·ive singu1ar. Therefore, a fif·h dec1ension noun wi11
a1wavs end in "-es" -- and ·ha· is ·he firs· en·rv in ·he
dic·ionarv. Bu· be carefu1 no· ·o ma'e an e1emen·arv error in
1ogic. A11 fif·h dec1ension nouns end in "-es" in ·he nomina·ive
singu1ar, bu· no· a11 nouns which end in "-es" in ·he nomina·ive
singu1ar are fif·h dec1ension. "Nubes", for examp1e, ends in
"-es", bu· i·s geni·ive is "nubis", c1ear1v ·e11ing vou ·ha· i·'s
a ·hird, no· a fif·h dec1ension noun. Be sure ·o chec' ·he
nomina·ive and ·he geni·ive forms for vour nouns. A fif·h
dec1ension noun wi11 1oo' 1i'e ·his: "x"es, -ei (gender).
THE RROBLEM WITH dies, diei (m)
Whee1oc' shows vou ·he noun "dies" separa·e1v, and i·'s possib1e
·o ge· ·he impression ·ha· i· is a paradigm for a subdivision of
·he fif·h dec1ension. I· is no·. Loo' a· ·he endings carefu11v.
You'11 see ·he case endings on "dies" don'· differ from ·he
endings of "res" in anv significan· wav. The on1v difference is
in ·he quan·i·v of ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 "-e-".
Bv na·ure, ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 of ·he fif·h dec1ension is
1ong, and i· "wan·s" ·o s·av 1ong. Of·en, however, i· becomes
shor· when cer·ain endings are a··ached. Eor "res", ·he ·hema·ic
vowe1 "-e-" becomes shor· when vou add ·he geni·ive and da·ive
singu1ar ending 1ong "-i" (and i· a1so is shor· before ·he "-m"
ending of ·he accusa·ive singu1ar). Bu· when ·he ·hema·ic vowe1
"-e-" is i·se1f preceded bv ano·her vowe1 -- as i· is in "dies"
-- ·hen i· s·avs 1ong before ·he geni·ive and da·ive ending 1ong
"-i". So vou ge· "diei" for ·he geni·ive singu1ar, no· "dii".
Since vou're no· over1v concerned wi·h ge··ing a11 ·he 1ong mar's
righ· a· ·his poin· in vour s·udv, vou migh· ·us· as we11 cross
ou· "dies" in Whee1oc' and forge· abou· i·. The s·em of "dies"
is "die-" ·o which vou add ·he fif·h dec1ension case endings.
ABLATIVE OE MANNER WITH ANÐ WITHOUT cum
Now vou ge· a s·v1is·ic varia·ion on ·he Ab1a·ive of Manner
cons·ruc·ion vou've a1readv 1earned. This rea11v needs no
amp1ifica·ion. I·'s a simp1e ad·us·men·. The Ab1a·ive of
Manner, vou mav reca11, is a wav ·o use a noun as an adverb. You
use ·he preposi·ion "cum" wi·h ·he noun in ·he ab1a·ive case: "Id
cum ce1eri·a·e fecerun· (Thev did i· quic'1v)". You can a1so
modifv ·he noun being used adverbia11v wi·h an ad·ec·ive. La·in
1i'es ·o ·urn ·he word order around some, bu· ·his is no grea·
prob1em: "Id magna cum ce1eri·a·e fecerun· (Thev did i· wi·h
grea· speed)".
When ·he noun in ·his 'ind of cons·ruc·ion is modified bv an
ad·ec·ive, La·in has ·he op·ion of droping ·he preposi·ion "cum".
So ·his sen·ence cou1d a1so be wri··en: "Id magna ce1eri·a·e
fecerun·". Bu· if ·he noun governed bv "cum" is no· qua1ified bv
an ad·ec·ive, ·he "cum" mus· be used. This is incorrec·: "Id
ce1eri·a·e fecerun·"; bu· ·his is no·: "Id cum ce1eri·a·e feci·";
nei·her is ·his: "Id magna cum ce1eri·a·e feci·"; nor ·his: "Id
magna ce1eri·a·e feci·".
SUMMARY OE ABLATIVES
This is ·us· a rehash of o1d ma·eria1, bu· i·'s good ·o ge· a11
·he fac·s 1aid ou· a· one ·ime. The uses of ·he ab1a·ive case
can be divided in·o ·wo groups:
(1) uses of ·he ab1a·ive wi·h a preposi·ion;
(2) uses of ·he ab1a·ive wi·hou· a preposi·ion.
You rea11v needn'· memorize ·he differen· uses of ·he ab1a·ive
wi·h preposi·ions. When vou have a preposi·ion governing an
ab1a·ive case, vou ·us· ·rans1a·e ·he meaning of ·he preposi·ion
and ·hen ·rans1a·e ·he meaning of ·he noun. The fac· ·ha· ·he
noun is in ·he ab1a·ive case rea11v doesn'· con·ribu·e anv·hing
·o ·he ·rans1a·ion. I·'s in ·he ab1a·ive case because ·he
preposi·ion requires i·. Tha·'s a11.
One preposi·ion which ·a'es ·he ab1a·ive case requires some
specia1 cau·ion, however, and ·ha·'s "cum". Remember, "cum"
means "wi·h" in ·wo differen· senses: (1) as accompanimen·, and
(2) as manner.
(1) "Id cum amico feci·". (He did i· wi·h a friend.)
(2) "Id cum cura feci·". (He did i· wi·h care.)
I· is impor·an·, however, ·ha· vou 'now a11 ·he
"preposi·ion1ess" uses of ·he ab1a·ive case. Here ·he ab1a·ive
case i·se1f, wi·hou· a preposi·ion in La·in ·o govern i·, ·a'es
on specia1 meanings. You simp1v mus· 'now ·hem.
(a) Ab1a·ive of Means shows ·he ins·rumen· wi·h which ·he
ac·ion of ·he verb was effec·ed. Keep i· dis·inc· from
·he Ab1a·ive of Manner, which shows in wha· manner ·he
ac·ion was carried ou·. Common ·rans1a·ions of ·he
Ab1a·ive of Means are: "wi·h", "bv means of", "·hrough".
(b) Ab1a·ive of Time is easv ·o spo·. If vou have a word of
a uni· of ·ime in ·he ab1a·ive case wi·hou· a
preposi·ion, i·'s expressing ·ime. The prob1em is ·ha·
La·in used ·his cons·ruc·ion ·o indica·e ·wo differen·
'inds of ·ime which we 'eep separa·e in Eng1ish. The
La·in Ab1a·ive of Time can express ei·her ·he Time When
or Time Wi·hin Which of an ac·ion. (See Chap·er 15.)
(c) Ab1a·ive of Separa·ion is a preposi·ion1ess use of ·he
ab1a·ive case af·er verbs which s·rong1v con·ain ·he
idea of separa·ion; so ·he norma1 preposi·ions "ex" or
"ab" are dropped, and ·he ab1a·ive case a1one is used.
(d) Ab1a·ive of Manner can be wri··en wi·hou· a preposi·ion
if ·he noun used as an adverb is modified bv an
ad·ec·ive -- as vou ·us· saw above.
VOCABULARY RUZZLES:
res, rei (f) S·ar· bv scra·ching off ·he firs· ·rans1a·ion
"·hing". "Res" doesn'· mean "·hing" in our
common sense of "Wha·'s ·ha· ·hing on ·he
·ab1e"? or "Bring me ·ha· ·hing". I· doesn'·
mean a non-descrip· ob·ec· for which we can'·
qui·e come up wi·h a name. I· means "·hing"
when we sav some·hing 1i'e "Wha·'s ·his ·hing
abou· vou're no· wan·ing ·o 1earn La·in"? or
"Things some·imes ge· ou· of con·ro1". I·
means "ma··er", "affair", or "business"
(non-commercia1).
res pub1ica (f) Eirs·, ·his is ·he origin of our one word
"repub1ic", bu· in La·in i· is ·wo words --
·he noun "res" and ·he ad·ec·ive "pub1icus,
-a, -um" modifving i·. Therefore bo·h "res"
and "pub1ica" dec1ine:
rei pub1icae
rei pub1icae
rem pub1icam
re pub1ica
e·c.
Second, i· obvious1v doesn'· mean "pub1ic
·hing" as in "pub1ic ob·ec·", bu· "pub1ic
business or affair". Here vou can see ·he
rea1 meaning of "res".
medius, -a, -um I· is an ad·ec·ive, no· a noun, so i· can'·
be used ·he wav our noun "midd1e" is used.
We sav "·he midd1e of ·he ci·v", pu··ing
"ci·v" in·o ·he geni·ive case. La·in can'·
do ·his, because "medius" doesn'· mean
"midd1e", bu· "mid". Hence ·hev sav "medius
urbs"; or "media noc·e" ("in ·he midd1e of
·he nigh·").
01/18/93
CHARTER 23
"Rar·icip1es"
Ðespi·e i·s disarming1v simp1e ·i·1e, ·his chap·er con·ains a 1o·
of ma·eria1 -- some of i· simp1e, some of i· po·en·ia11v perp1exing
-- bu· a11 of i· overwhe1ming ·a'en ·oge·her in one heap. I'm
going ·o brea' i· down in·o ·wo sec·ions for vou. Ðon'· ·rv ·o do
·hem bo·h in one si··ing, un1ess vou find ·he firs· sec·ion so easv
·ha· vou need more. The sec·ions are (I) Morpho1ogv (forma·ion),
and (II) Svn·ax (use) of ·he par·icip1es.
RART I
BASIC CONCERTS OE LATIN RARTICIRLES
You a1readv 'now wha· a par·icip1e is; vou've been wor'ing wi·h one
now for a coup1e of chap·ers. A par·icip1e is a verba1 ad·ec·ive.
Tha· is, an ad·ec·ive derived from a s·em of a verb. The
par·icip1e vou're fami1iar wi·h is ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e
-- ·he four·h principa1 par· of ·he verb -- which is used in ·he
forma·ion of ·he perfec· svs·em passive. So 1e·'s 1oo' a· i·
again, ·his ·ime wi·h a finer eve for de·ai1.
We ca11 ·he four·h principa1 par· of a verb a par·icip1e
because i·'s a verba1 ad·ec·ive. Now, because i·'s an ad·ec·ive i·
mus· agree wi·h wha·ever noun i·'s modifving. Tha·'s wha·
ad·ec·ives do: modifv and agree wi·h nouns. So ·o agree wi·h i·s
noun, a par·icip1e mus· be ab1e ·o dec1ine in some wav ·o ge· ·he
differen· numbers, genders, and cases i· mav need -- ·us· as anv
ad·ec·ive mus·. The four·h princip1e par·, ·herefore, has ·he
ad·ec·iva1 endings "-us, -a, -um" a··ached ·o i·, and ·ha· ·e11s
vou i· dec1ines in ·he firs· and second dec1ensions -- 1i'e
"magnus, -a, -um" -- ·o ge· ·he endings i· needs. So everv
par·icip1e in a sen·ence wi11 have number, gender and case because
i· is an ad·ec·ive and i· mus· be agreeing wi·h some·hing in ·he
sen·ence of which i· is a par·.
Bu· a par·icip1e is a verba1 ad·ec·ive, so i·'s going ·o ge·
some of i·s charac·er from i·s verba1 ances·rv. Wha· qua1i·ies do
verbs have? Thev have (1) number, (2) person, (3) ·ense, (4) mood,
and (5) voice. So which of ·hese six wi11 par·icip1es re·ain?
(1) Number
A par·icip1e has number, ·ha·'s ·rue, bu· i· ge·s i·s number
-- singu1ar or p1ura1 -- from ·he noun i·'s modifving. So a
par·icip1e wi11 have number, bu· no· because i· is a verba1
deriva·ive, bu· because i·'s an ad·ec·ive.
(2) Rerson
A par·icip1e does no· have person -- 1s·, 2nd, or 3rd. You
can'· sav of a par·icip1e, ·his is in ·he firs· person.
(3) Tense
A par·icip1e wi11 have ·ense -- af·er a fashion. I· wi11 be
ei·her presen·, fu·ure, or perfec·. The par·icip1e vou 'now
is ·he perfec· par·icip1e.
(4) Mood
A par·icip1e is a1readv a mood of a verb. There are ·he
indica·ive, impera·ive, sub·ec·ive, infini·ive, and
par·icipia1 moods of verbs. So ·o sav "par·icip1e" is a1readv
·o designa·e a cer·ain mood.
(5) Voice
A par·icip1e has voice -- ei·her ac·ive or passive. The
par·icip1e vou 'now is a passive par·icip1e; hence i· is ·he
perfec· passive par·icip1e.
So 1e·'s summarize a11 ·his. Whenever vou see a par·icip1e in
a sen·ence, vou mus· be prepared ·o iden·ifv i·s ad·ec·iva1 and
verba1 componen·s:
AÐJECTIVAL VERBAL
number voice
gender ·ense
case
EORMATION OE LATIN RARTICIRLES
Now for a p1easan· surprise: ·he La·in par·icipia1 svs·em is no·
near1v so comp1ica·ed as ·he Eng1ish svs·em. In Eng1ish,
par·icip1es are of·en compounds of verba1 s·ems and auxi1iarv
verbs: "having been seen", "having 1oo'ed", e·c. In La·in, a
par·icip1e is a one-word show.
You 'now ·ha· ·he La·in par·icip1es have number, gender, and
case, a11 of which i· mus· have because of i·s ad·ec·iva1
charac·er. I· ge·s i·s number, gender, and case in i·s ad·ec·iva1
endings. The par·icip1e which vou a1readv 'now -- ·he perfec·
passive par·icip1e -- is dec1ined in ·he firs· and second
dec1ensions. This is impor·an· ·o remember: a11 par·icip1es wi11
have number, gender, and case, and ·hev ge· ·hem bv dec1ining.
We'11 1oo' a· ·his again.
Bu· wha· abou· voice and ·ense? You 'now on1v one par·icip1e,
and i· is passive in voice and perfec· in ·ense. Bu· ·here are
o·her par·icip1es wi·h o·her ·enses and voices. In La·in ·here are
par·icip1es of ·he presen·, fu·ure, and perfec· ·enses, and of ·he
ac·ive and passive voices. (On1v ·he fu·ure ·ense has par·icip1es
of bo·h voices. There is an ac·ive, bu· no· passive par·icip1e of
·he presen· ·ense; ·here is a passive, bu· no· ac·ive par·icip1e in
·he perfec· ·ense.) Here are ·he formu1ae for ·heir forma·ion.
I. EUTURE ACTIVE RARTICIRLE
The fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e of anv verb is formed bv adding
"-ur-" and ·he ad·ec·iva1 endings "-us, -a, -um" ·o ·he s·em
of ·he four·h principa1 par· of ·he verb. Eor examp1e, ·he
fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e of "1audo" is:
1auda· + ur + us, -a, -um = 1auda·urus, -a, -um
II. EUTURE RASSIVE RARTICIRLE (THE GERUNÐIVE)
The fu·ure passive par·icip1e (a1so ca11ed ·he gerundive [·eh
RUHN div| for reasons vou'11 see in a minu·e) of anv verb is
formed bv adding "nd" and ·he ad·ec·iva1 endings "-us, -a,
-um" ·o ·he 1eng·hened s·em of ·he firs· principa1 par· of ·he
verb. Hence for ·he four con·uga·ions:
1. 1auda + nd + us, -a, -um=1audandus, -a, -um
2. mone + nd + us, -a, -um =monendus, -a, -um
3. age + nd + us, -a, -um =agendus, -a, -um
3-i. capie + nd + us, -a, -um=capiendus, -a, -um
4. audie + nd + us, -a, -um=audiendus, -a, um
III. RRESENT ACTIVE RARTICIRLE
The presen· ac·ive par·icip1e is formed bv adding ·he ·hird
dec1ension ad·ec·iva1 ending "-ns, -n·is" ·o ·he 1eng·hened
s·em of ·he firs· principa1 par·. This ad·ec·iva1 ending is
·he same ending vou saw in ·he ad·ec·ive "po·ens, po·en·is".
(We'11 consider ·he dec1ension a 1i··1e 1a·er.) So ·he
presen· ac·ive par·icip1e of ·he four con·uga·ions 1oo' 1i'e
·his:
1. 1auda + ns, -n·is = 1audans, 1audan·is
2. mone + ns, -n·is = monens, monen·is
3. age + ns, -n·is = agens, agen·is
3-i. capie + ns, -n·is = capiens, capien·is
4. audie + ns, -n·is = audiens, audien·is
IV. REREECT RASSIVE RARTICIRLE
The perfec· passive par·icip1e is given ·o vou as ·he four·h
principa1 par· of ·he verb in ·he dic·ionarv wi·h ·he
ad·ec·iva1 endings "-us, -a, -um". The on1v refinemen· vou
shou1d ma'e ·o vour 'now1edge is ·ha· ·he ·rue four·h
principa1 par· of a verb is wha· is 1ef· af·er vou drop off
·he ad·ec·iva1 endings. The ·rue four·h principa1 par· of
"1audo", for examp1e, is "1auda·-", no· "1auda·us, -a, -um".
"Lauda·us, -a, -um" is ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e;
"1auda·-" is ·he ·rue s·em of ·he four·h principa1 par·.
So 1e·'s go bac' ·o ·he emp·v ·ab1e of par·icip1es and inser· ·hese
formu1ae:
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE 4·h p.p. + ur + us, a, um 1s· p.p. + nd + us, a, um
RRESENT 1s· p.p. + ns, -n·is xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
REREECT xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 4·h p.p. + us, a, um
SOME RRACTICE WITH RARTICIRLE MORRHOLOGY
Wri·e ou· ·he comp1e·e par·icipia1 svs·em of ·he fo11owing verbs:
1. duco, ducere, duxi, duc·us -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT ____________________ ____________________
REREECT ____________________ ____________________
2. mi··o, mi··ere, misi, missus -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT ____________________ ____________________
REREECT ____________________ ____________________
3. cupio, cupere, cupivi, cupi·us -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT ____________________ ____________________
REREECT ____________________ ____________________
4. amo, amare, amavi, ama·us -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT ____________________ ____________________
REREECT ____________________ ____________________
5. 1ego, 1egere, 1egi, 1ec·us -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT ____________________ ____________________
REREECT ____________________ ____________________
TRANSLATING THE RARTICIRLES: THE BASICS
Now 1e·'s ·hin' abou· ·he meaning of ·hese par·icip1es. We'11
firs· 1oo' a· ·heir bares·, 1i·era1 ·rans1a·ions. Thev ma'e rea11v
awfu1 sounding Eng1ish and, I hope, vou'11 soon discard ·hem, bu·
bv 1earning ·hese rudimen·arv ·rans1a·ions firs·, vou'11 be cer·ain
·o unders·and ·he grammar ·he par·icip1es invo1ve.
I. THE EUTURE ACTIVE RARTICIRLE
Obvious1v, ·he fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e ·e11s vou ·ha· ·he
modified noun is abou· ·o under·a'e some ac·ion some·ime ·ime
in ·he fu·ure ("fu·ure ac·ive"). Bu· ·his cons·ruc·ion has no
convenien· para11e1 in Eng1ish. To ·rans1a·e ·his in Eng1ish
we used wha· is ca11ed a "periphrasi·ic" (peh ri ERAS ·i')
cons·ruc·ion. The roo· of ·his ·erm is "periphrase" and
·ha·'s precise1v wha· we have ·o do ·o ·rans1a·e ·he fu·ure
ac·ive par·icip1e -- we have ·o find a periphrase for i·, some
wav of approxima·ing ·he meaning i· wou1d have had for ·he
Roman ear. We "·a1' around i·". The s·andard periphrases for
·he fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e is "abou· ·o 'x'" or "going ·o
'x'", where "x" is ·he meaning of ·he verb. Eor examp1e, for
·he par·icip1e "1auda·urus" we wou1d sav "abou· ·o (or going
·o) praise"; for "fac·urus" we wou1d sav "abou· ·o (or going
·o) do".
II. THE EUTURE RASSIVE RARTICIRLE
This par·icip1e, ·oo, has ·o be brough· in·o Eng1ish wi·h a
periphrase. Since bo·h fu·ure par·icip1es ma'e use use
periphras·ic cons·ruc·ions, ·he ·rans1a·ion for ·he fu·ure
ac·ive par·icip1e is of·en ca11ed ·he "1s· periphras·ic"; ·he
fu·ure passive par·icip1e is ca11ed ·he "2nd periphras·ic".
The periphrase of ·he fu·ure passive par·icip1e migh· be
some·hing 1i'e ·his "abou· ·o be 'x'ed", or "going ·o be
'x'ed", where "x" is ·he meaning of ·he verb. Eor examp1e,
"ducendus" migh· be ·rans1a·ed "abou· ·o be (or going ·o be)
1ed".
Bu· ·he fu·ure passive par·icip1e in La·in usua11v has a
specia1 sense a··ached ·o i· vou can'· foresee simp1v bv
examining ·he grammar of i·s cons·i·u·en· par·s. The fu·ure
passive par·icip1e verv of·en imp1ies a sense of ob1iga·ion or
necessi·v ·ha· ·he ac·ion be performed. We can ge· a fee1 for
i· in our cons·ruc·ion "·o be 'x'ed" wi·h a con·uga·ed form of
·he verb "·o be". Li'e ·his:
"This boo' is ·o be pu· on ·he she1f".
"This poin· is no· ·o be ignored".
The under1ined por·ions wou1d be represen·ed in La·in wi·h ·he
fu·ure passive par·icip1e. The nex· chap·er wi11 s·raigh·en
a11 ·his ou·. Eor now, ·us· remember ·ha· ·he fu·ure passive
par·icip1e invo1ves a specia1 meaning ·ha· has ·o be ·rea·ed
separa·e1v.
III. THE RRESENT ACTIVE RARTICIRLE
The 'ev ·o ·he ·rans1a·ion is "presen· and ac·ive". This
·e11s vou ·ha· ·he noun which ·he par·icip1e is modifving is
curren·1v engaged in an ac·ion. Tha· is, ·he noun is ·he
agen· of an ac·ion, and ·he ac·ion is curren·1v underwav. The
La·in presen· ac·ive par·icip1e can be ·rans1a·ed direc·1v
in·o our Eng1ish presen· ac·ive par·icip1e, which is formed
from ·he firs· principa1 par· of ·he verb p1us ·he par·icipia1
suffix "-ing"; egg., "wa1'ing", "running", "seeing", e·c.
IV. THE REREECT RASSIVE RARTICIRLE
Once again, wi·h ·his par·icip1e ·he ·rans1a·ion is spe11ed
ou· in i·s ·i·1e. The perfec· passive par·icip1e ·e11s vou
·ha· ·he noun which ·he par·icip1e is modifving underwen·
("passive") an ac·ion ·ha· is viewed as having been comp1e·ed
("perfec·"). The sures· wav ·o ge· ·his over in·o Eng1ish is
wi·h ·he ra·her c1umsv auxi1arv cons·ruc·ion "having been"
p1us ·he ·hird principa1 par· of ·he Eng1ish verb; egg.,
"having been seen", "having been ·a'en", "having been he1ped".
Eor some good prac·ice iden·ifving and ·rans1a·ing ·he par·icip1es,
1oo' ·he Se1f-He1p Tu·oria1s in Whee1oc', excerises 1-3. You
rea11v shou1dn'· go anv fu·her in ·his 1esson un·i1 vou fee1
comfor·ab1e abou· ·he morpho1ogv and basic ·rans1a·ions of ·he
par·icip1es.
VERBS WITH ÐEEECTIVE EOURTH RRINCIRAL RARTS
You have a1readv seen manv verbs whose four·h principa1 par· is a
1i··1e odd 1oo'ing, or which have no four·h principa1 par· 1is·ed
in ·he dic·ionarv a· a11. Verbs which do no· have a perfec·
passive par·icip1e as i·s four·h principa1 par· are ca11ed
"defec·ive" verbs. Bu· of·en defec·ive verbs wi11 never·he1ess
have a fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e. Now, ·his mav seem ·o be an
impossibi1i·v, because ·he fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e is a deriva·ive
of ·he four·h principa1 par· of ·he verb, righ·? Eor examp1e, vou
ge· "1auda·urus" bv using ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e "1auda·-"
p1us "-ur" p1us "·he ad·ec·iva1 ending "-us, -a, -um". So if a
verb has no four·h principa1 par·, how can vou pu· ·oge·her a
fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e? Loo' again. The four·h principa1 par·
is ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e, and ·here are manv verbs which
have no possib1e passive voice. Verbs which are in·ransi·ive
canno· be made passive, so, 1ogica11v, ·hev'11 have no perfec·
passive par·icip1e. Bu· ·he fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e is a possib1e
form for in·ransi·ive verbs. In ·his case, ·he dic·ionarv wi11
1is· ·he fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e as ·he four·h principa1 par·:
fugio fugere fugi fugi·urus
sum esse fui fu·urus
careo carere carui cari·urus
va1eo va1ere va1ui va1i·urus
RART II: THE SYNTAX OE THE RARTICIRLES
La·in is fond of i·s par·icip1es; i· uses ·hem much more of·en and
wi·h manv more shades of meaning ·han Eng1ish. Eor ·his reason, i·
is cri·ica11v impor·an· ·ha· vou no· rush ·o grab ho1d of
one-·o-one equiva1en· ·rans1a·ions from La·in ·o Eng1ish. Eirs·
vou mus· force vourse1f ·o unders·and ·he "meaning" of ·he ·he
La·in cons·ruc·ion, and on1v ·hen 1oo' for an Eng1ish ·rans1a·ion
which wi11 fai·hfu11v reproduce ·he "meaning" of ·he La·in. I·'s
in cases 1i'e ·his where basic 1anguage ins·ruc·ion ·ru1v
approaches ·he re1m of ·he 1ibera1 ar·s. You mus· unders·and ·he
meaning of ·he La·in before vou reproduce i· in Eng1ish.
TENSE OE THE RARTICIRLES
This fea·ure of ·he La·in par·icip1e mav be ·he mos· difficu1· for
s·uden·s ·o comprehend. You 'now ·ha· par·icip1es have ·hree
differen· "·enses": ·he presen·, ·he fu·ure, and ·he perfec·. The
presen· par·icip1e indica·es an ac·ion ·ha· is on-going; ·he
fu·ure, an ac·ion ·ha· is going ·o happen; and ·he perfec· an
ac·ion ·ha· has been comp1e·ed. Bu· a La·in par·icip1e on1v shows
·ime re1a·ive ·o ·he ·ense of ·he main verb of ·he sen·ence.
Rar·icip1es on1v indica·e whe·her an ac·ion
(a) is going on a· ·he same ·ime as ·he ac·ion of ·he main
verb -- ·he presen· par·icip1e;
(b) wi11 occur af·er ·he ac·ion of ·he main verb -- ·he fu·ure
par·icip1e;
(c) was a1readv comp1e·ed before ·he ac·ion of ·he main verb
-- ·he perfec· par·icip1e.
To 'eep ·hings simp1e, we refer ·o ·hese ·empora1 re1a·ionships as
(a) ·ime con·emporaneous: ·he presen· par·icip1e
(b) ·ime subsequen·: ·he fu·ure par·icip1es
(c) ·ime prior: ·he perfec· par·icip1e
Therefore, ·he par·icip1e "duc·us" does no· mean ·ha· ·he ac·ion
happened in ·he abso1u·e pas·, bu· ·ha· i· happened before ·he
ac·ion of ·he main verb. If ·he main verb is in ·he fu·ure ·ense,
·hen ·he ac·ion of "duc·us" migh· no· have happened ve· in abso1u·e
·ime. Simi1ar1v, ·he par·icip1e "ducens" does no· mean ·ha· ·he
ac·ion is going on in ·he rea1 presen·, bu· ·ha· ·he ac·ion is
going on a· ·he same ·ime as ·he main verb. Therefore, if ·he main
verb is a pas· ·ense, ·he ac·ion of "ducens" mav have a1readv been
comp1e·e bv ·he ·ime ·he sen·ence is u··ered. And so a1so for ·he
fu·ure par·icip1e. The fu·ure par·icip1e indica·es ·ha·, re1a·ive
·o ·he ·ime of ·he main verb, ·he ac·ion in ·he par·icip1e has ve·
·o ·a'e p1ace. "Ðuc·urus", ·herefore, mav represen· an ac·ion ·ha·
bv ·he ·ime of ·he rea1 presen· has a1readv been comp1e·ed, if ·he
main verb of ·he sen·ence was a pas· ·ense. This mav be ·oo much
·o absorb a· once, bu· ·he ·enses of Eng1ish par·icip1es wor' ·he
same wav. So 1e·'s forge· ·he La·in for a momen· and 1oo' a· some
Eng1ish examp1es.
1. The s·uden·s, abou· ·o go home for brea', are exci·ed.
2. The s·uden·s, going home for brea', are exci·ed.
3. The s·uden·s, having gone home for brea', are exci·ed.
The main verb of each of ·hese sen·ences is "are" -- ·ha· is,
a presen· ·ense. The s·uden·s "are" now exci·ed -- ·ha· is, a· ·he
·ime ·he spea'er u··ers his ·hough·. Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· ·he
par·icipia1 cons·ruc·ions.
In sen·ence #1, ·he s·uden·s have no· ve· gone home, when ·hev
are exci·ed. Tha· is, ·hev are exci·ed now, and ·hen ·hev are
going ·o go home. (There's no doub· i·'s ·he prospec· of going home
·ha· ma'es ·hem exci·ed.) The par·icip1e is ·herefore indica·ing
an ac·ion ·ha· wi11 ·a'e p1ace af·er ·he ·ime of ·he main verb.
In sen·ence #2, ·he s·uden·s are exci·ed and are going home a·
·he same ·ime; consequen·1v ·he presen· par·icip1e is used, because
·he ac·ion i· indica·es is con·emporaneous wi·h ·ha· of ·he main
verb.
In sen·ence #3, ·he s·uden·s are now exci·ed -- ·ha·'s ·he
abso1u·e ·ime -- bu· before ·ha· ·hev had gone home. Therefore ·he
perfec· par·icip1e is used, since i· shows ·ime prior ·o ·ha· of
·he main verb. Thev wen· home and now ·hev are exci·ed.
Now 1e·'s shif· ·he who1e ·ime frame bv using "were" ins·ead
of "are" for ·he main verb of ·he sen·ence. Remember, i· is ·he
·ense of ·he main verb ·ha· se·s ·he abso1u·e ·ime of ·he sen·ence.
1. The s·uden·s, abou· ·o go home for brea', were exci·ed.
2. The s·uden·s, going home for brea', were exci·ed.
3. The s·uden·s, having gone home for brea', were exci·ed.
Read each of ·hese sen·ences carefu11v. Even ·hough ·he main
ac·ion now has a differen· meaning for ·he spea'er and his audience
-- he's ·a1'ing abou· an even· ·ha· was a fac· -- ·he ·empora1
re1a·ionship of ·he par·icip1es ·o ·ha· even· does no· change. The
par·icipia1 cons·ruc·ion in sen·ence #1 is s·i11 ·a1'ing abou·
some·hing ·ha· is subsequen· ·o ·he ·ime of ·he main verb; ·he one
in sen·ence #2 is s·i11 ·a1'ing abou· an ac·ion con·emporaneous
wi·h ·he ·ime of ·he main verb; and ·he one in sen·ence #3 is
·a1'ing abou· an ac·ion prior ·o ·he ·ime of ·he main verb.
Now 1e·'s see how ·his 1oo's in La·in. Trans1a·e ·hese
sen·ences in·o 1i·era1 Eng1ish.
1. Rue11ae, cursurae, ma·rem viden·.
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2. Rue11ae, curren·es, ma·rem viden·.
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3. Rue11ae, voca·ae, ma·rem viden·.
__________________________________________________
Now ·rans1a·e ·hese in·o Eng1ish -- no·ice ·he change of ·he ·ense
of ·he main verb.
1. Rue11ae, cursurae, ma·rem viderun·.
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2. Rue11ae, curren·es, ma·rem viderun·.
__________________________________________________
3. Rue11ae, voca·ae, ma·rem viderun·.
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TRANSLATING LATIN RARTICIRLES AS CLAUSES
In manv wavs, Eng1ish is a verv precise 1anguage, especia11v
when i· comes ·o spe11ing ou· ·he re1a·ionship a subordina·e c1ause
has ·o ·he main c1ause of a sen·ence. Consider ·hese comp1ex
sen·ences.
a. When ·he sai1ors were seen bv Ro1vphemus, ·hev were
frigh·ened.
b. Because ·he sai1ors were seen bv Ro1vphemus, ·hev were
frigh·ened.
c. Since ·he sai1ors were seen bv Ro1vphemus, ·hev were
frigh·ened.
d. The sai1ors who were seen bv Ro1vphemus were frigh·ened.
e. The sai1ors, who were seen bv Ro1vphemus, were frigh·ened.
f. The sai1ors, a1·hough ·hev were seen bv Ro1vphemus, were
frigh·ened.
Each of ·hese five sen·ences is doing ·he same ·hing
svn·ac·ica11v: each is subordina·ing one ·hough· ·o ano·her. The
main c1ause -- ·he main ·hough· -- is ·ha· ·he sai1ors were
frigh·ened. Subordina·e ·o ·he main ·hough· is ·he ·hough· ·ha·
·he sai1ors were seen bv Ro1vphemus -- ·he one-eved mons·er. So
svn·ac·ica11v, ·hese sen·ences are cons·ruc·ed ·he same wav.
Bu· 1oo' a· ·he differen· wavs ·his subordina·ion is rea1ized
and 1oo' a· ·he differen· wavs ·he re1a·ionship be·ween ·he ·wo
·hough·s is being expressed. In sen·ence (a), ·he re1a·ionship is
s·ric·1v ·empora1 -- ·hev were seen, ·hen ·hev were frigh·ened.
And i·'s verv possib1e ·ha· ·hev were seen and frigh·ened a· ·he
same ·ime for some 1eng·h of ·ime. Li'e ·his:
·hev were seen ---------------
·hev were frigh·ened -----------
In sen·ence (b), bv cons·ras·, ·he re1a·ionship is express1v
causa1 -- being seen made ·hem fear. Hence ·he subordina·ing
con·unc·ion "because" is used ·o ·e11 vou exp1ici·1v ·ha· ·he
ac·ion in ·he subordina·e c1ause caused ·he ac·ion in main c1ause.
Now 1oo' a· (c). Ðoes ·he subordina·ing con·unc·ion "since"
express a chrono1ogica1 or causa1 re1a·ionship? The ·ru·h is, i·
can be indica·ing bo·h! Le·'s 1oo' a· ·he subordina·ing
con·unc·ion "since" more c1ose1v. In ·hese examp1es, "since" is
used ·empora11v.
(1) Since vour chi1dren were such mons·ers a· ·he par·v,
S·ic'v ·he C1own is charging doub1e his norma1 fee.
(2) Since vou ca11ed ves·erdav, I've been busv c1eaning ·he
house.
(1) shows "since" in i·s causa1 sense; (2) shows i· in ·he
chrono1ogica1 sense. Bu· of·en vou can'· ·e11 in which wav vou
ough· ·o unders·and a "since" in a sen·ence, and of·en i· has ·o be
·a'en in bo·h senses a· ·he same ·ime. In sen·ence (c) above,
c1ear1v, i· has ·o be unders·ood in bo·h senses, because bo·h are
accura·e descrip·ions of wha· happened. The sai1ors were seen and
·hen ·hev were frigh·ened (·hev weren'· figh·ened un·i1 af·er ·hev
were seen); bu· ·us· as we11, ·he sai1ors were frigh·ened because
·hev were seen. I·'s maddening, some·imes. Loo' a· ·hese examp1es
where "since" cou1d expressing a causa1, ·empora1, or bo·h a causa1
and ·empora1 subordina·ion.
(i) Since ·he ·own of Hoo·ersvi11e had grown so much, no one
cou1d boo' a room a· ·he Shadev Res· Ho·e1.
(ii) Since vou came ves·erdav, our peacefu1 home has been
reduced ·o near anarchv.
Now 1e·'s have a 1oo' a· ·he sen·ences "d" and "e" from above.
As vou can see, ·he same subordina·ion is presen·. The main idea
is s·i11 ·ha· ·he sai1ors were ·errified, and ·he fac· ·ha· ·hev
were seen bv Ro1vphemus is a··ached ·o i·. In ·hese sen·ences,
however, ·his 1a··er idea is pu· in·o a re1a·ive c1ause -- "who
were seen bv Ro1vphemus". Tha· is, i· is presen·ed simp1v as
addi·iona1 informa·ion abou· some·hing in ·he main c1ause, as an
ad·ec·iva1 c1ause.
Ðo vou 'now ·he difference in meaning be·ween "d" and "e"?
I·'s qui·e sub·1e bu· verv rea1. Read ·he sen·ences ou· 1oud and
as' vourse1f ·his: "Is ·he re1a·ive c1ause pic'ing a group of
sai1ors from among o·her sai1ors"? Tha· is ·o sav, are ·here
severa1 sai1ors around, bu· on1v ·hose who were seen bv Ro1vphemus
were frigh·ened? Or is no such dis·inc·ion or res·ric·ion imp1ied?
Suppose ·his is wha· happened. There's a ship in a narrow bav,
surrounded bv 1and on ·he nor·h, sou·h, and eas·. There are ·wo
hundred men on ·he dec', one hundred 1oo'ing nor·h, one hundred
1oo'ing sou·h. Sudden1v Ro1vphemus appears on a hi11 ·o ·he nor·h.
The sai1ors 1oo'ing ·o ·he nor·h, obvious1v, see him, and because
·hev are seen bv him ·oo, ·hev are frigh·ened. Bu· ·hose 1oo'ing
sou·h do no· see him, and ·hev are no· frigh·ened. O'av, ·ha·'s
·he si·ua·ion, and vou wan· ·o sum i· up. On1v some of ·he sai1ors
were seen bv him and on1v ·hev were frigh·ened. You cou1d sav ·his
"The sai1ors who were seen bv Ro1vphemus were frigh·ened", and ·he
meaning of ·he re1a·ive c1ause is ·ha· on1v ·hose seen bv
Ro1vphemus were frigh·ened, bu· ·he o·hers, who were no· seen, were
no· frigh·ened. We ca11 ·his a "res·ric·ive" re1a·ive c1ause,
because i· "res·ric·s" ·he main c1ause ·o a group defined bv ·he
re1a·ive c1ause. In wri··en Eng1ish, a res·ric·ive re1a·ive c1ause
is no· mar'ed off wi·h commas.
So wha· abou· ·he "non-res·ric·ive" re1a·ive c1ause, which is
mar'ed off wi·h commas? Jus· undo wha· ·he "res·ric·ive" re1a·ive
c1ause does. The non-res·ric·ive re1a·ive c1ause does no· 1imi·
·he main c1ause ·o a group specified bv ·he re1a·ive c1ause. I·
simp1v gives vou more informa·ion abou· some·hing in ·he main
c1ause. Suppose ·ha· a11 ·he sai1ors on ·he ship saw and were seen
bv Ro1vphemus and ·hev were a11 frigh·ened. You wou1d sav, "The
sai1ors -- who, bv ·he wav, were seen bv Ro1vphemus -- were
frigh·ened". S·udv ·his examp1e.
1. The boo's which are on ·he ·ab1e are no· wor·h reading.
(I'm ·a1'ing abou· on1v ·he boo's on ·he ·ab1e ·o
dis·inguish ·hem from some o·her boo's which mav be in ·he
room.)
2. The boo's, which are on ·he ·ab1e, are no· wor·h reading.
(There mav be o·hers which aren'· wor·h reading, bu· here
are some and ·hev're on ·he ·ab1e.)
Now wha· abou· ·rans1a·ing ·he La·in par·icip1e? As I said a·
·he beginning of ·his sec·ion, Eng1ish 1i'es ·o nai1 down ·he
precise 1ogica1 and ·empora1 re1a·ionships be·ween subordina·e and
main c1auses in i·s sen·ences. I· accomp1ishes ·his wi·h a wide
arrav of subordina·ing con·uga·ions. La·in, however, isn'· so
fussv abou· s·a·ing ·hese re1a·ionships precise1v. A11 ·he
sen·ences "a" ·hrough "e" cou1d be represen·ed bv one La·in
sen·ence:
Nau·ae, visi ab Ro1vphemo, ·erri·i sun·.
The par·icipia1 phrase "visi ab Ro1vphemo" cou1d be ·rans1a·ed in·o
Eng1ish differen· wavs.
The sai1ors having been seen bv Ro1vphemus were ·errified.
who were seen bv Ro1vphemus
because ·hev were seen bv Ro1vphemus
since ·hev were seen bv Ro1vphemus
af·er ·hev were seen bv Ro1vphemus
when ·hev were seen bv Ro1vphemus
a1·hough ·hev were seen bv Ro1vphemus
This is ·he mora1: a wav ·o bring a La·in par·icip1e is in·o
Eng1ish is ·o "promo·e" i· from a sing1e word ·o a fu11 subordina·e
c1ause, one ·ha· mixes we11 wi·h ·he con·ex·. Trv vour hand a·
some of ·he examp1es in Whee1oc''s Se1f-He1p Tu·oria1s, and use a
varie·v of subordina·ing Eng1ish cons·ruc·ions. Wa·ch ·he ·enses
of ·he main verb and ·he "re1a·ive ·ense" of ·he par·icip1es.
THE RARTICIRLE AS A NOUN
There isn'· rea11v anv·hing shoc'ing abou· ·his. You've seen
ad·ec·ives used as nouns before. You simp1v no·ed ·he number and
·he gender, and ·hen p1ugged an appropria·e pronoun. The
par·icip1e, since i·'s an ad·ec·ive, can do ·he same ·hing. The
·ric' is ·o find a good wav ·o bring ·he verba1 par· of ·he
par·icip1e ou·. A simp1e so1u·ion, for s·ar·ers, is ·o "promo·e"
i· ·o a re1a·ive c1ause which cap·ures ·he meaning, ·ense, and
voice of ·he verba1 roo· of ·he par·icip1e.
opprimens "he/she/i· who oppresses" or "·he oppressor"
opprimen·es "·hev who oppress" or "·he oppressors"
oppressus "he who was oppressed"
oppressi "·hev who were oppressed" or "·he oppressed"
oppressuri "·hose who are going ·o oppress"
THE ACTIVE RARTICIRLE TAKING OBJECTS
We mus·n'· ever forge· ·ha· ·he par·icip1e is a verba1 ad·ec·ive,
and i· a1wavs re·ains i·s verba1 charac·er. The verb "1audo" ·a'es
a direc· ob·ec· ·o comp1e·e i·s sense when i·'s being used in ·he
ac·ive voice.
"Romani duces bonos 1audaverun·". (The Romans praised ·he good
1eaders.)
Simi1ar1v, when ·he par·icip1e derived from i· is in ·he ac·ive
voice, i· a1so can ·a'e a direc· ob·ec·.
"Romani duces bonos 1audan·es vir·u·em amaverun·". (The
Romans, who praised good 1eaders, 1oved vir·ue.)
S·udv ·he fo11owing examp1es of par·icip1es ·a'ing ob·ec·s. A verv
common word-order for par·icip1es ·a'ing direc· ob·ec·s is ·o pu·
·he direc· ob·ec· be·ween ·he noun and ·he par·icip1e which agrees
wi·h i·. Wa·ch for ·ha· arrangmen·. Whee1oc' (page 306) has a
number of exce11ence 1i··1e exercises on ·rans1a·ing par·icip1es.
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
A1iquis, a1iquid This pronoun means "somebodv", some·hing",
"some peop1e", some ·hings". I· has ·wo par·s:
·he "a1i-" and ·he "quis, quid" par·. I· is
verv easv ·o dec1ine ·his pronoun because i·
fo11ows ·he pa··ern se· bv ·he in·erroga·ive
pronoun "quis, quid". The one difference is
·he nomina·ive and accusa·ive p1ura1s, which
are "a1iqua" and no· ·he expec·ed "a1iquae".
a1iquis a1iquid
a1icuius a1icuius
a1icui a1icui
a1iquem a1iquid
a1iquo a1iquo
a1iqui a1iquae a1iqua
a1iquorum a1iquarum a1iquorum
a1iquibus a1iquibus a1iquibus
a1iquos a1iquas a1iqua
a1iquibus a1iquibus a1iquibus
Chap·er 23
1. The gir1s, abou· ·o run, see ·heir mo·her.
2. The gir1s, running, see ·heir mo·her.
3. The gir1s, having been ca11ed, see ·heir mo·her.
1. The gir1s, abou· ·o run, saw ·heir mo·her.
2. The gir1s, running, saw ·heir mo·her.
3. The gir1s, having been ca11ed, saw ·heir mo·her.
01/08/93
CHARTER 24
"Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e; Rassive Reriphras·ic;
The Ða·ive of Agen·"
Once again, ·his is a chap·er which on1v expands on princip1es
vou've a1readv been wor'ing wi·h. The ·wo cons·ruc·ions
exp1ained in ·his chap·er a11 ca11ed "idioms" of ·he 1anguage.
To pu· i· brief1v, an idiom is a cons·ruc·ion whose meaning is
more ·han ·he sum of i·s par·s. Tha· is, vou can'· simp1v 1oo'
a· ·he cons·i·uen· par·s of ·he cons·ruc·ion and deduce ·he fu11
meaning. Eor some reason, ·he 1anguage gives ·hese cons·ruc·ion
specia1, addi·iona1 meanings which is no· presen· in i·s par·s.
Jus· ·o give one examp1e of an idioma·ic cons·ruc·ion from
Eng1ish, consider ·his. We form ·he presen· progressive ·ense in
·he ac·ive voice bv using ·he verb "·o be" as an auxi1iarv verb
and ·he presen· par·icipia1 s·em of ·he verb. Li'e ·his: "The
an·s are craw1ing a1ong ·he ground". Obvious1v ·he an·s are ·he
ac·ive sub·ec· of ·he verb "are craw1ing" -- ·hev are ·he agen·s
performing ·he ac·ion. Now 1oo' a· ·his verv idioma·ic use of
·he presen· progressive ·ense in ·he ac·ive voice. "The ·ab1es
are craw1ing wi·h an·s". Jus· 1i'e ·he "an·s" in ·he firs·
sen·ence, "·ab1es" is ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb "is craw1ing", bu·
·his ·ime ·he sub·ec· canno· be ·he ac·ive sub·ec· of ·he verb.
The ·ab1es are no· craw1ing, bu· ·he an·s are craw1ing a11 over
·he ·ab1es. Even ·hough ·he verb form is ·he same in bo·h
sen·ence -- "are craw1ing" -- ·he gramma·ica1 func·ion of ·he
sub·ec·s are en·ire1v differen·. The "an·s" are ·he ac·ive
agen·; ·he "·ab1es" are passive recipien·s of ·he ac·ion
performed bv ·he an·s, expressed in ·he preposi·iona1 phrase
beginning wi·h "wi·h". The second cons·ruc·ion is an examp1e of
an idiom, since ·he ac·ive form of ·he verb -- "are craw1ing" --
is over-ridden. The fina1 meaning of ·he cons·ruc·ion canno· be
deduced simp1v bv adding up ·he meaning of i·s par·s. Tha·'s an
idiom.
REVIEW OE RARTICIRLES
As vou 1earned in ·he 1as· chap·er, a par·icip1e is a verba1
ad·ec·ive. The forma·ion of par·icip1es from ·he differen·
verba1 s·ems obevs a few, verv regu1ar ru1es. Le·'s run ·hrough
·hem again. Wri·e ou· ·he formu1ae for forming ·he differen·
par·icip1es:
EUTURE ACTIVE RARTICIRLE
____________________________________________________________
EUTURE RASSIVE RARTICIRLE (GERUNÐIVE)
____________________________________________________________
RRESENT ACTIVE RARTICIRLE
____________________________________________________________
REREECT RASSIVE RARTICIRLE
____________________________________________________________
As vou can see, a11 ·he par·icip1es excep· ·he presen· ac·ive use
·he "-us, -a, -um" ad·ec·iva1 endings, and so presen· no prob1em
in ·heir dec1ensions. The presen· ac·ive par·icip1e, however,
dec1ines in ·he ·hird dec1ension, and behaves 1i'e a ·hird
dec1ension ad·ec·ive of one ·ermina·ion of ·he "-ns, -n·is" ·vpe,
wi·h ·he excep·ion of ·he shor· "-e-" in p1ace of ·he "-i-" in
·he ab1a·ive singu1ar . Ðec1ine a coup1e of presen· ac·ive
par·icip1es ·us· ·o refresh vour memorv.
RRESENT ACTIVE RARTICIRLES ÐECLINEÐ
1audo (1) moneo (2)
Masc/Eem. Neu·er Masc/Eem. Neu·er
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duco (3) capio (3-i)
Masc/Eem. Neu·er Masc/Eem. Neu·er
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THE ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE: CONSTRUCTION ANÐ SYNTAX
You remember from Chap·er 23 ·ha· La·in isn'· so fussv as Eng1ish
is abou· spe11ing ou· ·he exac· ·empora1 or 1ogica1 re1a·ionship
be·ween a subordina·e and main c1ause. In Eng1ish, we have a
bumper crop of subordina·ing con·unc·ions for ·his purpose:
"since, because, a1·hough, if, even if, if and on1v if, being as
how, seeing as how, before, af·er, during, whi1e, inasmuch as,
who", and on and on. La·in has manv of ·hese con·unc·ions, ·oo,
bu·, a1wavs aiming a· compression, La·in 1i'es ·o reduce
subordina·e ·hough·s ·o par·icip1es. A verv popu1ar wav of
1in'ing ·wo separa·e ideas wi·hou· spe11ing ou· ·he exac·
re1a·ionship ·hev have ·o each o·her is ·he "Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e"
cons·ruc·ion. Le·'s 1oo' a· bo·h par·s of ·he descrip·ion
"ab1a·ive" and "abso1u·e".
We ca11 a subordina·e c1ause "abso1u·e" when i· s·ands
en·ire1v ou·side of ·he grammar of ·he main c1ause and con·ains
no fini·e verb. We have a common "abso1u·e" cons·ruc·ion in
Eng1ish, which we ca11 ·he "nomina·ive abso1u·e". Wa·ch:
"The door being open, evervone cou1d see inside".
"The 'ev having been 1os·, I cou1dn'· ge· in".
"Tha· said, I now move ·o mv nex· poin·.
"A11 o·her ·hings being equa1, ·he procedures are
iden·ica1".
The firs· c1ause in each of ·hese sen·ences are simp1v
s·a·ing a fac· ·ha· is given as a circums·ance under which ·he
ac·ion of ·he main c1ause ·a'es p1ace. And none of ·he abso1u·e
con·ruc·ions has a fini·e verb. Now, obvious1v ·here is a
1ogica1 or ·empora1 re1a·ionship be·ween ·he abso1u·e c1auses and
·he main c1auses in each of ·hese sen·ences, and vou cou1d easi1v
recas· ·he sen·ences ·o ma'e ·hem exp1ici·. Eor examp1e,
"Because ·he door was open..".
"Because ·he 'ev was 1os·..".
"Now ·ha· ·ha· has been said..".
"If a11 o·her ·hings are equa1..".
Bu· ·he spea'er has chosen ·o 'eep ·he re1a·ionship uns·a·ed or
imp1ici·. Eor ·ha· reason, ·he verb is 1ef· as a par·icip1e and
-- ·his is impor·an· -- ·he par·icip1e is no· a··ached ·o
anv·hing in main c1ause. Eor examp1e, 1e·'s rewri·e ·he origina1
abso1u·e cons·ruc·ion in "The 'ev having been 1os·, I cou1dn'·
ge· in" ·o "Having 1os· mv 'ev, I cou1dn'· ge· i·". Now ·he
par·icip1e agrees wi·h some·hing in ·he main c1ause -- "I"
and ·he ac· of 1osing ·he 'ev is specifica11v a··ribu·ed ·o "I"
and no· 1ef· ambiguous.
In ·he origina1 sen·ence, ·he spea'er mav or mav no· have been
·he one who 1os· ·he 'ev. I· mav have been 1os· bv someone e1se.
Bu· in ·he rewri··en version, ·he gui1·v par·v is fingered: "I"
1os· ·he 'ev. An abso1u·e cons·ruc·ion doesn'· do ·ha·.
So here are ·wo ·hings ·o remember abou· c1auses which are
abso1u·e: ·he verb is a par·icip1e, and i· agrees wi·h some·hing
in ·he abso1u·e c1ause, no· in ·he main c1ause of ·he sen·ence.
Now for ·he "ab1a·ive" par· of ·he cons·ruc·ion ca11ed ·he
"Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e". Jus· as ·he word "ab1a·ive" ·e11s vou, in
La·in ·he par·icip1e and ·he noun i· agrees wi·h are bo·h in ·he
ab1a·ive case. Eor examp1e:
"Hac fama narra·a, dux urbem sine mora re1iqui·".
In ·his sen·ence, ·he main c1ause is "dux...re1iqui·". The
Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e c1ause is "hac fama narra·a". The verb of ·he
c1ause is ·he par·icip1e "narra·a", which in ·urn agrees wi·h ·he
ab1a·ive "hac fama". So how do we ·rans1a·e ·he Ab1a·ive
Abso1u·e c1ause i· in·o Eng1ish? As a1wavs, 1e·'s s·ar· wi·h ·he
roughes·, bu· mos· accura·e, wav. The quic'es· wav ·o ·rans1a·e
an Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e c1ause is ·o use ·he preposi·ion "wi·h",
fo11owed bv ·he noun, and ·hen ·he par·icip1e in i· correc· ·ense
and voice: "wi·h ·his s·orv having been ·o1d". So ·his sen·ence
wou1d come ou·:
"Wi·h ·his s·orv having been ·o1d, ·he 1eader 1ef· ·he ci·v
wi·hou· de1av".
1. Cane curren·e, equus magno cum ·imore campum re1iqui·.
"Wi·h ·he dog running, ·he horse 1ef· ·he fie1d wi·h grea·
fear".
2. Equo cursuro, canis magno cum ·imore campum re1iqui·.
"Wi·h ·he horse abou· ·o run, ·he dog 1ef· ·he fie1d wi·h
grea· fear".
As vou can see, ·he re1a·ionship be·ween ·he c1auses of ·hese
sen·ences is c1ear enough, even ·hough i·'s uns·a·ed. In ·he
firs· sen·ence, perhaps we cou1d sav, "Because ·he dog was
running, ·he horse 1ef· ·he fie1d". Tha· is, ·he horse has some
fear of running dogs. In ·he second, ·he dog doesn'· 1i'e
running horses, so when i· rea1ized ·ha· ·he horse was going ·o
run, i· ran awav: "Bcause ·he horse was going ·o run, ·he dog
1ef· ·he fie1d".
One 1as· i·em abou· ·he Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e c1ause is ·ha·
when ·he par·icip1e is in ·he ac·ive voice, i· can be fo11owed bv
ob·ec·s of i·s own which are no· in ·he ab1a·ive case. Tha· is
·o sav, no· everv word in ·he Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e c1ause has ·o be
in ·he ab1a·ive case. On1v ·he noun and ·he par·icip1e agreeing
wi·h i· are necessari1v ab1a·ive; ·he res· of ·he Ab1a·ive
Abso1u·e c1ause wi11 fo11ow ·he norma1 ru1es of La·in grammar.
Eor examp1e:
"Rege haec dicen·e, omnes cives ·erreban·ur". (Wi·h ·he 'ing
saving ·hese ·hings, a11 ·he ci·izens were ·errified.)
The Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e c1ause in ·his sen·ence is "rege haec
dicen·e", as vou can see bv 1oo'ing a· ·he case of "rege" and
"dicen·e" and bv recognizing ·ha· ·he verb of ·he c1ause is in
·he par·icipia1 mood. These are ·he ·wo par·s of an Ab1a·ive
Abso1u·e c1ause: noun and par·icip1e in ·he ab1a·ive case. Bu·
wha· abou· "haec"? Whv is i· in ·he accusa·ive case if i·'s in
an Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e c1ause? The answer is ·ha· "haec" is ·he
direc· ob·ec· of ·he ac·ion of ·he par·icip1e "dicen·e", and
direc· ob·ec·s are a1wavs in ·he accusa·ive case, regard1ess of
·he mood or cons·ruc·ion of ·he verb. Remember, once vou have a
noun -- "rege" -- and a par·icip1e -- "dicen·e" -- in ·he
ab1a·ive case, vou have an Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e cons·ruc·ion.
Everv·hing e1se in ·he c1ause is simp1v addi·iona1 ma·eria1 which
fo11ows ·he predic·ab1e ru1es of La·in grammar. Le·'s 1oo' a· a
few more examp1es.
1. "Bonis viris imperium ·enen·ibus, res pub1ica va1ebi·".
(Wi·h good men ho1ding power, ·he repub1ic wi11 be s·rong.)
2. "Civibus pa·riam aman·ibus, possumus magnam spem habere".
(Wi·h ·he ci·izens 1oving ·he fa·her1and, we are ab1e ·o
have grea· hope.)
3. "His rebus gravibus ab ora·ore dic·is, omnis cupidi·as
pecuniae expu1sa es·". (Wi·h ·hese serious ma··ers having
been said bv ·he ora·or, a11 1onging for monev was driven
ou·.)
THE ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE WITH "BEING"
The Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e cons·ruc·ion, as vou now 'now, is made up
of a noun and a par·icip1e agreeing wi·h i· in ·he ab1a·ive case.
This brings up an in·eres·ing prob1em wi·h ·he verb "sum", which
has no presen· par·icip1e. How wou1d vou sav, for examp1e, "The
'ing being good, ·he peop1e were happv"? The c1ause vou wou1d
·urn in·o ·he Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e con·ains ·he presen· par·icip1e
"being", bu· La·in has no ·rans1a·ion for i·. In occasions 1i'e
·his, La·in simp1v 1eaves ·he par·icip1e ou· and uses ·he noun in
·he ab1a·ive case wi·h ·he ad·ec·ive agreeing wi·h i·: "Rege
bono, popu1us bea·us era·". So if vou see a c1ause se· off wi·h
commas con·aining a noun and ad·ec·ive in ·he ab1a·ive case
wi·hou· a par·icip1e, ·us· p1ug in our par·icip1e "being".
ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE: TRANSLATIONS
The 1i·era1 ·rans1a·ion of Ab1a·ive Abso1u·es -- "having..",
"wi·h..., e·c. -- ma'es for some he11ish Eng1ish. A ·rans1a·ion
is no· comp1e·e un·i1 we've rendered a ·hough· in one 1anguage
in·o a ·he ·arge· 1anguage in a smoo·h, f1uen· epxression ·ha·
wou1dn'· suprise a na·ive spea'er. We have ·o message Ab1a·ive
Abso1u·es a 1i··1e ·o ge· ·hem in·o Eng1ish.
Because ·he Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e is essen·ia11v a par·icipia1
cons·ruc·ion, ·he same ru1es ·ha· app1ied ·o ·rans1a·ing
par·icip1es wi11 app1v ·o ·he ·rans1a·ing ·he Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e.
Tha· is,
(1) ·he Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e shows ·ime re1a·ive ·o ·he ·ime of
·he verb of ·he main c1ause -- fu·ure par·icip1es show
·ime subsequen·, presen· par·icip1es show ·ime
con·emporaneous, perfec· par·icip1es show ·ime prior;
(2) ·he exac· 1ogica1 re1a·ionship be·ween ·he main c1ause
and ·he Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e has ·o be recons·ruc·ed from
·he con·ex· and expressed bv one of our subordina·ing
con·unc·ions: because, since, af·er, a1·hough, if,
inasmuch as, and so on.
So recognizing ·ha· an Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e c1ause in a La·in
sen·ence and p1uging in ·he "wi·h" ·o bring i· in·o Eng1ish is
on1v ·he firs· s·ep in ·rans1a·ion. Nex· vou mus· "promo·e" ·he
par·icipia1 c1ause in·o a subordina·e c1ause wi·h a fini·e verb
(a verb wi·h person) and decide on ·he mos· 1i'e1v subordina·ing
con·unc·ion. Obvious1v, ·his is going ·o invo1ve some ·udgmen·
on vour par·, since ·he possib1e subordina·ing con·unc·ion have
verv differen· meanings. Eor examp1e, here are ·wo possib1e
·rans1a·ions of ·his La·in sen·ence: "Civibus pa·riam aman·ibus,
possumus magnam spem habere".
(a) Because ·he ci·izens 1ove ·he fa·her1and, we are ab1e ·o
have grea· hope.
(b) A1·hough ·he ci·izens 1ove ·he fa·her1and, we are ab1e
·o have grea· hope.
The meaning of (a) and (b) are f1a·1v con·radic·orv; (a) is
saving ·ha· i·'s a good ·hing for ci·izens ·o 1ove ·he
fa·her1and, bu· (b) savs ·ha· i·'s no·. Bu· bo·h are possib1e
·rans1a·ions of ·he La·in sen·ence. You mus· firs· examine ·he
genera1 in·en·ion of ·he au·hor as i· appears in ·he con·ex· of
his wri·ing before vou can ·rans1a·e ·his sen·ence in·o
meaningfu1 Eng1ish. I·'11 ·a'e some prac·ice and pa·ience.
The re1a·ionship of ·enses shou1d presen· vou 1i··1e
difficu1·v -- vour na·ura1 ins·inc·s wi11 serve vou we11. Bu·
one i·em shou1d be men·ioned. As vou 'now, a perfec· par·icip1e
shows ·ime prior ·o ·he ·ime of ·he verb in ·he main c1ause. If
·herefore, ·he par·icip1e in ·he Ab1a·ive Abso1u·e is perfec·,
and if ·he ·ense of ·he main verb is one of ·he pas· ·enses --
imperfec·, perfec·, or p1uperfec· -- ·hen how shou1d vou
·rans1a·e ·he par·icip1e when vou promo·e i· ·o a fini·e verb?
Thin' abou· i· a momen·. If ·he perfec· par·icip1e is showing
·ime prior ·o ano·her pas· even·, ·hen wha· fini·e ·ense shou1d
vou use? The ·ense which shows ·ime prior ·o ano·her pas· even·
is ·he p1uperfec· ·ense, so vou shou1d choose ·he p1uperfec·
·ense ·o represen· ·he perfec· par·icip1e of ·he Ab1a·ive
Abso1u·e c1ause. Li'e ·his: "Omnibus bonis civibus ex urbe
expu1sis, ·rvannus imperium accepi·". (When a11 ·he good
ci·izens had been expe11ed from ·he ci·v, ·he ·vran· ·oo' power.)
Ta'e a momen· now do ·hese sen·ences from Whee1oc''s
Se1f-He1p Tu·oria1. Eirs· ana1vze ·he sen·ence 1i·era11v, ·hen
smoo·h i· over in·o Eng1ish vou'd expec· ·o hear in civi1
conversa·ion.
8.
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9.
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THE RASSIVE RERIRHRASTIC WITH THE ÐATIVE OE AGENT
Loo' a· ·hese Eng1ish sen·ences:
"This bu··on is no· ·o be pushed".
"You are ·o remain righ· here un·i1 we ge· bac'".
"This door is ·o be 1ef· open".
"You are ·o do a11 vour homwewor'".
"This 1esson is ·o be done bv ·omorrow".
In each of ·hese ·he sub·ec· of ·he sen·ence is 1in'ed ·o an
infini·ive in ·he predica·e bv a form of ·he verb "·o be", and
·hev show a sense of du·v, necessi·v, or ob1iga·ion. This is an
idioma·ic cons·ruc·ion in Eng1ish. A con·uga·ed form of ·he verb
"·o be" p1us an infini·ive -- ei·her passive or ac·ive -- show
ob1iga·ion or necessi·v. Each of ·hese sen·ence cou1d have been
wri··en in severa1 differen· wavs. We cou1d ·us· as easi1v sav
"This bu··on shou1d be pushed".
mus·
ough· ·o
has ·o
As I warned vou in ·he 1as· chap·er, La·in has an idioma·ic
use of ·he fu·ure passive par·icip1e. If ·he fu·ure passive
par·icip1e is 1in'ed ·o ·he sub·ec· wi·h a form of ·he verb
"sum", i· ·a'es on a sense of ob1iga·ion or necessi·v. When i·
is used ·his wav, we ca11 ·he fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e a
"gerundive". Ðo vou remember ·he fu·ure passive par·icip1e?
Le·'s review i·s forma·ion for a momen·. You for ·he fu·ure
passive par·icip1e ·his wav:
1s· principa1 par· + nd + -us, -a, -um
Since ·here is no wav ·o ·rans1a·e ·his cons·ruc·ion
direc·1v over in·o Eng1ish -- ·ha· is, vou can'· simp1v ·rans1a·e
each word and come up wi·h a ·rue represen·a·ion of ·he origina1
in·en·ion -- vou have ·o periphrase i·. You have ·o "·a1'
around" (peri) i· ·o ·rans1a·e i·. Eor ·his reason, ·he
cons·ruc·ion "sum + gerundive" is ca11ed a "periphras·ic"
cons·ruc·ion, because vou mus· periphrase i· ·o ·rans1a·e i·.
Le·'s no·e ·hree more ·hings abou· ·his cons·ruc·ion before we
1oo' a· some examp1es.
(1) The cons·ruc·ion 1in's a par·icip1e wi·h ·he sub·ec·
·hrough a form of ·he verb "sum". Since par·icip1es
are verba1 ad·ec·ives ·he par·icip1e -- ·he gerundive
-- wi11 agree in number, gender and case wi·h ·he
sub·ec· ·o which i· is 1in'ed. Tha· is, ·he gerundive
modifies ·he sub·ec· of ·he verb "sum".
(2) Because ·he gerundive is ·he fu·ure passive par·icip1e,
·his cons·ruc·ion wi11 a1wavs be in ·he passive voice.
Tha· is, ·he cons·ruc·ion wi11 a1wavs be saving wha·
shou1d be done.
(3) When ·he passive periphras·ic cons·ruc·ion expresses
·he person agen· who shou1d be performing ·he ac·ion,
·he agen· is pu· in·o ·he da·ive case; ·he agen· is
no·, as is norma1 for ·he passive voice, shown bv "ab +
ab1a·ive.
Now 1e·'s 1oo' a· a coup1e of simp1e examp1es of ·he passive
periphras·ic.
"Car·hago de1enda es·".
"Car·hago" (Car·hago, -inis (f) "Car·hage") is ·he sub·ec·
and is feminine; so ·he gerundive, "de1enda" (from "de1eo"
"·o des·rov") agrees wi·h i·. A 1i·era1 ·rans1a·ion,
·herefore, wou1d be "Car·hage is ·o be des·roved". Some
accep·ab1e varia·ions mav be: "Car·hage ough· ·o be
des·roved", "Car·hage shou1d be des·roved", "Car·hage has ·o
be des·roved", "Car·hage mus· be des·roved". Each of ·hese
·rans1a·ions has a differen· f1avor in Eng1ish, bu· ·hev are
a11 1egi·ima·e renderings of ·he La·in "Car·hago de1enda
es·".
"Car·hago nobis de1enda es·".
Wha· abou· ·he "nobis"? I· is in ·he da·ive case, so i· is
expressing ·he agen· of ·he passive cons·ruc·ion. So we
shou1d add ·o our ·rans1a·ion "bv us". "Car·hage is ·o be
(shou1d be, ough· ·o be, has ·o be, mus· be) des·roved bv
us".
Wri··en Eng1ish ·ries ·o be parsimonious of ·he passive voice, so
a fina1 ·rans1a·ion of ·he passive periphras·ic migh· be a
conversion ·o ·he ac·ive voice: "We are ·o (mus·, ough· ·o,
shou1d, have ·o) des·rov Car·hage".
"Haec pue11a meo fi1io amanda es·".
"This gir1 is ·o be (ough· ·o be, shou1d be, mus· be, has ·o
be) 1oved bv mv son". Or, in ·he ac·ive voice "Mv son is ·o
(mus·, ough· ·o, shou1d, has ·o) 1ove ·his gir1".
"Haec omnibus agenda sun·".
"These ·hings are ·o be (mus· be, ough· ·o be, shou1d be,
have ·o be) done bv evervone". Or "Evervone is ·o (mus·,
ough· ·o, shou1d, has ·o) do ·hese ·hings".
Eina11v, ·he con·uga·ed form of "sum" can be in anv of ·he
·enses -- na·ura11v -- so ·he ·rans1a·ion has ·o ref1ec· ·he
differen· ·enses. Wa·ch:
"Haec omnibus agenda erun·". (Evervone wi11 have ·o do ·hese
·hings.)
"Haec omnibus agenda eran·". (Evervone had ·o do ·hese ·hings.)
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
quisque, quidque The inf1ec·ed par· of ·he word come
before ·he suffix "-que". This is
·he in·erroga·ive "quis, quid" +
·he suffix, so vou a1readv 'now how
i· is dec1ined. I· means "each
one", so obvious1v shou1d have no
p1ura1 forms -- and i· doesn'·
un·i1 af·er C1assica1 La·in. And
·ha·'s no· vour concern for now.
01/08/93
CHARTER 25
"A11 Infini·ives Ac·ive and Rassive;
Indirec· S·a·emen·"
You've a1readv been wor'ing wi·h a coup1e of infini·ive forms of
La·in verbs -- ·he presen· infini·ive ac·ive and passive. In
·his chap·er vou're going ·o 1earn a11 ·he remaining infini·ives
of a La·in verb: infini·ives of ·he perfec· and fu·ure ·enses,
bo·h ac·ive and passive. Then vou'11 1earn one of ·he mos·
common uses of infini·ives: ·heir use in indirec· s·a·emen·.
TENSES OE THE INEINITIVE: MORRHOLOGY
Le·'s se· ou· ·he formu1ae for a11 ·he infini·ives vou're going
·o s·udv in ·his chap·er, ·hen we'11 wor' wi·h each in more
de·ai1. Here ·hev are:
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE: fu·. ac·. par·. esse [supine + iri|
RRESENT: 1s· p.p. + re 1s· p.p. + ri
1s· p.p. + i
REREECT: 3rd p.p. + isse 4·h p.p. esse
EUTURE ACTIVE INEINITIVE
Ðo vou remember how ·o form ·he fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e?
You use ·he four·h princip1e par· + ur + ·he ad·ec·iva1
endings "-us, -a, -um". (If vou're sha'v on ·his, go bac'
·o Chap·er 23 for a reminder.) The fu·ure ac·ive infini·ive
is formed bv using ·he fu·ure ac·ive par·icip1e of ·he verb
and ·hen uses ·he infini·ive of ·he verb "esse". So ·he
fu·ure ac·ive infini·ive of ·he verb "1audo" wi11 be
"1auda·urus (-a, -um) esse". Trans1a·ing ·he fu·ure ac·ive
infini·ive is a 1i··1e ·ric'v, however, because we have no
simp1e fu·ure ac·ive infini·ive in Eng1ish. Two common
sugges·ions -- c1umsv ·hough ·hev are -- wi11 a· 1eas· he1p
vou rough-ou· ·he La·in un·i1 vou can po1ish up ·he
·rans1a·ion: ·rv "·o be abou· ·o x" or "·o be going ·o x".
So "1auda·urum esse" can be ·rans1a·ed "·o be abou· ·o (or
·o be going ·o) praise".
EUTURE RASSIVE INEINITIVE
This infini·ive is pu· in brac'e·s because i·'s rare in
La·in and won'· come up in vour wor' ·his vear, nor in ·he
nex· mos· 1i'e1v. So we can s'ip i·. One ·hing ·o
remember, however, is ·ha· ·he fu·ure passive infini·ive is
no· formed wi·h ·he fu·ure passive par·icip1e p1us ·he
infini·ive of ·he verb "sum". The fu·ure passive par·icip1e
is ·he gerundive and has ·he idioma·ic sense of ob1iga·ion:
"mus·", "ough·", "shou1d", e·c.
RRESENT ACTIVE ANÐ RASSIVE INEINITIVES
These are ·he infini·ives vou've been wor'ing wi·h a11
a1ong. No specia1 exp1ana·ion shou1d be needed. Remember,
·hough, ·ha· ·he passive infini·ives of firs·, second and
four·h con·uga·ions are formed bv adding "-ri" ·o ·he s·em;
bu· ·he ·hird con·uga·ion de1e·es ·he s·em vowe1 and
rep1aces i· wi·h a sing1e 1ong "-i".
REREECT ACTIVE INEINITIVE
The perfec· ac·ive infini·ive is a new form for vou: ·he
·hird principa1 par· wi·h ·he ending "-isse" a··ached. The
1i·era1 ·rans1a·ion is our Eng1ish "·o have x". Hence
"1audavisse" can be ·rans1a·ed "·o have praised".
REREECT RASSIVE INEINITIVE
This infini·ive, 1i'e ·he fu·ure ac·ive infini·ive, is made
up of a par·icip1e fo11owed bv ·he infini·ive of ·he verb
"sum". The ·rans1a·ion for s·ar·ers is "·o have been xed".
Hence "1auda·um esse" mav be rendered "·o have been
praised".
ÐRILLS
Ei11 in ·he infini·ives for ·he fo11owing paradigm verbs.
1. amo (1)
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE: ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT: ____________________ ____________________
REREECT: ____________________ ____________________
2. habeo (2), habui, habi·us, -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE: ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT: ____________________ ____________________
REREECT: ____________________ ____________________
3. duco (3), duxi, duc·us, -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE: ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT: ____________________ ____________________
REREECT: ____________________ ____________________
3 i-s·em. capio (3), cepi, cap·us, -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE: ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT: ____________________ ____________________
REREECT: ____________________ ____________________
4. audio (4), audivi, audi·us, -a, -um
ACTIVE RASSIVE
EUTURE: ____________________ ____________________
RRESENT: ____________________ ____________________
REREECT: ____________________ ____________________
THE IÐEA OE INÐIRECT STATEMENT
So far a11 ·he sen·ences vou've been wor'ing wi·h in La·in have
been in direc· speech. The difference be·ween direc· and
indirec· speech is a 1i··1e difficu1· ·o describe comp1e·e1v, bu·
a coup1e of examp1es of each mav give vou a fee1 for i·. Here
are some direc· s·a·emen·s:
"She sees her friend".
"Our ·imes are evi1".
"These ·hings were no· 'nown".
In a direc· s·a·emen·, ·he au·hor cas· ·he ·hough· in a sen·ence
and addresses i· direc·1v ·o ·he audience. In indirec·
s·a·emen·, a ·hough· is ·rea·ed as ·he ob·ec· of a verb, and ·he
·hough· is being repor·ed ·o ·he audience. In Eng1ish we
frequen·1v precede ·he repor·ed ·hough·, ·he "indirec·
s·a·emen·", wi·h ·he con·unc·ion "·ha·", or we mav omi· i·.
"I ·hin' [·ha·| she sees her friend".
"He said [·ha·| our ·imes are evi1".
"We heard [·ha·| ·hese ·hings were no· 'nown".
If vou ana1vze ·hese sen·ences, vou see ·ha· ·hev are comp1ex
sen·ences (having a main and a subordina·e c1ause). The verb
which in·roduces ·he indirec· s·a·emen· is ·he main verb, and ·he
indirec· s·a·emen·, which is ·rea·ed as an ob·ec· of ·he main
verb, is ·he subordina·e c1ause.
There are manv verbs which can be fo11owed bv an indirec·
s·a·emen·, and, na·ura11v enough, ·hev are verbs which cono·e
some 'ind of men·a1 ac·ivi·v or spea'ing or perceiving: verbs
1i'e "·o ·hin' [·ha·|", "·o sav [·ha·|", ·o hear [·ha·|",
"unders·and [·ha·|", "·o suppose [·ha·|".... In shor·, ·here are
dozens of verbs which can in·roduce indirec· s·a·emen·, and i·
wou1d be fu·i1e ·o ·rv ·o memorize ·hem a11 ou·righ·. Jus· use
vour common sense. If a verb is a "head verb" -- if i· imp1ies
men·a1 ac·ivi·v or spea'ing or sensing -- ·hen i· can be fo11owed
bv indirec· s·a·emen·.
In Eng1ish indirec· s·a·emen·, vou can see ·ha· ·he form of
·he origina1 s·a·emen· or ·hough· is hard1v changed a· a11 when
i· is pu· in·o indirec· s·a·emen·. Li'e ·his:
Origina1 S·a·emen·: "Mv friends are coming".
As Indirec· S·a·emen·: "I ·hin' [·ha·| mv friends are
coming".
Obvious1v ·his is going ·o require some subsequen·
refinemen·, bu· in genera1, and for now, vou can see ·ha· Eng1ish
rea11v does verv 1i··1e a1·ering or ·he origina1 s·a·emen· when
i· is made ·he ob·ec· of a "head verb" -- i.e., when i· is ·urned
in·o an indirec· s·a·emen·.
LATIN: THE ACCUSATIVE-INEINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
In La·in, ·his is no· ·rue. La·in considerab1v a1·ers ·he
origina1 s·a·emen· when i· becomes indirec·. Two ·hings happen:
(1) The sub·ec· of ·he origina1 s·a·emen·, which is in ·he
nomina·ive case, is pu· in·o ·he accusa·ive case.
(2) The origina1 fini·e verb (·he verb which has person,
1s·, 2nd or 3rd) becomes an infini·ive.
The examp1e sen·ences above wou1d wor' 1i'e ·his in La·in:
Origina1 S·a·emen·: "Mei amici veniun·".
As Indirec· S·a·emen·: "Ru·o meos amicos venire".
We of·en ca11 ·his ·he accusa·ive-infini·ive cons·ruc·ion,
because ·he infini·ive has a sub·ec· which is in ·he accusa·ive
case. The 1i·era1 ·rans1a·ion of ·he second sen·ence wou1d be "I
·hin' mv friends ·o be coming", and we cou1d ma'e sense of ·ha·
if we heard someone sav i· in Eng1ish 1i'e ·his. In fac·,
some·imes Eng1ish can form indirec· s·a·emen· bv using ·his
accusa·ive-infini·ive cons·ruc·ion. Eor examp1e, vou'd have no
·roub1e unders·anding ·his: "We ·hin' him ·o be a scoundre1".
The origina1 s·a·emen· behind ·his is "He is a scoundre1", which
·hen becomes "him ·o be a scoundre1" af·er ·he verb which
in·roduces ·he ·hough· as an indirec· s·a·emen·. The differences
is ·ha· in Eng1ish we some·imes have ·he op·ion which
cons·ruc·ion we'11 use; bu· La·in from ·he period vou're s·udving
had on1v one cons·ruc·ion for indirec· s·a·emen·: ·he
accusa·ive-infini·ive cons·ruc·ion.
There is one more i·em vou need ·o 'now before we can pause
and ·rv some exercises. As vou 'now, because La·in verbs have
persona1 endings, i·'s no· a1wavs necessarv ·o have a sub·ec·
pronoun expressed in ·he sen·ence. We simp1v 1oo' a· ·he
persona1 ending on ·he verb and inser· ·he correc· persona1
pronoun in our Eng1ish ·rans1a·ion. Eor examp1e:
Meos amicos 1audo. I am praising mv friends.
Meos amicos 1audas. You are praising mv friends.
Meos amicos 1auda·. He is praising mv friends.
Meos amicos 1audamus. We are praising mv friends.
Meos amicos 1auda·is. You are praising mv friends.
Meos amicos 1audan·. Thev are praising mv friends.
This shou1dn'· cause vou anv anxie·v. You've been supp1ving
persona1 pronouns for ·wen·v-five chap·ers, and bv now i·'s
probab1v second na·ure for vou. You probab1v don'· even no·ice
anv 1onger ·ha· vou're doing i·. The ques·ion, ·hough, is how
are we going ·o ma'e ·hese origina1 direc· s·a·emen·s in·o
indirec· s·a·emen·s. Thev have no sub·ec·s in ·heir origina1
forms, and vou can'· ·us· pu· ·he verb in·o ·he infini·ive.
Infini·ives have no person, so i· wou1d be impossib1e ·o ·e11 who
·he agen· of ·he ac·ion is.
The so1u·ion is rea11v qui·e simp1e. You use ·he accusa·ive
case of ·he persona1 pronoun which is indica·ed bv ·he origina1
persona1 ending on ·he verb. Wha· ·ha· means is ·ha· for
"1audo", for examp1e, vou recons·ruc· ·he origina1 nomina·ive
form of ·he persona1 pronoun -- which wou1d be "ego" -- and ·hen
pu· i· in·o ·he accusa·ive case -- which is "me" -- and ·hen pu·
·he origina1 fini·e verb in·o ·he infin·ive. The same for ·he
o·her persons. So ·hese sen·ence in indirec· s·a·emen· wou1d be
·his:
Meos amicos 1audo. - Ðico me meos amicos 1audare.
Meos amicos 1audas. - Ðico ·e meos amicos 1audare.
Meos amicos 1auda·. - Ðico eum meos amicos 1audare.
Meos amicos 1audamus. - Ðico nos meos amicos 1audare.
Meos amicos 1auda·is. - Ðico vos meos amicos 1audare.
Meos amicos 1audan·. - Ðico eos meos amicos 1audare.
You can see ·ha· a11 indirec· s·a·emen·s mus· have ·he
sub·ec· accusa·ive expressed. The infini·ive, bv i·s na·ure,
doesn'· con·ain person, so i· a1one can'· ·e11 vou i·s sub·ec·.
You mus· have "me, ·e, e·c" or some accusa·ive-sub·ec· expressed
in indirec· s·a·emen·. Nex·, how manv of vou are wondering abou·
·he accusa·ive "meos amicos" in ·he sen·ences above? You mav be
wondering how vou can ·e11 which accusa·ive is ·he sub·ec· of ·he
infini·ive and which is i·s ob·ec·, since La·in word order is
genera11v verv f1exib1e. Tha· is, wha·'s ·o 'eep ·he firs·
sen·ence from meaning: "I sav ·ha· mv friends are praising me".
Here is one p1ace where word order is verv impor·an· in La·in.
The norma1 word order in an indirec· s·a·emen· is ·his:
Sub·ec·-Accusa·ive Ðirec· Ob·ec· Accusa·ive Infini·ive
me amicos meos 1audare
I· usua11v is ·he case ·ha· ·he firs· word in ·he indirec·
s·a·emen· is ·he sub·ec· accusa·ive. The nex· accusa·ive, if
·here is one, wi11 be ·he direc· ob·ec· of ·he verb in ·he
infini·ive.
ÐRILLS
Change ·he fo11owing direc· s·a·emen·s in·o indirec· s·a·emen·s.
Remember: (1) ·he origina1 sub·ec· nomina·ive becomes ·he sub·ec·
accusa·ive; (2) ·he origina1 fini·e verb becomes ·he infini·ive;
(3) where ·here is no sub·ec· expressed, vou mus· use ·he
appropria·e pronoun in ·he accusa·ive case.
Examp1es:
A. Veniun· cum amicis ·uis.
Ru·o eos cum amicis venire.
B. Veri·as sine magno 1abore inveniri non po·es·.
In·e11egun· veri·a·em sine magno 1abore inveniri non posse.
1. I11a pue11a dona mu1·a pa·ri da·.
Ru·amus __________________________________________________
2. Hoc signum ab Caesare dandum es·.
Nun·ia· __________________________________________________
3. Spes novarum rerum mo11ibus sen·en·iis a1i·ur.
Scimus __________________________________________________
4. Vos iuvamus.
Sci·is __________________________________________________
5. Tvrannus mu1·as copias in mediam urbem duci·.
Nun·ian· __________________________________________________
TENSES OE INEINITIVES: RELATIVE TENSE
Now ·ha· vou've mas·ered ·he basics of ·he La·in indirec·
s·a·emen·, i·'s ·ime for some refinemen·. Ear1ier I said ·ha·
Eng1ish genera11v 1eaves ·he form of ·he direc· s·a·emen· a1one
when i· becomes and indirec· s·a·emen·. Eng1ish of·en simp1v
subordina·es ·he origina1 s·a·emen· ·o a "head verb" wi·h ·he
con·unc·ion "·ha·", wi·hou· changing ·he origina1 s·a·emen· a·
a11. Bu· ·his is no· a1wavs ·rue. Some·imes we do change ·he
form of ·he origina1 s·a·emen· when i· becomes indirec·
s·a·emen·.
Le·'s assume ·ha· someone savs "I am coming", and ·ha· vou
wish ·o repor· wha· he said ·o someone e1se. You wou1d sav, "He
savs ·ha· he is coming". Excep· of ·he 1ogica1 change in person,
vou haven'· changed ·he form of ·he origina1 direc· s·a·emen· a·
a11. Bu· suppose ·ha· he said ·his ves·erdav. Tha· is,
ves·erdav he said, "I am coming". To repor· ·his s·a·emen· as
indirec· s·a·emen·, vou wou1d sav, "He said ·ha· he was coming".
Here Eng1ish 1e·s some of ·he pas· ·ense of ·he main verb of ·he
sen·ence -- "said" -- infec· ·he origina1 direc· s·a·emen·: "am
coming" is changed ·o "was coming". He didn'· sav "I was
coming", ra·her he said "I am coming". Bu· because ·he 1eading
verb is pas· ·ense -- "he said" -- Eng1ish ma'e ·he origina1
s·a·emen· a pas· ·ense, ·oo, a1·hough 1ogica11v i· shou1dn'·
because i· dis·or·s wha· was ac·ua11v said. Wha· is worse, i·
in·roduces ·he possib1i1i·v for ambigui·v. Wha· did he rea11v
sav? Ðid he sav "I am coming", or did he rea11v sav "I was
coming"? You can'· ·e11 from ·he sen·ence "He said ·ha· he was
coming".
Le·'s change ·he examp1e s1igh·1v. Suppose he is now
saving, "I wi11 come". You wou1d repor· ·his as "He savs ·ha· he
wi11 come". No prob1em. Bu· suppose he said "I wi11 come"
ves·erdav. You wou1d repor· his s·a·emen· as "He said ·ha· he
wou1d come". Once again, vou can see ·ha· Eng1ish changes ·he
form of ·he origina1 s·a·emen· when i· becomes indirec·. Here,
when a s·a·emen· referring ·o ·he fu·ure is repor·ed as a pas·
even·, ·he origina1 simp1e fu·ure becomes ·he condi·iona1. I·'s
a grea· big mess.
In La·in ·here is none of ·his nonsense. Eirs· vou have ·o
recognize some·hing abou· ·he ·enses of ·he infini·ives in La·in:
1i'e ·he ·enses of par·icip1es, ·he ·enses of infini·ives are no·
abso1u·e, bu· are on1v re1a·ive ·o ·he ·ense of ·he 1eading verb
-- ·he verb which is in·roducing ·he indirec· s·a·emen·. Thin'
of i· ·his wav. The fu·ure ·ense of a fini·e verb depic·s an
ac·ion which has no· ve· occurred, bu· a fu·ure infini·ive
depic·s an ac·ion which occurs af·er ·he ac·ion of ·he 1eading
verb. The presen· ·ense of a fini·e verb depic·s an ac·ion which
is curren·1v going on, bu· ·he presen· infini·ive depic·s and
ac·ion ·ha· is going on a· ·he same ·ime as ·he 1eading verb.
And fina11v, ·he perfec· ·ense (or anv of ·he pas· ·enses) of a
fini·e verb depic·s an ac·ion ·ha· has a1readv occurred, bu· ·he
perfec· infini·ive depic·s an ac·ion which occurs before ·he
1eading verb. To simp1ifv ·his we sav ·ha· a presen· infini·ive
shows ·ime con·emporaneous, a fu·ure infini·ive shows ·ime
subsequen·, and a perfec· infini·ive shows ·ime prior. Le·'s
1oo' a· severa1 examp1es of ·his.
1. Ru·o eum venire.
Here ·he ·ense of ·he infini·ive in ·he indirec· s·a·emen·
is presen·, so i· is showing ·ime con·emporaneous wi·h ·he
·ime of ·he 1eading verb "pu·o". This means ·ha· I ·hin'
·ha· he is coming now (whi1e I'm ·hin'ing). We mav
·rans1a·e ·he sen·ence, ·herefore, "I ·hin' ·ha· he is
coming".
2. Ru·o eum ven·urum esse.
Now ·he ·ense of ·he infini·ive is fu·ure, showing ·ime
subsequen· ·o ·he ac·ion of ·he 1eading verb. This means
·ha· I am ·hin'ing now ·ha· he wi11 come -- no· ·ha· he is
coming bu· ·ha· he wi11 come. So we can ·rans1a·e ·he
sen·ence "I ·hin' ·ha· he wi11 come (or ·ha· he is going ·o
come)".
3. Ru·o eum venisse.
The perfec· infini·ive shows ·ime prior ·o ·he 1eading verb,
so a· ·he momen· I'm ·hin'ing, ·he ac·ion I'm ·hin'ing abou·
has a1readv occurred. So ·he ·rans1a·ion is "I ·hin' ·ha·
he has come (or ·ha· he came)".
4. Ru·avi eum venire.
Since ·he presen· infini·ive shows ·ime con·emporaneous,
·his means ·ha· ·he sen·ence mus· be ·rans1a·ed "I ·hough·
·ha· he was coming". Ðo vou see whv? "Venire" shows ·ime
con·emporaneous wi·h ·he ac·ion of ·he 1eading verb, which
is depic·ing a pas· even·, so we have ·o ·rans1a·e ·he
sen·ence in·o Eng1ish ·o show ·his re1a·ionship. The
·roub1e here is no· wi·h ·he La·in. As vou can see, ·he
indirec· s·a·emen· "eum venire" doesn'· change when we use a
differen· ·ense of ·he 1eading verb. The prob1em is wi·h
our Eng1ish represen·a·ion of ·he La·in.
5. Ru·avi eum ven·urum esse.
How are vou going ·o ·rans1a·e ·his sen·ence. The fu·ure
·ense of ·he infini·ive shows ·ime subsequen· (af·er) ·he
·ime of ·he 1eading verb, and how do we do ·ha· in Eng1ish?
We sav "I ·hough· ·ha· he wou1d come".
6. Ru·avi eum venisse.
The ·rans1a·ion is "I ·hough· ·ha· he had come". Can vou
exp1ain whv? This ac·ua11v can ge· a 1i··1e s·ic'v in
Eng1ish, because we ·end ·o shv awav from ·he p1uperfec·
·ense. We migh· ·us· as possib1v sav "I ·hough· ·ha· he was
coming" when we mean ·ha· he was coming before I ·hough·
abou· i·. In La·in, ·hough, ·here is no chance for
ambigui·v. The perfec· infini·ive "venisse" shows ·ime
prior ·o "pu·avi", and "pu·avi is a1readv represen·ing a
pas· even·. An even· before ano·her even· in ·he pas· is
represen·ed bv ·he p1uperfec· ·ense. Hence "I ·hough· ·ha·
he had come".
THE REELEXIVE RRONOUN "SE" IN INÐIRECT STATEMENT
You're going ·o ge· p1en·v of chances ·o wor' wi·h ·he indirec·
s·a·emen· and ·he ·enses of ·he infini·ives soon, bu· ·here is
one more i·em in ·he chap·er we have ·o 1oo' a· -- a1·hough i·'s
rea11v qui·e simp1e. Consider ·he fo11owing sen·ence: "He said
·ha· he was a good 1eader". Is ·here anvwav vou can ·e11 whe·her
·he sen·ence means "he said ·ha· he himse1f was a good 1eader",
or "he said ·ha· he [somebodv e1se| was good 1eader"? You can'·.
This is ·he same prob1em we saw before wi·h ·he ·hird person
pronoun: Eng1ish has no convenien· wav ·o dis·inguish ·he
ref1exive from ·he non-ref1exive ·hird person pronoun. In La·in,
however, ·he pronoun "is, ea, id" is a1wavs non-ref1exive, and
·he pronoun "sui, sibi, se, se" is ref1exive. Consequen·1v, "He
said ·ha· he [somebodv e1se| was a good 1eader" is "Ðixi· eum
ducem bonum esse"; and "He said ·ha· he [himse1f| was a good
1eader" is "Ðixi· se ducem bonum esse". Remember a1so ·ha· ·he
ref1exive pronoun doesn'· show difference in number: "Ðixerun· se
bonos ducos esse" is "Thev said ·ha· ·hev [·hemse1ves| were good
1eaders".
ÐRILLS
A. Trans1a·e from La·in ·o Eng1ish
1. Ru·amus omnes bonos viros vi·as bea·as agere.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
2. Ru·amus omnes bonos viros vi·as bea·as egisse.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
3. Ru·amus omnes bonos viros vi·as bea·as ac·uros esse.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
4. Ru·avimus omnes bonos viros vi·as bea·as agere.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
5. Ru·avimus omnes bonos viros vi·as bea·as egisse.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
6. Ru·avimus omnes bonos viros bea·as vi·as ac·uros esse.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
7. Ru·abimus omnes bonos viros bea·as vi·as agere.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
8. Ru·abimus omnes bonos viros bea·as vi·as egisse.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
9. Ru·abimus omnes bonos viros bea·as vi·as ac·uros esse.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
10. Ru·abimus bonum virum vi·am bea·am ac·urum esse.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
B. Trans1a·e in·o La·in
1. We hear ·ha· vou (p1.) are coming.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
2. We heard ·ha· vou (p1.) were coming.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
3. We heard ·ha· vou had come.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
4. We heard ·ha· vou wou1d come.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
5. Thev ·hin' ·ha· ·he 1e··er was wri··en bv us.
____________________________________________________________
__________
6. Thev ·hin' ·ha· ·he 1e··er is being wri··en bv us.
____________________________________________________________
__________
7. Thev ·hough· ·ha· ·he 1e··er was being wri··en bv us.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
8. Thev ·hough· ·ha· ·he 1e··er had been wri··en bv us.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
9. Thev ·hough· ·ha· we wou1d wri·e ·he 1e··er.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
10. Thev ·hin' ·ha· we shou1d wri·e ·he 1e··er.
_________________________________________________________________
_____
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
hos·is, -is (m) In ·he singu1ar, i· means an enemv -- one
person vou don'· 1i'e. In ·he p1ura1 i·
means an enemv -- ·he group of peop1e vou
don'· 1i'e -- no· a 1o· of individua1
enemies. I· means "enemv" in our sense of an
enemv of coun·rv.
ai·, aiun· "He, she savs/ ·hev sav". I·s firs· and
second persons don'· appear in ·his boo', and
i·'s used on1v in i·s presen· ·ense forms.
spero (1) "Spero" ·a'es i·s infini·ive in indirec·
s·a·emen· in ·he fu·ure ·ense. This ma'es
sense, because vou genera11v hope for
some·hing ·ha· is no· now presen·1v ·he case.
"We hope ·o see our friends" comes over in·o
La·in as "We hope ·ha· we wi11 see our
friends": "Speramus nos amicos nos·ros
visuros esse".
01/10/93
CHARTER 26
"Comparison of Ad·ec·ives; Ðec1ension
of Compara·ives"
ÐEGREES OE AÐJECTIVES
Ad·ec·ives are words which a··ribu·e a qua1i·v ·o nouns, and in
La·in ad·ec·ives mus· agree in number, gender and case ·hev are
modifving. You have 1earned ad·ec·ives which dec1ine in ·he firs·
and second dec1ensions, and ·hose which dec1ine in ·he ·hird. Bu·
up ·o ·his chap·er ·he ad·ec·ives vou've s·udied a··ribu·e
qua1i·ies ·o nouns in wha· is ca11ed ·he posi·ive degree on1v.
Tha· is, ·hev simp1v a··ach ·he qua1i·v ·o ·he noun. Bu·
ad·ec·ives can a1so a··ribu·e ·he qua1i·v in wav ·ha· compares ·he
noun wi·h o·her nouns bv indica·ing ·ha· ·he noun has more of ·he
qua1i·v ·han ano·her noun, or ·ha· i· has ·he mos· of ·he qua1i·v
·han a· 1eas· ·wo o·her nouns. We ca11 ·hese ·wo o·her degrees ·he
compara·ive (more of ·he qua1i·v) and ·he super1a·ive (mos· of ·he
qua1i·v) degrees.
In Eng1ish, we form ·he compara·ive and super1a·ive degrees of
ad·ec·ives in ·wo differen· wavs. We use ·he adverbs "more" and
"mos·", and we use ·he suffixes "-er" and "-es·" added ·o ·he base
of ·he ad·ec·ives. Eor examp1e,
ROSITIVE ÐEGREE COMRARATIVE ÐEGREE SURERLATIVE ÐEGREE
b1ue s'ies b1uer s'ies b1ues· s'ies
difficu1· boo' more difficu1· boo' mos· difficu1· boo'
Eor vour concerns now, ·here is on1v one wav ·o form ·he
compara·ive and super1a·ive degrees of ad·ec·ives in La·in, and
·ha· is bv adding suffixes ·o ·he base of ·he ad·ec·ives. Since
ad·ec·ives are 1is·ed in ·he dic·ionarv under ·heir base forms --
·he nomina·ive singu1ar of ·he posi·ive degree -- and don'· have
separa·e 1is·ings for inf1ec·ed (or derived) forms, vou're going ·o
have ·o do some more wor' as vou read ·o simp1ifv ad·ec·ives in ·he
compara·ive and super1a·ive degrees down ·o ·heir dic·ionarv forms
so ·ha· vou can 1oo' ·hem up.
THE COMRARATIVE ÐEGREE OE AÐJECTIVES
To form ·he compara·ive degree of an ad·ec·ive, vou add ·he ending
"-ior", "-ius" ·o i·s s·em. Le·'s have a 1oo' a· ·his suffix.
Because ·he word is s·i11 an ad·ec·ive, i·'s s·i11 going ·o have ·o
dec1ine. The compara·ive suffix is a ·hird dec1ension ending and
dec1ines ·us· 1i'e a norma1 noun of ·he ·hird dec1ension. This is
a 1i··1e odd, since vou migh· expec· ·he compara·ive suffix ·o
dec1ine 1i'e a ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ive, and ·hird dec1ension
ad·ec·ives are a11 i-s·ems. (Loo' a· Chap·er 16 if vou're no· sure
wha· I'm ·a1'ing abou·.) Le·'s 1oo' a· ·he dec1ension of ·his
suffix. The mascu1ine and feminine nomina·ives are "-ior", and ·he
neu·er nomina·ive is "-ius". The s·em of ·he ending is "-ior-".
Ðec1ine ·he compara·ive ad·ec·iva1 suffix. The compara·ive ending
"-ior, -ius" essen·ia11v ·e11s vou ·ha· i· is a ·hird dec1ension
ad·ec·ive of ·wo ·ermina·ions. Simp1v a··ach ·he proper ·hird
dec1ension case endings ·o ·he s·em "-ior-". Ðon'· forge· ·he
ru1es of ·he neu·er. (Chec' vour wor' in Whee1oc'.)
MASCULINE ANÐ EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. -ior -ius
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
N/V. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
How did vou do? Ðo vou see ·he pa··erns a· wor'? The s·em
"-ior-" p1us ·he cases endings from ·he ·hird dec1ension non
i-s·em. These are ·he inf1ec·ed endings vou ·hen a··ach ·o ·he
s·em of ·he ad·ec·ives. So ·o ma'e anv ad·ec·ive compara·ive,
regard1ess of i·s origina1 dec1ension -- 1s· and 2nd, or 3rd -- vou
a··ach ·hese endings ·o ·he s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive and ·hen dec1ine
·he ad·ec·ive in ·he ·hird dec1ension. This is impor·an· ·o
remember. As soon as an ad·ec·ive is pu· in·o ·he compara·ive
degree, i· ge·s i·s case endings from ·he ·hird dec1ension, because
·ha·'s how ·he compara·ive suffix dec1ines. Le·'s 1oo' a· some
examp1es of ·his.
AÐJECTIVE STEM COMRARATIVE ÐEGREE
bea·us, -a, -um bea·- bea·ior, -ius
for·is, -e for·- for·ior, -ius
po·ens, po·en·is po·en·- po·en·ior, -ius
ÐRILL
Ðec1ine ·he fo11owing expressions:
wiser p1an more powerfu1 ci·v
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
THE SURERLATIVE ÐEGREE OE AÐJECTIVES
The super1a·ive degree of ad·ec·ives is even easier ·o form. I·'s
simp1v ·he s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive p1us ·he suffix "-issim-" p1us ·he
firs· and second dec1ension ad·ec·iva1 endings "-us, -a, -um".
Hence a11 ad·ec·ives in ·he super1a·ive degree dec1ine 1i'e ·he
simp1ies· ad·ec·ives vou 'now: ·he firs· and second dec1ension
·vpes, ·us· 1i'e "magnus, -a, -um". The on1v ·ric' is ·o use ·he
proper s·em. Eor examp1e:
AÐJECTIVE STEMSURERLATIVE ÐEGREE
bea·us, -a, -um bea·- bea·issimus, -a, -um
for·is, -e for·- for·issimus, -a, -um
po·ens, po·en·is po·en·- po·en·issimus, -a, -um
TRANSLATIONS OE THE COMRARATIVE ANÐ SURERLATIVE ÐEGREES
You mav we11 wonder whv we need ·o bo·her wi·h how ·he degrees of
·he ad·ec·ives are ·rans1a·ed. I·'s obvious ·ha· ·he compara·ive
wi11 be ·rans1a·ed "more X" or "X-er" and ·ha· ·he super1a·ive wi11
be ·rans1a·ed "mos· X" or "X-es·". And, in fac· ·hese are common
wavs of ·rans1a·ing ·hem in·o Eng1ish. Bu· of·en, verv of·en, ·he
compara·ive and super1a·ive degrees are used "abso1u·e1v"; ·ha· is,
wi·hou· anv·hing being direc· compared ·o ·he qua1i·v depic·ed in
·he ad·ec·ive. La·in can use ·he compara·ive degree ·o sav "A is
X-er ·han B", bu· i· can a1so use ·he compara·ive degree ·o sav "A
is ra·her X". Simi1ar1v, La·in can use ·he super1a·ive degree ·o
sav "A is mos· X of a11", or ·o sav "A is verv X". Hence ·he
ad·ec·ive "1ongior, -ius" can mean "1onger", if ·here's some·hing
being compared, or i· can mean ·us· "ra·her 1ong", if ·here isn'·
anv·hing being compared. Simi1ar1v, "1ongissimus, -a, -um", can
mean "1onges·", or i· can mean "verv 1ong". If ·here is no·hing
being compared ·o ·he noun wi·h respec· ·o ·he qua1i·v designed in
·he ad·ec·ive, ·hen use "ra·her" or "verv" ins·ead of "more" or
"mos·".
THE USE OE THE AÐVERB QUAM
The adverb "quam" is used 1i'e our word "·han" in a comparison ·o
1in' ·he ·wo ·erms of ·he comparison. "Thev are more happv ·han
we". A1·hough we ·end ·o s1op over i· in Eng1ish, vou mus·
remember ·ha· in La·in ·he ·wo ·hings being compared mus· be in ·he
same case. In ·he examp1e I ·us· gave, we migh· be ·emp·ed ·o sav
"Thev are happier ·han us", and we probab1v shou1d sav "us" if
we're in a si·ua·ion when erudi·ion migh· be ·he cause of some
scorn or suspicion. Bu· ·echnica11v, because "·hev" is ·he poin·
of comparison, and because "·hev" is in ·he nomina·ive case, we
shou1d use "we" and no· "us". And so a1so, "Thev are happier ·han
she [is|". In La·in, ·he "quam" is 1i'e an equa1 sign: i· requires
·he same case on each side of ·he comparison. S·udv ·hese
examp1es.
1. Sun· bea·iores quam ego. (Thev are happier ·han I).
2. I11e es· bea·ior quam hic. (Tha· man is happier ·han ·his
man.)
3. Ru·o i11os esse bea·iores quam hos. (I ·hin' ·ha· ·hose men
are happier ·han ·hese men.)
4. Nemo es· s·u1·ior quam ei qui 1ibros numquam 1egun·. (No one
is more foo1ish ·han ·hose who never read boo's.)
"Quam" can a1so be used wi·h an ad·ec·ive in ·he super1a·ive degree
·o mean "as X as possib1e". In fac·, some·imes ·he who1e
cons·ruc·ion is wri··en ou· 1i'e ·his: "quam po·es· 1ongissimus":
"as 1ong as is possib1e".
THE ROSSESSIVE RRONOUN
There is one o·her issue I'd 1i'e ·o ·a'e up even ·hough i·'s no·
in Whee1oc'. I· causes s·uden·s some confusion. Consider ·his
sen·ence. "Our ci·v is more i11us·rious ·han vours". The fina1
word in ·he sen·ence, "vours" is s·anding in for "vour ci·v": "Our
ci·v is more i11us·rious ·han vour ci·v". Bu· Eng1ish has a wav of
simp1ifving ·he fu11 cons·ruc·ion bv using a "possessive pronoun".
Chec' bo·h words here: "pronoun", meaning a word which s·ands in
for ano·her, and "possessive", meaning a word ·ha· shows
possession. The possessive pronouns in Eng1ish for ·he differen·
numbers and persons are: "mine, ours, vours, his, hers, i·s,
·heirs".
La·in has no equiva1en· of ·he possessive pronoun, which we
find so usefu1. Ins·ead, La·in uses ·he possessive ad·ec·ive in
·he number and gender of ·he noun which has been omi··ed, and in
·he case required bv ·he cons·ruc·ion of ·he sen·ence. Li'e ·his.
1. "Veni cum amicis meis; veni· cum suis". (I came wi·h mv
friends; he came wi·h his.)
2. "Nos·ra civi·as es· c1arior quam ves·ra". (Our ci·v is more
i11us·rious ·han vours.)
3. "Mea ma·er es· sapien·ior quam ·ua". (Mv mo·her is wiser ·han
vours.)
ÐRILLS
Trans1a·e ·he fo11owing sen·ences in·o La·in.
1. Your ci·v is ra·her shamefu1.
____________________________________________________________
2. Thev said ·ha· ·his [woman| is happier ·han ·ha· [woman|.
____________________________________________________________
3. Their friends are wiser ·han ours.
____________________________________________________________
4. The ·vran· was verv harsh. ("acerbus, -a, -um")
____________________________________________________________
5. This road was as 1ong as possib1e.
____________________________________________________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
quidam, quaedam, quiddam or quoddam
Obvious1v ·his word is an inf1ec·ed form of ·he
re1a·ive pronoun "qui, quae, quod" wi·h an
indec1inab1e suffix "-dam" a··ached. I· has a se·
of c1ose1v re1a·ed meanings which ma'e i·s
·rans1a·ion a 1i··1e s1ipperv a· firs·. When used
as an ad·ec·ive, i· means "a cer·ain" or "some":
"quidam auc·or" (some au·hor); "quaedam ·errae"
(some 1ands), e·c. When i· is used as a pronoun,
i· means "somebodv", "some·hing", "some peop1e",
"some·hings". "Quidam pu·an· eum s·u1·um esse"
(Some peop1e ·hin' he is foo1ish.) "Quiddam" is
·he neu·er form used when ·he word is being used as
an ad·ec·ive; "quoddam" when i·'s being used as a
pronoun. "Eeci· quiddam consi1ium" (He made some
p1an); "Eeci· quoddam" (He made some·hing). You'11
have ·o wor' some ·o 'eep ·his word dis·inc· from
"quidem" (indeed). I remembered ·he difference
·his wav. "Quidem" has "-e-", 1i'e "indeed".
"Quidam" has an "-a-" as when vou're saving "ah.".
because vou can'· come up wi·h ·he name for
some·hing.
quam You've see ·his before, meaning "how", as in "Quam
du1ce es· bea·am vi·am agere" (How swee· i· is ·o
1ive a happv 1ife). In ·his chap·er, vou 1earned
·ha· i· is ·he adverb of comparison "·han", and
·ha· i· can a1so be used wi·h a super1a·ive degree
of ·he ad·ec·ive ·o mean "as X as possib1e", where
X is ·he meaning of ·he ad·ec·ive.
vi·o (1) S·uden·s a1wavs confuse ·his wi·h "vivo" (·o 1ive).
Trv ·o remember ·his: when vou see ·he verb "vi·o",
i·'s inevi·ab1e (unavoidab1e) ·ha· vou'11 confuse
i· wi·h some·hing e1se.
1/10/93
CHARTER 27
"Specia1 and Irregu1ar Comparison of
Ad·ec·ives"
The ·i·1e of ·his chap·er savs i· a11: some ad·ec·ives in La·in
form ·heir compara·ive and super1a·ive degrees irregu1ar1v. Bu·
don'· panic. The irregu1ari·ies are en·ire1v 1imi·ed ei·her ·o ·he
s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive uses in ·he compara·ive and super1a·ive
degrees, or ·o ·he wav ·he compara·ive or super1a·ive endings are
a··ached ·o ·he s·em. The irregu1ari·ies do no· affec· ·he wav ·he
ad·ec·ives dec1ine in ·he compara·ive or super1a·ive degrees. You
a1readv have experience wi·h irregu1ar comparison in 1o·s of
Eng1ish ad·ec·ives:
good be··er bes·
bad worse wors·
1i··1e sma11er sma11es·
much (manv) more mos·
If vou ·a'e a c1ose 1oo' a· ·he degrees of ·hese ad·ec·ives vou can
see ·ha· for a11 of ·hem ·he s·em is changed from ·he posi·ive ·o
·he compara·ive and super1a·ive degrees. I·'s no· "good, gooder,
goodes·", because Eng1ish subs·i·u·es ano·her s·em in p1ace of ·he
one vou wou1d expec· if vou were ·hough·1ess1v fo11owing ·he ru1es
·ha· app1v ·o ·he regu1ar ad·ec·ives. Now 1oo' more c1ose1v. Even
·hough ·he s·ems have changed, vou can s·i11 of·en see ·he regu1ar
compara·ive and super1a·ive endings "-er" and "-es·" a··ached ·o
·he irregu1ar s·em.
AÐJECTIVES WITH IRREGULAR STEMS
The posi·ive degree of ·he ad·ec·ive meaning "good" is "bonus, -a,
-um", a firs· and second dec1ension ad·ec·ive. To form ·he
compara·ive degree, vou use ano·her s·em, "me1-", ·o which vou add
·he compara·ive ad·ec·iva1 ending "-ior, -ius". Review ·he
compara·ive endings "-ior, -ius" from Chap·er 26 if vou have ·o and
dec1ine ·he ad·ec·ive "me1ior, -ius".
MASCULINE ANÐ EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
N/V. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
There was rea11v no reason for vou ·o dec1ine ·his ad·ec·ive.
I· fo11ows precise1v ·he same pa··ern as ·he regu1ar compara·ive
degree. I ·us· wan· vou ·o be1ieve ·ha· ·he irregu1ar compara·ive
degree isn'· comp1e·e1v irregu1ar: i·s irregu1ari·v is 1imi·ed ·o
·he s·em i· uses and does no· affec· i·s dec1ension a· a11.
Rerhaps vou have some bad fee1ings a1readv abou· a11 ·he new
forms vou're going ·o have ·o memorize. There's no escaping ·he
hard fac· ·ha· vou wi11 have ·o memorize ·hree forms for irregu1ar
ad·ec·ives, bu· ·here's a wav ·o ame1iora·e ·he prob1em. These
irregu1ar s·ems of·en are ·he roo·s are Eng1ish words, so if vou
1earn ·he Eng1ish deriva·ives, i· wi11 much easier ·o fix ·he
irregu1ar s·ems in vour memorv. Eor examp1e, from ·he s·em "me1-"
we ge· ·he Eng1ish verb "ame1iora·e", which means "·o ma'e be··er,
improve".
Le·'s move on now ·o ·he super1a·ive degree of ·he ad·ec·ive
"bonus, -a, -um": i·'s "op·imus, -a, -um". Obvious1v we ge· ·he
Eng1ish words "op·imis·", "op·ima1", "op·imum", and o·hers from
·his s·em, bu· no·ice ·ha· ·he super1a·ive degree simp1v uses ·he
"-us, -a, -um" endings wi·hou· ·he "-issim-" infix which ·he
regu1ar ad·ec·ives use. You'11 have no prob1em ad·us·ing ·o ·his.
Here are some more irregu1ar ad·ec·ives wi·h a few commen·s.
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
magnus, -a, -um maior, maius maximus, -a, -um
(grea·) (grea·er) (grea·es·)
The compara·ive degree "maior" wi11 1oo' more fami1iar if vou add
a ·ai1 ·o ·he in·ervoca1ic "-i-": "ma·or". (A Ma·or is grea·er
·han a Cap·ain.) Remember, now, ·ha· even ·hough i· 1oo's a 1i··1e
odd, "maior" wi11 dec1ine qui·e norma11v: maioris, maiori, e·c.,
wi·h "ma-" as ·he s·em.
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
ma1us, -a, -um peior, peius pessimus, -a, -um
(bad) (worse) (wors·)
Use ·he same ·ric' wi·h ·he in·ervoca1ic "-i-" in "peior".
"Re·ora·ive" means "deroga·orv, disparaging", from ·he La·in sense
of "worse".
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
parvus, -a, -um minor, minus minimus, -a, -um
(sma11) (sma11er) (sma11es·)
The compara·ive degree 1oo's odd: ·he ad·ec·iva1 ending "-ior,
-ius" seems ·o be missing. I·'s ·here; on1v ·he "-i-" is missing.
You dec1ine "minor, minus" as vou norma11v wou1d, bu· ·us· 1eave
·he "-i-" off. Trv i·:
MASCULINE ANÐ EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
N/V. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Ða·. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Ab1. _______________ _______________
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
superus, -a, -um superior, -ius supremus, -a, -um
(above) (higher) (1as·)
summus, -a, -um
(highes·)
The on1v pecu1iari·v of ·his ad·ec·ive are ·he ·wo super1a·ive
degrees which are derived from i·. "Summus" means "highes·", and
so does "supremus", bu· "supremus" can a1so mean "1as·". Thin' of
i· ·his wav. We're s·and a· ·he bo··om of a 1ong 1adder ·ha·'s
ex·ending upward. The ob·ec· which is ·he highes· on ·he 1adder is
·he "1as·" we wou1d reach as we ascend. So La·in can sav "supremo
die" (on ·he 1as· dav). The poin· is, bo·h "summus" and "supremus"
can mean "highes·", bu· "supremus" of·en can have ·he ex·ended
meaning "1as·".
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
(pro, prae) prior, -ius primus, -a, -um
(before) (prior, previous) (firs·)
The ad·ec·ives "prior" and "primus" are compara·ive and
super1a·ive degrees of an ad·ec·ive ·ha· doesn'· exis· in ·he
posi·ive degree. "Rro" and "prae" are preposi·ions, no·
ad·ec·ives, and ·hev can mean "before".
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
mu1·us, -a, -um p1us, p1uris (n) p1urimus, -a, -um
(much; manv) p1ures, p1ura (verv manv; mos·)
(more)
The chief difficu1·v wi·h ·his ad·ec·ive, as vou can see,
comes in ·he compara·ive degree. In ·he singu1ar of ·he
compara·ive, ·he ad·ec·ive "mu1·us" becomes a neu·er noun "p1us,
p1uris (n). I· isn'· an ad·ec·ive a· a11. I·'s a noun which means
"more". La·in uses i· wi·h a geni·ive case of ·he noun: "p1us
pecuniae" (more of monev). Li'e ·his:
N/V. p1us pecuniae (more monev)
Gen. p1uris pecuniae (of more monev)
Ða·. ----- -----
Acc. p1us pecuniae (more monev)
Ab1. p1ure pecuniae (bv/wi·h more
monev)
In ·he p1ura1, however, ·he word for "more" becomes an
ad·ec·ive, and dec1ines ·us· as vou wou1d expec· a norma1 ·hird
dec1ension ad·ec·ive ·o dec1ine. One se· of forms for ·he
mascu1ine and feminine, and one for ·he neu·er:
MASCULINE ANÐ EEMININE NEUTER
N/V. p1ures p1ura
Gen. p1urium p1urium
Ða·. p1uribus p1uribus
Acc. p1ures p1ura
Ab1. p1uribus p1uribus
There is a dis·inc·ion ·o be main·ained be·ween "p1us, p1uris,
(n)" and "p1ures, p1ura". The ad·ec·ive "mu1·us, -a, -um" means
"much" or "manv", and ·hese ·wo words, "much" and "manv" are no·
in·erchangeab1e in Eng1ish. We use ·he ad·ec·ive "much" when we're
·a1'ing abou· some·hing which can'· be coun·ed up individua11v; we
use "manv" when i· can. Eor examp1e, we sav "much mud", or "much
monev". I· wou1d sound odd ·o sav "manv muds" or "manv monevs".
We cou1d possib1v sav "manv muds" we're mudo1ogis·s and we're
·a1'ing abou· manv differen· 'inds of muds around ·he wor1d:
Chinese mud, Korean food, Erench mud, and so on. In ·his case ·he
mud ·vpes wou1d in fac· be coun·ab1e, and ·he ad·ec·ive "manv"
wou1d be appropria·e: "There are manv muds in ·he wor1d ·odav.
Some ·an, some ve11owish, and o·hers which are comp1e·e1v b1ac'".
Converse1v, we wou1dn'· sav "much ·owe1s", "much rivers", or "much
peop1e", because ·hese are ob·ec·s which are coun·ab1e. La·in uses
·he singu1ar neu·er noun "p1us, p1uris" when referring ·o
uncoun·ab1e ob·ec·s, and ·he ad·ec·ive "p1ures, p1ura" when
referring ·o coun·ab1e ob·ec·s. "R1us aeris" (more [of| bronze),
and "p1ures homines" (manv peop1e).
SURERLATIVE ÐEGREE OE AÐJECTIVES IN -R
To form ·he degrees of regu1ar ad·ec·ives, vou simp1v add "-ior,
-ius" or "-issimus, -a, -um" ·o ·he s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive. The
s·em, vou remember, is ·he form vou see in a11 ·he forms of ·he
ad·ec·ive excep· for ·he mascu1ine nomina·ive singu1ar. When ·he
ad·ec·ive ends in "-r" in ·he nomina·ive mascu1ine singu1ar,
however, ·he super1a·ive degree does some·hing s1igh·1v differen·.
These ru1es ho1d ·rue for a11 ad·ec·ives which end in "-r", no·
·us· for a chosen few. Le·'s 1oo' a· a coup1e of examp1es:
pu1cher, -chra, -chrum
1iber, -a, -um
acer, acris, acre
ce1er, ce1eris, ce1ere
The compara·ive degree of ·hese ad·ec·ives is qui·e regu1ar. You
simp1v use ·he s·em wi·h ·he compara·ive suffix "ior, -ius"
a··ached.
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE
pu1cher, -chra, -chrum ____________________
1iber, -a, -um ____________________
acer, acris, acre ____________________
ce1er, ce1eris, ce1ere ____________________
Bu· ·o form ·he super1a·ive degree of ·hese ad·ec·ives vou do ·wo
·hings: (1) use ·he mascu1ine nomina·ive singu1ar as ·he s·em, and
(2) add ·he suffix "-rimus, -a, -um". Thus, according ·o s·ep (1),
even if ·he ·rue s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive 1ac's ·he "-e-" before ·he
"-r", vou bui1d ·he super1a·ive degree from a base ending in "-er".
Adding ·he suffix "-rimus, -a, -um", vou end up wi·h a doub1ed "r".
So for ·he ad·ec·ive "piger, -a, -um" (s1ow), ·he super1a·ive
degree is "pigerrimus, -a, -um" Now wri·e ou· ·he super1a·ive
degree of ·hese ad·ec·ives.
ROSITIVE SURERLATIVE
pu1cher, -chra, -chrum ____________________
1iber, -a, -um ____________________
acer, acris, acre ____________________
ce1er, ce1eris, ce1ere ____________________
SOME AÐJECTIVES ENÐING IN -LIS
There are six ad·ec·ives in La·in ending in "-1is, -e" which have
a oddi·v in ·he forma·ion of ·he super1a·ive degree. Whee1oc'
concen·ra·es on on1v ·hree. The irregu1ari·v of ·hese ad·ec·ives
is ·ha· ·he suffix "-1imus, -a, -um" is used in p1ace of "-issimus,
-a, -um". The compara·ive degree, however, is en·ire1v regu1ar.
Eorm ·he degrees of ·he ·hree ad·ec·ives which use ·his irregu1ar
suffix in ·he super1a·ive, ·hen compare ·hem ·o ·hree o·her
ad·ec·ives in "-1is, -e" which use ·he regu1ar super1a·ive suffix.
(Remember, ·his irregu1ari·v is 1imi·ed ·o on1v six ad·ec·ives
ending in "-1is, -e". A11 o·her ad·ec·ives ending in "-1is, e"
form ·heir comparisons regu1ar1v.)
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
1. Irregu1ar
faci1is, -e _______________ _______________
simi1is, -e _______________ _______________
diffici1is, -e _______________ _______________
2. Regu1ar
mo11is, -e _______________ _______________
(sof·)
mor·a1is, -e _______________ _______________
(mor·a1)
fide1is, -e _______________ _______________
(1ova1)
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
appe11o (1) This verb in ·he passive voice is a
copu1a·ive verb, 1in'ing ·he sub·ec· ·o a
predica·e nomina·ive. "He is ca11ed
Bru·us" wou1d be "Appe11a·ur Bru·us", no·
"Bru·um".
maiores, -ium (m) Obvious1v ·his noun is derived from ·he
compara·ive ad·ec·ive for "magnus, -a,
-um". Used as a noun in ·he p1ura1, i·
means "·he grea·ers in age" or ·he
"ances·ors".
simi1is, -e I· ·a'es ·he da·ive case as i·s
comp1emen·. "Hoc non simi1e i11i" (This
is no· simi1ar ·o ·ha·.)
01/10/93
CHARTER 28
"Sub·unc·ive: Rresen· Ac·ive and Rassive;
Jussive; Rurpose"
In ·his chap·er, vou begin vour s·udv of ·he sub·unc·ive mood of
verbs bv 1earning ·he sub·unc·ive in ·he presen· ·ense and ·wo of
·he uses of ·he sub·unc·ive mood: ·he ·ussive (JUH siv or JEW
siv) sub·unc·ive and ·he purpose (or fina1) c1ause. The firs·
rea1 difficu1·v for s·uden·s ·o overcome when beginning ·he
sub·unc·ive is ·o rea1ize ·ha· ·here is no one wav ·o ·rans1a·e a
La·in verb in ·he sub·unc·ive mood. The sub·unc·ive mood is one
primari1v of svn·ax and is a1mos· a1wavs used in subordina·e
c1auses. Wha· vou mus· do is (1) 1earn ·he morpho1ogv
(forma·ion) of ·he sub·unc·ive mood, and ·hen (2) s·udv ·he
differen· wavs ·he sub·unc·ive is used in La·in ·o express wha·.
Once vou've unders·ood ·he in·en· of ·he La·in sen·ence, ·hen
vou're prepared ·o bring ·ha· meaning over in·o an appropria·e
Eng1ish cons·ruc·ion. This a11 mav sound ra·her me·aphvsica1 and
frigh·ening, bu· i· isn'· rea11v. I· ·us· means ·ha· ·he me·hod
of assigning one ·o one correspondences from La·in ·o Eng1ish and
vice versa, which mav have served vou so we11 in ·he pas·, can'·
he1p vou anvmore. You'11 1earn ·o form ·he sub·unc·ive in ·he
differen· ·enses, whi1e vou co11ec· and s·udv ·he differen· uses
of ·he sub·unc·ive. Le·'s s·ar·.
EORMATION OE THE SUBJUNCTIVE: RRESENT TENSE
The sub·unc·ive is one of ·he moods of a La·in verb. The moods
vou 'now so far are: indica·ive, impera·ive, infini·ive, and
par·icipia1. The sub·unc·ive mood is 1imi·ed ·o fini·e forms
(forms wi·h person) of ·he verb. Hence vou'11 no· have ·o worrv
over ·he sub·unc·ive infini·ive, ·he sub·unc·ive par·icip1e, e·
ce·era.
I. Sub·unc·ive of ·he Eirs· Con·uga·ion Rresen· Tense
To form ·he sub·unc·ive, presen· ·ense, a firs· con·uga·ion verb
simp1v subs·i·u·es ·he norma1 s·em vowe1 1ong "-a-" wi·h a 1ong
"-e-". The persona1 endings, ac·ive and passive, are no· changed
(excep· ·ha· ·he firs· person singu1ar ending is ·he varian· "-m"
ins·ead of "-o-"). Wri·e ou· ·he presen· sub·unc·ive ac·ive and
passive of ·he firs· con·uga·ion verb "1audo" in ·he presen·
·ense.
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
This wasn'· so difficu1·, bu· 1oo' a· ·hese forms again. If vou
didn'· 'now ·ha· ·hese forms were derived from a firs·
con·uga·ion verb, vou migh· ·hin' ·ha· some of ·he forms were
forms of ·he indica·ive from a second or ·hird con·uga·ion verb.
The form "1aude·is," for examp1e, 1oo's 1i'e i· cou1d be a
presen· ·ense from a second con·uga·ion verb, or a fu·ure ·ense
of ·he ·hird con·uga·ion non i-s·em verb. The on1v wav ·o be
sure, if vou're no· ·o·a11v fami1iar wi·h ·he verb vou're
examining, is ·o 1oo' ·he verb up and ma'e sure vou no·e i·s
con·uga·ion. When vou seen "1audo (1)" in ·he dic·ionarv, ·hen
vou can be sure ·ha· ·he form "1aude·is" is sub·unc·ive presen·
·ense. Le·'s move on.
II. Sub·unc·ive of ·he Eirs· Con·uga·ion Rresen· Tense
As vou're abou· ·o see, ·he wav a firs· con·uga·ion verb forms
·he sub·unc·ive presen· ·ense is ac·ua11v an excep·ion ·o ·he
genera1 ru1e verbs fo11ow ·o form ·he presen· sub·unc·ive mood.
A11 o·her con·uga·ions form ·he presen· sub·unc·ive bv inser·ing
a 1ong "-a-" be·ween ·he s·em and ·he persona1 endings. This
ru1e is easi1v seen in ·he second con·uga·ion: "mone + a + m =
moneam"; "mone + a + r = monear"; e·c. Wri·e ou· ·he presen·
sub·unc·ive, ac·ive and passive, of "moneo, -ere".
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
III. Sub·unc·ive of ·he Third Con·uga·ion Rresen· Tense
When vou inser· ·he 1ong "-a-" be·ween ·he s·em and ·he persona1
endings on a ·hird con·uga·ion verb, ·he s·em vowe1 shor· "-e-"
drops ou· en·ire1v, 1eaving on1v ·he "-a-" be·ween ·he persona1
endings. No·e ·ha· manv of ·he resu1·ing forms 1oo' exac·1v 1i'e
firs· con·uga·ion forms in ·he indica·ive mood. Again, vou need
·o ·a'e care from now on and 1oo' a· vour dic·ionarv en·ries
·horough1v. Wri·e ou· ·he sub·unc·ive presen· ·ense, ac·ive and
passive, of "duco, -ere".
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
IIIi. Sub·unc·ive of ·he Third Con·uga·ion i-s·ems Rresen·
Tense
In ·he presen· ·ense, ·he ex·ra "-i-" of a i-s·em verb is presen·
·hroughou· ·he forms: "capi + a + m = capiam" e·c.
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
IV. Sub·unc·ive of ·he Eour·h Con·uga·ion Rresen· Tense
The s·em vowe1 of a four·h con·uga·ion verb is a 1ong "-i-" so i·
s·avs par· of ·he s·em af·er ·he addi·ion of ·he 1ong "-a-" sign
of ·he sub·unc·ive: "audi + a + m = audiam".
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
Ðon'· forge· ·ha· ·here are no sub·unc·ive infini·ives,
impera·ives, or par·icip1es. These are a11 ·he possib1e forms of
·he La·in sub·unc·ive mood in ·he presen· ·ense. There is no
presen· sub·unc·ive par·icip1e, or presen· sub·unc·ive
infini·ive. You now 'now a11 ·he sub·unc·ive forms of ·he
presen· ·ense.
USES OE THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOÐ: THE JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
The firs· use of ·he sub·unc·ive vou'11 1earn is ·he on1v use of
·he sub·unc·ive in ·he main c1ause of a sen·ence (excep· for
condi·iona1 sen·ences). A11 o·her uses of ·he sub·unc·ive are
res·ric·ed ·o subordina·e c1auses. The ·ussive sub·unc·ive is
used when a command or exhor·a·ion is direc·ed ·o a firs· or
·hird person. (When a command is direc·ed ·oward a second
person, as vou reca11, La·in uses ·he impera·ive mood.) To issue
a prohibi·ion or nega·ive command in ·he firs· or ·hird persons,
·he nega·ive par·ic1e "ne" is used, no· "non". We direc·
commands ·o firs· and ·hird persons wi·h our cons·ruc·ion
"1e·..". and nega·e ·hem wi·h "1e·...no·..".
INÐICATIVE JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Viros bonos 1audamus Viros bonos 1audemus.
(We are praising good men.) (Le·'s praise good men.)
Veniun·. Venian·.
(Thev are coming.) (Le· ·hem come.)
Libros ma1os non 1egimus. Ne 1ibros ma1os 1egamus.
(We don'· read bad boo's.) (Le·'s no· read bad boo's.)
THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN RURROSE CLAUSES
A purpose c1ause is, as ·he name ·e11s us, a subordina·e c1ause
which exp1ain ·he purpose for which ·he ac·ion in ·he main c1ause
was under·a'en. Eng1ish has basica11v ·wo wav ·o show purpose:
(1) infini·ive, some·imes supp1emen·ed wi·h "in order," and (2) a
subordina·e c1ause in·roduce bv "so ·ha·" or "so" or "in order
·ha·" of·en wi·h ·he condi·iona1 mood of ·he verb. Le·'s 1oo' a·
·he infini·ive showing purpose firs·.
"She is coming ·o he1p (or in order ·o he1p)".
"Thev are sending him ·o ·e11 vou wha· ·o do".
"The dog has a 1ong nose ·o sme11 be··er".
"In order ·o serve vou be··er, our s·ore has ins·a11ed an·i-
·hef· devices".
Now 1e·'s rewri·e ·hese sen·ences using me·hod (2) -- as fu11
subordina·e c1auses wi·h fini·e verbs:
"She is coming so ·ha· she mav he1p".
"Thev are sending him so ·ha· he mav ·e11 vou wha· ·o do".
"The dog has a 1ong nose so ·ha· i· mav sme11 be··er".
"In order ·ha· we mav serve vou be··er, our s·ore has
ins·a11ed an·i-·hef· devices".
Some of ·hese mav sound ra·her over-b1own; our na·ive Eng1ish
sense 1eans ·oward simp1ici·v. Bu· ·here are manv cases where we
mus· we ·he subordina·e c1ause ·o show purpose. Eor examp1e,
·here is no wav, shor· of considerab1e re-wri·ing, ·o simp1ifv
·hese purpose c1auses down ·o infini·ives.
"We are coming so ·ha· vou won'· have ·o wor' so hard".
"She is wri·ing ·he paper so ·ha· vou can 1eave ear1v".
The La·in prose vou're s·udving has on1v one wav ·o show purpose:
a fu11 subordina·e c1ause in·roduced bv "u·" or "ne" (·he
nega·ive) p1us a fini·e verb in ·he sub·unc·ive mood. I· never
uses ·he infini·ive ·o show purpose, ·he wav Eng1ish does. We
can ·rans1a·e ·he La·in purpose c1ause in whichever of ·he ·wo
Eng1ish purpose cons·ruc·ion seems mos· na·ura1 ·o us, bu· never
·rv ·o ·rans1a·e an infini·ive showing purpose in Eng1ish
direc·1v in·o a La·in infini·ive.
Id faci· u· eos adiuve·.
(He is doing i· ·o he1p ·hem [or in order ·o he1p ·hem,
or so ·ha· he mav he1p ·hem|.)
Veniun· ne civi·a·es de1ean·ur.
(Thev are coming so ·ha· ·he ci·ies wi11 no· be
des·roved.)
Haec dici· u· discipu1i omnia in·e11egan·.
(He is saving ·hese ·hings so ·ha· ·he s·uden·s wi11
unders·and everv·hing.)
Mu1·os 1ibros 1egi· ne s·u1·a videa·ur.
(She reads manv boo's so ·ha· she won'· seem foo1ish.)
A EINAL WORÐ
"Rea1" La·in uses ·he sub·unc·ive mood near1v as of·en as ·he
indica·ive mood, so, obvious1v, vou mus· ·horough1v mas·er ·he
forms and ·he uses of ·he sub·unc·ive. Bu· bevond ·ha·, vou mus·
a1so begin ·o read La·in, no· word bv word, bu· 1e··er bv 1e··er.
You mus· s·rive ·o unders·and everv ·inv ·wis· and ·urn of ·he
morpho1ogv of ·he verbs. As vou 'now, ·he difference be·ween an
indica·ive and sub·unc·ive mood is verv of·en ·us· one 1e··er; i·
seems 1i'e a microscopic difference, bu· if vou fai1 ·o no·e i·,
vour en·ire sen·ence wi11 come grinding ·o a ha1·. I s·rong1v
recommend ·ha· vou firs· ·hrow ·his boo' down for a few hours and
1e· i· "coo1" off. Nex· 1oo' over ·he vocabu1arv brief1v, wri·e
down ·he en·ire en·rv for each verb, and ·urn ·o ·he se1f-he1p
·u·oria1s for ·his chap·er, cons·an·1v chec'ing ·he answers.
Then ·hrow ·he boo' down. Af·er a few hours -- or ·he nex· dav -
- 1oo' over ·he vocabu1arv again, and s·ar· ·he assignmen·. You
simp1v mus· s1ow down some and wa·ch vour s·eps carefu11v as vou
begin ·he sub·unc·ive. If vou ge· off ·he pa·h now, vou'11 ge·
more and more 1os· in ·he fu·ure. Bv ·he end of Chap·er 30,
vou'11 have s·udied a11 ·he forms of ·he sub·unc·ive and manv of
i·s mos· common uses -- and ·ha·'s a pre··v quic' pace.
01/10/93
CHARTER 29
"Imperfec· Sub·unc·ive; Rresen· and Imperfec·
Sub·unc·ive of Sum and Rossum; The Resu1· C1ause"
EORMATION OE THE IMREREECT SUBJUNCTIVE
Whee1oc' ·e11s vou ·ha· ·he imperfec· sub·unc·ive is an easv form
·o recognize and ·o produce. He ·e11s vou ·ha· i· is, in effec·,
·he presen· ac·ive infini·ive p1us ·he persona1 endings, ac·ive
or passive. A1·hough ·his mav be a convenien· wav ·o 1oo' a· i·,
i· isn'· qui·e ·rue. The ac·ua1 morpho1ogv is ·us· a 1i··1e more
comp1ica·ed, and, ·o spare vourse1f some confusion in ·he fu·ure,
vou shou1d 1earn ·he rea1 his·orv of ·he imperfec· sub·unc·ive.
The formu1a for ·he imperfec· sub·unc·ive is
1s· principa1 par· + se + persona1 endings
Because ·he "s" of ·he infix "se" wi11 be in·ervoca1ic, i·
changes ·o an "r," hence giving ·he appearance of ·he regu1ar
ac·ive infini·ive ending "-re". The persona1 endings are ·hose
vou use in ·he presen· svs·em. (Use "-m" ins·ead of "-o" in ·he
firs· person singu1ar.) So for ·he firs· con·uga·ions, ·he forms
1oo' 1i'e ·his:
1auda + se + m = 1audasem - 1audarem
1auda + se + m = 1audases - 1audares
Le·'s have a 1oo' a· ·he imperfec· sub·unc·ive in a11 i·s forms
in a11 ·he con·uga·ions.
I. Laudo (1)
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
II. Moneo, -ere, monui, moni·us
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
III. Ðuco, -ere, duxi, duc·us
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
III i. Capio, -ere, cepi, cap·us
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
IV. Audio, -ire, audivi, audi·us
ACTIVE RASSIVE
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
As vou can see bv 1oo'ing bac' over ·hese forms, ·he imperfec·
sub·unc·ive does in fac· 1oo' 1i'e ·he presen· ac·ive infini·ive
wi·h persona1 endings a··ached. You can ·hin' of i· ·his wav if
vou wish, provided ·ha· vou're aware ·ha· ·his unders·anding wi11
have ·o be revised in ·he near fu·ure.
Whee1oc' a1so ·e11s vou ·ha· ·he imperfec· sub·unc·ive is used in
subordina·e c1ause when ·he verb of ·he main c1ause is a pas·
·ense. Tha·'s ·ure, bu· don'· worrv abou· i· for now. You
shou1d ·us· be a1er·ed ·o ·he fac· ·ha·, ·us· 1i'e par·icip1es
and infini·ives, verb in ·he sub·unc·ive mood don'· have abso1u·e
·ense, bu· ra·her ·hev express ·ime re1a·ive ·o ·he ·ense of ·he
main verb. This wi11 a11 be exp1ained in Chap·er 30. Your ·as'
in ·his chap·er is ·o 1earn ·o recognize an imperfec· sub·unc·ive
when vou see i·.
SUBJUNCTIVE OE "SUM" ANÐ "ROSSUM"
The presen· sub·unc·ive of "sum" is ·he s·em "si-" p1us ·he
ac·ive persona1 endings. (No passive forms, obvious1v. Wha·
wou1d ·he verb "·o be" mean in ·he passive voice?) The imperfec·
sub·unc·ive is ·he firs· principa1 par· p1us "se" p1us ·he ac·ive
persona1 endings. Hence
es + se + m = essem
SUM, ESSE
RRESENT IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
As vou no doub· reca11, ·he verb "possum" in La·in is a compound
of ·he ad·ec·ive "po·-" and ·he verb "sum". If vou add ·he
"po·-" ·he presen· sub·unc·ive of "sum," ·he "·" of "po·-" wi11
a1wavs assimi1a·e ·o "s". Since a11 ·he forms of ·he presen·
sub·unc·ive of "sum" begin wi·h "s". The imperfec· sub·unc·ive
of "possum" is bes· ·hough· of as ·he presen· infini·ive p1us
persona1 endings -- ·he presen· infini·ive of "possum," ·ha· is,
which is "posse". Wri·e ou· ·he presen· and imperfec·
sub·unc·ive of "possum".
ROSSUM, ROSSE
RRESENT IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
THE RESULT CLAUSE
A subordina·e c1ause which shows ·he consequence or resu1· of
some·hing in ·he main c1ause is ca11ed, na·ura11v enough, a
Resu1· (or Consecu·ive) C1ause. We of·en ·ip off our 1is·ener in
Eng1ish ·ha· a Resu1· C1ause is comming up bv inser·ing adverbs
1i'e "so" or "such" in ·he main c1ause, and ·he resu1· c1ause
i·se1f is in·roduced bv ·he subordina·ing con·unc·ion "·ha·".
"The ec1ipse made ·he s'v so dar' ·ha· i· seemed 1i'e
nigh·".
"Thev wro·e so bad1v ·ha· no one cou1d read ·he 1e··er".
"She was such a good a·h1e·e ·ha· she easi1v ·umped over ·he
fence".
La·in resu1· c1auses are a1so frequen·1v an·icipa·ed bv adverbs
or specia1 ad·ec·ives in ·he main c1ause -- "i·a, sic, ·am,
·an·us, -a, -um". The c1ause i·se1f i· in·roduced bv "u·" when
·he resu1· c1ause is posi·ive, and bv "u·" wi·h a nega·ive in ·he
c1ause when ·he resu1· is nega·ed. The verb is pu· in·o ·he
sub·unc·ive mood.
In ·he posi·ive resu1· c1ause, when "u·" is used as ·he
subordina·ing con·unc·ion, vou mav ·hin' ·ha· some confusion
be·ween a purpose and a resu1· c1ause is possib1e: ·hev're bo·h
in·roduced bv "u·" and have a sub·unc·ive verb. This is ·rue in
·heorv, bu· in prac·ice i· happens rare1v. If vou see "i·a,"
"sic," "·am," or "·an·us, -a, -um" in ·he main c1ause and an "u·"
c1ause, ·hen vou 'now for cer·ain ·ha· ·he "u·" c1ause is a
resu1· c1ause. In ·he ma·ori·v of cases, resu1· c1auses are
an·icipa·ed somehow in ·he main c1ause. There is no possibi1i·v
of confusing a nega·ive purpose c1ause wi·h a nega·ive resu1·
c1ause. Nega·ive purpose c1auses are in·roduced wi·h "ne;"
nega·ive resu1· c1auses s·ar· wi·h "u·" and ·hen nega·e ·he verb
in ·he c1ause wi·h "non," "numquam" e·c., or bv using a nega·ive
pronoun such as "nemo".
Id sic fecerun· u· omnes me·u 1iberaren·ur. ("Thev did i· in
such a wav ·ha· evervone was freed from fear".)
Scripserun· i·a ma1e u· nemo 1i··eras 1egere posse·. ("Thev
wro·e so bad1v, ·ha· no one was ab1e ·o read ·he 1e··er".)
Tan·um ferrum ·eneba· u· ·erri·i hos·es fugeren·. ("He was
ho1ding such a grea· sword ·ha· ·he ·errified enemv ran awav".)
Whee1oc' gives vou severa1 examp1es in ·he chap·er which show vou
·he difference be·ween purpose and resu1· c1auses. You shou1d
s·udv ·hem carefu11v -- and bv a11 means wor' ·hrough his
se1f-he1p ·u·oria1s for ·his chap·er. I· ·a'es a whi1e for ·his
a11 ·o se··1e in.
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
i·a, sic, ·am The adverbs which an·icipa·e resu1· c1auses are
no· en·ire1v in·erchangeab1e. "Sic" is used
primari1v ·o qua1ifv verbs: "Id sic feci· u·..".
The o·her ·wo, "i·a" and "·am" can qua1ifv verbs,
ad·ec·ives or o·her adverbs: "Via era· ·am [i·a|
1onga u·..". or "Tam [i·a| ma1e scripserun· u·..".
or "Id ·am [i·a| feci· u·..".
·an·us, -a, -um This ad·ec·ive for some reason a1wavs ·hrows
s·uden·s off a· firs·. I· means basica11v
"so grea·" bu· some f1exibi1i·v is required
·o ge· ·his over in·o smoo·h Eng1ish. S·udv
carefu11v ·he wav ·his ad·ec·ive is used.
quidem I·'s an adverb meaning "indeed, cer·ain1v," and is
pos·posi·ive (i·'s never ·he firs· word in a
sen·ence or c1ause.) This poses no prob1em. Bu·
·he expression "ne...quidem" is some·imes
difficu1· ·o spo·. "Ne X quidem" means "no· even
X". Wa·ch ou· for ·his. When vou see "quidem,"
chec' ·o see whe·her ·here is a "ne" one word
bac'. If vou miss ·his cons·ruc·ion, vou'11 mess
up ·he sen·ence bad1v.
01/10/93
CHARTER 30
"Rerfec· and R1uperfec· Sub·unc·ive Ac·ive and
Rassive; Sequence of Tenses; Indirec· Ques·ions"
As ·he ·i·1e indica·es, ·his chap·er has a 1o· of new informa·ion
i·. I sugges· ·ha· vou ·rv ·o diges· i· in ·wo si··ings: ·he
perfec· svs·em sub·unc·ive and ·he sequence of ·enses firs·, and
·hen ·he sec·ion on indirec· ques·ions -- which draws on ·he
firs· ·wo ·opics.
REREECT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE
The perfec· svs·em ·enses, as vou 'now, are ·he perfec·,
p1uperfec· and fu·ure perfec·; ·hev are bui1· on ·he ·hird
principa1 par· of ·he verb (for ·he ac·ive voice) and ·he four·h
principa1 par· (for ·he passive voice). In ·he sub·unc·ive mood,
however, ·here is no fu·ure perfec· ·ense -- ·us· as ·here was no
fu·ure sub·unc·ive in ·he presen· svs·em. The sub·unc·ive abhors
·he fu·ure. So vou'11 be 1earning on1v ·wo ·enses of ·he
sub·unc·ive for ·he perfec· svs·em: ·he perfec· and ·he
p1uperfec·. As Whee1oc' ·e11s vou, and ·his can hard1v be
overemphasized, verbs of a11 con·uga·ions opera·e according ·o
·he same ru1es in ·he perfec· svs·em, so vou needn'· 1oo' a·
verbs of ·he differen· con·uga·ions ·o 'now how ·hev're going ·o
wor'. Once vou ge· ·o ·he ·hird and four·h principa1 par·s of
·he verbs, regard1ess of ·heir origina1 con·uga·ions, ·here is
on1v one se· of ru1es a11 verbs fo11ow.
REREECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
The formu1a for ·he perfec· sub·unc·ive ac·ive is:
3rd principa1 par· + eri + persona1 endings
The one oddi·v is ·ha· ·he persona1 endings used for ·he
sub·unc·ive mood in ·he perfec· svs·em are no· ·he endings vou
1earned for ·he perfec· svs·em in ·he indica·ive; ·he endings are
no· "-i, -is·i, -i·, -imus, -is·is, -erun·". The perfec· svs·em
sub·unc·ive uses ·he same endings which are used in ·he presen·
svs·em: "-m, -s, -·, -mus, -·is, -n·". Linguis·s use ·his fac·
as evidence ·ha· ·he sub·unc·ive mood is somehow c1ose1v re1a·ed
·o ·he presen· svs·em of ·enses.
RLUREREECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
The formu1a for ·he p1uperfec· sub·unc·ive ac·ive is:
3rd principa1 par· + isse + persona1 endings
As Whee1oc' ·e11s vou, ·his amoun·s ·o ·he perfec· infini·ive,
which is ·he ·hird principa1 par· + isse, wi·h persona1 endings
a··ached ·o ·he end. Again, ·he persona1 endings are no· "eram,
eras," e·c.; ·hev are "-m, -s," e·c.
Le·'s 1oo' a· ·he perfec· and p1uperfec· sub·unc·ive ac·ive
for a coup1e of verbs. Wri·e ou· ·he forms for ·he fo11owing
verbs.
Ðuco, -ere, duxi, duc·us
REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ______________________ ______________________
2nd ______________________ ______________________
3rd ______________________ ______________________
1s· ______________________ ______________________
2nd ______________________ ______________________
3rd ______________________ ______________________
Audio, -ire, audivi, audi·us
REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ______________________ ______________________
2nd ______________________ ______________________
3rd ______________________ ______________________
1s· ______________________ ______________________
2nd ______________________ ______________________
3rd ______________________ ______________________
Rogo (1)
REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ______________________ ______________________
2nd ______________________ ______________________
3rd ______________________ ______________________
1s· ______________________ ______________________
2nd ______________________ ______________________
3rd ______________________ ______________________
EUTURE REREECT INÐICATIVE ANÐ REREECT SUBJUNCTIVE COMRAREÐ
Whee1oc' warns vou ·ha· ·he perfec· sub·unc·ive is verv simi1ar
·o ·he fu·ure perfec· indica·ive. Le·'s have a c1ose 1oo'. The
fu·ure perfec· indica·ive is bui1· on ·he ·hird principa1 par·
and uses ·he fu·ure of ·he verb "sum" for i·s persona1 endings
(excep· for ·he ·hird person p1ura1, where i·'s "erin·" and no·
"erun·"). Compare ·he fu·ure perfec· indica·ive wi·h ·he perfec·
sub·unc·ive from ·he verb "1audo (1)".
EUTURE REREECT INÐICATIVE REREECT SUBJUNCTIVE
1s· ______________________ ______________________
2nd ______________________ ______________________
3rd ______________________ ______________________
1s· ______________________ ______________________
2nd ______________________ ______________________
3rd ______________________ ______________________
As vou can see, ·here is on1v one person in which ·hese ·wo
differ: ·he firs· person singu1ar. In a11 ·he o·her forms, ·hev
are iden·ica1. Bu· vou needn'· despair. There is an easv wav ·o
·e11 ·he difference be·ween ·he fu·ure perfec· indica·ive and ·he
perfec· sub·unc·ive. You simp1v 1oo' a· ·he con·ex·. If vou see
·he form "1audaverin·," for examp1e, in a c1ause where ·he
sub·unc·ive is required, ·hen ·he form is perfec· sub·unc·ive.
If, on ·he o·her hand, vou're in a c1ause where ·he sub·unc·ive
is no· ca11ed for, ·hen ·he form is fu·ure perfec· indica·ive.
I·'s as simp1e as ·ha·. You 'now of ·wo subordina·e c1auses
which require ·he sub·unc·ive a1readv: purpose and resu1·. In
·he fu·ure vou'11 be ga·hering more. This is rea11v ·he
simp1ies· wav ·o wor' wi·h sub·unc·ives, since 'nowing when a
verb mus· be, or probab1v is, sub·unc·ive grea·1v reduces ·he
amoun· of dic·ionarv ·ime spen· 1oo'ing up words. Ta'e ·his
sen·ence, for examp1e:
"Haec dixerun· u· hac sapien·ia u·eremur".
You don'· recognize ·he verb "u·eremur," and ·us· 1oo'ing a· i·
in iso1a·ion, vou can see ·ha· ·he con·uga·ed form here cou1d
have a number of possib1e sources. I· cou1d be
(1) presen· indica·ive from a 2nd con·uga·ion verb wi·h a
s·em in "u·ere-"
(2) fu·ure ·ense indica·ive from a 3rd con·uga·ion verb
wi·h a s·em in "u·ere-" (shor· "-e-")
(3) presen· sub·unc·ive from a firs· con·uga·ion verb, s·em
"u·era-"
(4) imperfec· sub·unc·ive from a 2nd con·uga·ion verb, s·em
"u·e-"
(5) imperfec· sub·unc·ive from a 3rd con·uga·ion verb, s·em
"u·e-"
Bu· if vou examine ·he con·ex· of ·he form, vou'11 no·ice ·ha·
i·'s in an "u·" c1ause, and since a11 "u·" c1ause vou 'now so far
·a'e ·he sub·unc·ive, ·he verb mus· be in ·he sub·unc·ive mood,
·hus e1imina·ing possibi1i·ies 1, 2, and 3. This is precise1v
how La·in is read bv even ·he mos· advanced readers -- on1v ·he
experienced reader goes ·hrough ·hese s·eps a1mos·
ins·an·aneous1v. Le·'s move on.
REREECT SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
You reca11 ·ha· ·he perfec· indica·ive passive is formed from ·he
four·h principa1 par· (·he perfec· passive par·icip1e) wi·h a
con·uga·ed form of ·he verb "sum" in ·he presen· ·ense. The
perfec· sub·unc·ive passive is formed exac·1v ·he same wav, on1v
·he verb "sum" is in ·he sub·unc·ive mood ins·ead of ·he
indica·ive.
1auda·us, -a, -um sim
RLUREREECT SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
How do vou imagine La·in forms ·he p1uperfec· sub·uc·ive passive?
Remember ·ha· ·he p1uperfec· indica·ive passive is ·he four·h
principa1 par· (·he perfec· passive par·icip1e) wi·h a con·uga·ed
form of "sum" in ·he imperfec· ·ense. Ta'e a guess.
1auda·us, -a, -um essem
Le·'s prac·ice a coup1e of verbs in ·he perfec· svs·em passive
sub·unc·ive.
Moneo, -ere,m monui, moni·us
REREECT RASSIVE RLUREREECT RASSIVE
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
Rraes·o, -are, praes·i·i, praes·i·us
REREECT RASSIVE RLUREREECT RASSIVE
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
_______________
SEQUENCE OE TENSES
You now 'now a11 four ·enses of ·he sub·unc·ive mood -- ·here is
no fu·ure or fu·ure perfec· of ·he sub·unc·ive. Nex· vou need ·o
'now how ·hese four ·enses are used. Eirs· vou need ·o reca11
·ha· verbs show abso1u·e ·ime on1v when in ·hev're indica·ive
mood; in everv o·her mood, verb show on1v ·ime re1a·ive ·o ·he
verb in ·he indica·ive mood. Once again, on1v ·he indica·ive
mood shows rea1 ·ime; when verbs are in ·he infini·ive,
par·icipia1 or sub·unc·ive mood, ·hev can indica·e on1v whe·her
·heir ac·ion ·a'es p1ace before, during, or af·er ·he ac·ion of
·he main verb. The ru1es of ·he "sequence of ·enses" ·e11 vou
which ·ense in ·he sub·unc·ive mood shows which ·empora1
re1a·ionship. Le·'s be c1ear on ·his: ·he sequence of ·enses are
ru1es ·ha· app1v ·o dependen· sub·unc·ives (sub·unc·ive verbs in
subordina·e c1auses) and on1v ·o dependen· sub·unc·ives. These
ru1es have no·hing ·o do wi·h par·icip1es or infini·ives or anv
o·her form of a verb which has re1a·ive ·ense. This is ·he
sequence of ·ense of dependen· sub·unc·ives on1v.
Eor ·he purposes of ·hese ru1es, ·he ·enses of ·he main verb of a
sen·ence are divided in·o ·wo ca·egories: ·he primarv ·enses, and
·he secondarv (or his·orica1) ·enses.
Rrimarv Tenses: Rresen·
Eu·ure
Eu·ure Rerfec·
Rerfec·
Secondarv Tenses: Rerfec·
Imperfec·
R1uperfec·
This means ·ha· if ·he main verb is in one of ·he primarv ·enses,
·hen ·he sen·ence is in "primarv sequence". If ·he main verb is
in one of ·he secondarv ·enses, ·hen ·he sen·ence is in
"secondarv sequence". Now ·he ru1es.
(1) In primarv sequence
(a) a presen· sub·unc·ive shows ·ime con·emporaneous
or i· mav show ·ime subsequen· ·o ·he ac·ion of
·he main verb;
(b) a cons·ruc·ion ca11ed ·he "ac·ive fu·ure
periphras·ic" wi·h ·he presen· sub·unc·ive of ·he
verb "sum" mav be used ·o show ·ime subsequen· ·o
·he ac·ion of ·he main verb;
(c) a perfec· sub·unc·ive shows ·ime prior ·o ·he
ac·ion of ·he main verb.
(2) In secondarv sequence
(a) an imperfec· sub·unc·ive shows ·ime
con·emporaneous or i· mav show ·ime subsequen· ·o
·he ac·ion of ·he main verb;
(b) ·he ac·ive fu·ure periphras·ic wi·h ·he imperfec·
sub·unc·ive of ·he verb "sum" mav show ·ime
subsequen· ·o ·he ac·ion of ·he main verb;
(c) a p1uperfec· sub·unc·ive shows ·ime prior ·o ·he
ac·ion of ·he main verb.
Le·'s 1oo' a· ·his ano·her wav:
MAIN VERB SUBORÐINATE SUBJUNCTIVE TEMRORAL RELATIONSHIR
EUT. RERI. + SIM TIME AETER
RRIMARY RRESENT SAME TIME OR AETER
REREECT TIME BEEORE
EUT. RERI. + ESSEM TIME AETER
SECONÐARY IMREREECT SAME TIME OR AETER
RLUREREECT TIME BEEORE
Le·'s have a 1oo' a· how ·his wor's (We'11 s'ip ·he periphras·ic
·enses for now.)
1. "Haec dici· u· pericu1a comprehendamus". (He is saving ·hese
·hings, so ·ha· we mav unders·and ·he dangers.)
2. "Via i·a 1onga es· u· ad urbem numquam venian·". (The road
is so 1ong ·ha· ·hev never come ·o ·he ci·v.)
Bo·h of ·hese sen·ences are in primarv sequence because ·he ·ense
of ·he main verb is one of ·he primarv ·enses. Therefore anv
subordina·e sub·unc·ives in ·he sen·ence can be ei·her in ·he
presen· or perfec· ·ense: ·he presen· ·ense for ac·ion
con·emporaneous or subsequen· ·o ·he main verb, ·he perfec· for
ac·ion prior. The subordina·e c1ause in ·he firs· sen·ence "u·
pericu1a comprehendamus" obvious1v canno· be depic·ing an ac·ion
·ha· occurred before ·he ac·ion of ·he main verb -- i· we a1readv
unders·ood ·he dangers, ·hen ·here wou1d be no reason for him ·o
be spea'ing. Therefore ·he ·ense of ·he sub·unc·ive is presen·.
In ·he second sen·ence, ·he resu1· of an ac·ivi·v or s·a·e can
never be prior ·o ·he even· or ·he s·a·e. Consequen·1v, a resu1·
c1ause, ·us· a purpose c1ause, can never be prior ·o ·he ac·ion
of ·he main verb of ·he sen·ence. Therefore, "venian·" is a
presen· sub·unc·ive, showing ·ime con·emporaneous or subsequen·
·o ·he main verb "es·" in primarv sequence.
Now 1e·'s change ·he sequence of ·hese sen·ences from primarv ·o
secondarv bv changing ·he ·ense of ·he main verb ·o one of ·he
secondarv ·enses: ·he imperfec·. Wha· wi11 happen ·o ·he ·ense
of ·he subordina·e sub·unc·ives?
1. Haec diceba· u· pericu1a ____________________.
2. Via i·a 1onga era· u· ad urbem numquam ____________________.
The ·empora1 re1a·ionships of ·he subordina·e sub·unc·ive and ·he
main verb are s·i11 ·he same: ·hev're bo·h s·i11 showing ·ime
con·emporaneous or subsequen·. Bu· now we're in secondarv
sequence, so ·he ·ense of ·he sub·unc·ive mus· change ·o ·he
imperfec·, since ·he imperfec· sub·unc·ive shows ·ime
con·emporaneous or subsequen· in subordina·e sub·unc·ives in
secondarv sequence. The forms wi11 be "comprehenderemus" and
"veniren·". You'11 see manv more examp1es of ·his soon.
INÐIRECT QUESTIONS
The ·i·1e of ·his sec·ion ·e11s i· a11: ·us· as s·a·emen·s can be
·he ob·ec· of a verb -- becoming "indirec·" s·a·emen·s -- so a1so
direc· ques·ions can be ob·ec·s of verbs -- becoming indirec·
ques·ions. Here are some examp1e of how ·his is done in Eng1ish.
Rewri·e ·hese direc· ques·ions as indirec· ques·ions af·er ·he
1eading verb "I wonder".
ÐIRECT QUESTIONS:
(a) "Wha· are vou doing"?
(b) "Whv are ·hev here"?
(c) "Are vou coming"?
(d) "How is ·his done"?
INÐIRECT QUESTIONS:
(a) I wonder _________________________________________________.
(b) I wonder _________________________________________________.
(c) I wonder ________________________________________________.
(d) I wonder _________________________________________________.
No·ice ·he ·he origina1 direc· ques·ion is changed verv 1i··1e
when we ma'e i· indirec·. The on1v change we ma'e in Eng1ish is
·o "uninver·" ·he sub·ec· and verb: from "wha· are vou doing" ·o
"wha· vou are doing". Le·'s 1oo' a· some more comp1ica·ed
examp1es of indirec· ques·ion in Eng1ish, because some·imes more
of a change is required ·o go from direc· ·o indirec· ques·ions.
Le·'s vour na·ive Eng1ish sensi·ivi·ies guide vou in ·he
fo11owing examp1es.
ÐIRECT QUESTIONS:
(a) "Ðid vou see her"?
(b) "When wi11 he come ·o he1p us"?
(c) "How manv ·imes have ·hev ·o1d vou ·his"?
(d) "Wha· 'ind of ·roub1e were ·hev in"?
INÐIRECT QUESTIONS:
(a) I wan·ed ·o 'now
_______________________________________________________.
(b) She as'ed
_______________________________________________________.
(c) Thev cou1dn'· sav
_______________________________________________________.
(d) Thev don'· remember
_______________________________________________________.
As vou can see, when ·he ·enses s·ar· varving, ·he origina1
direc· ques·ion is of·en reshaped when i· becomes indirec·.
No·ice a1so ·ha· ·here is a varie·v of verbs which can in·roduce
indirec· ques·ion -- no· ·us· verbs which are as'ing a ques·ion
1i'e "·o as'" ·o "inquire" e·c.
In La·in, as in Eng1ish, an indirec· ques·ion is a fini·e
cons·ruc·ion -- ·ha· is, ·he verb of ·he indirec· ques·ion has
person. This is un1i'e ·he indirec· s·a·emen· in La·in, where
·he origina1 fini·e verb becomes an infini·ive, and ·he origina1
nomina·ive sub·ec· becomes ·he accusa·ive sub·ec· of ·he
infini·ive. The mood of ·he origina1 verb, however, changes from
·he indica·ive ·o ·he sub·unc·ive. Here are some simp1e examp1es
·o show vou how ·his wor's.
Ðir. Ques·.: Cur venis? (Whv are vou coming?)
Indir. Ques·.: Nescio cur venias. (I don'·
'now whv
vou're
coming.)
Ðir. Ques·.: Veniun·ne nos·ri amici? (Are our
friends
coming?)
Indir. Ques·.: Roga· venian·ne nos·ri amici. (He is as'ing
whe·her our
friends are
coming.)
Ðir. Ques·.: Quan·a pericu1a sun·? (How grea· are ·he
dangers?)
Indir. Ques·.: Video quan·a pericu1a sin·. (Now I see how grea·
·he dangers are.)
OBSERVING SEQUENCE OE TENSE IN INÐIRECT QUESTION
As vou can see, a sen·ence wi·h an indirec· ques·ion embedded in
i· is essen·ia11v a comp1ex sen·ence, wi·h a subordina·e
sub·unc·ive in a dependen· c1ause. The par· of ·he sen·ence
which in·roduces ·he indirec· ques·ion is ·he main c1ause, and
·he indirec· ques·ion i·se1f is a subordina·e c1ause, in which
·he verb happens ·o be in ·he sub·unc·ive verb. So, because ·his
ques·ion invo1ves a dependen· sub·unc·ive, ·he ru1es of ·he
sequence of ·enses come in·o p1av.
You remember ·ha· ·he ·ense of ·he main verb de·ermines ·he
sequence of ·he sen·ences, and hence de·ermines ·he ·enses
subordina·e sub·unc·ives in ·he sen·ence can be in. If ·he main
verb is in one of ·he primarv ·enses, ·hen ·he sen·ence fo11ows
·he primarv sequence: ·he subordina·e sub·unc·ives can be in ·he
presen· or perfec· ·enses. If ·he main verb is in one of ·he
secondarv ·enses, ·hen ·he sen·ence fo11ows ·he secondarv
sequence: ·he subordina·e sub·unc·ives can be in ·he imperfec· or
p1uperfec· ·enses. Now 1e·'s app1v ·hese ru1es ·o indirec·
ques·ions.
TIME CONTEMRORANEOUS
When ·he indirec· ques·ion is depic·ing an even· ·ha· is
conceived of as con·emporaneous wi·h ·he ac·ion of ·he main verb,
·hen ·he subordina·e sub·unc·ive is ei·her in ·he presen· ·ense
(primarv sequence) or in ·he imperfec· ·ense (secondarv
sequence).
(a) "Nescio quid facias"? (I don'· 'now wha· vou're doing.)
(b) "Nescivi quid faceres"? (I didn'· 'now wha· vou were
doing.)
(c) "Roga· venian·ne nos·ri amici". (He as's whe·her our
friends are coming.)
(d) "Rogaverun· veniren·ne nos·ri amici"? (Thev as'ed whe·her
our friends were coming.)
TIME RRIOR
When ·he indirec· ques·ion is depic·ing an even· ·ha· is
conceived of as having been under·a'en before ·he ac·ion of ·he
main verb, ·hen ·he subordina·e sub·unc·ive is ei·her in ·he
perfec· ·ense (primarv sequence) or in ·he p1uperfec· ·ense
(secondarv sequence).
(a) "Nescio quid feceris". (I don'· 'now wha· vou did.)
(b) "Nescivi quid fecisses". (I didn'· 'now wha· vou had done
(or did).)
(c) "Roga· venerin·ne nos·ri amici". (He as's whe·her our
friends came.)
(d) "Rogaverun· venissen·ne nos·ri amici". (Thev as'ed whe·her
our friends had come (or came).)
TIME SUBSEQUENT (AETER)
When ·he indirec· ques·ion is depic·ing an even· ·ha· is
conceived as coming af·er ·he ac·ion of ·he main verb, ·hen ·he
subordina·e sub·unc·ive is ·he ac·ive fu·ure periphras·ic wi·h
·he presen· sub·unc·ive of "sum" in ·he presen· ·ense (primarv
sequence) or ·he ac·ive fu·ure periphras·ic wi·h ·he imperfec·
sub·unc·ive of "sum".
(a) "Nescio quid fac·urus sis". (I don'· 'now wha· vou wi11 do
(vou're going ·o do).)
(b) "Nescivi quid fac·urus esses". (I didn'· 'now wha· vou were
going ·o do (wou1d do).)
(c) "Roga· sin·ne ven·uri nos·ri amici". (He as's whe·her our
friends wi11 come (are going ·o come).)
(d) "Rogaverun· essen·ne ven·uri nos·ri amici". (Thev as'ed
whe·her our friends were coming (wou1d come).)
Le·'s summarize a11 ·his in one p1ace:
RRIMARY SEQUENCE
quid fac·urus sis (wha· vou wi11 do)
Nescio quid facias (wha· vou are doing)
quid feceris (wha· vou did)
sin·ne ven·uri nos·ri amici (whe·her our friends wi11
come)
Rogo veniun·ne nos·ri amici (whe·her our friends are
coming)
venerin·ne nos·ri amici (whe·her our friends came)
SECONÐARY SEQUENCE
quid fac·urus esses (wha· vou wou1d do)
Nescivi quid faceres (wha· vou were
doing)
quid fecisses (wha· vou did)
essen·ne ven·uri nos·ri amici
(whe·her our friends wou1d come)
Rogavi veneren·ne nos·ri amici (whe·her our friends were
coming)
venissen·ne nos·ri amici (whe·her our friends had
come)
SOME AÐÐITIONAL WORK
I·'s going ·o ·a'e some ·ime, and a 1o· of prac·ice, ·o mas·er
a11 ·he ma·eria1 in ·his chap·er. I sugges· vou s·ar· bv wor'ing
·hrough Whee1oc''s answered exercises for ·his chap·er. Read ·he
en·ire sen·ence before vou ge· down ·o ·rans1a·ing i·. Rass vou
eves over everv word of i·, and don'· ·op un·i1 vou ge· ·o ·he
end of ·he se·nece. Trv ·o size up ·he archi·ec·ure of ·he
sen·ence. Iden·ifv ·he main c1ause, ·he main verb, 1oo' for
subordina·e c1auses and ·rv ·o iden·ifv ·hem as re1a·ive,
purpose, resu1·, indirec· s·a·emen·, indirec· ques·ion, e·c.
Once vou've seen ·he en·ire sen·ence, and once vou have a fee1
for where a11 ·he par·s of i· are heading, ·hen vou can begin ·he
wor' of ·rans1a·ing wi·h grea·er direc·ion. S·rugg1e wi·h ·he
sen·ence for a whi1e before vou 1oo' up ·he answers. Trv ·o ma'e
·hem ma'e sense. (And cons·an·1v as' vouse1f wha· sequence of
·ense ·he sen·ence is fo11owing.)
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
cognosco The "-sc-" inser·ed before ·he ending of ·he verb
is ca11 ·he "incep·ive" or "inchoa·ive" infix. I·
deno·es ·he sense ·ha· ·he ac·ion of ·he verb is
on1v in ·he process of being rea1ized or in ·he
verv beginning s·ages. "Cognosco," ·herefore,
means "·o ge· ·o 'now" or "·o become acquain·ed
wi·h," no· "·o 'now". In ·he perfec· ·ense, ·he
verb means "·o have go··en ·o 'now" or "·o have
become acquain·ed wi·h," and ·his amoun·s ·o our
presen· ·ense "·o 'now". Therefore, we ·rans1a·e
"cognovi" no· "I 'new" bu· "I 'now" ("I go·
'now.").
comprehendo Loo' a· ·he range of meanings for ·his verb. A11
·he meanings are re1a·ed ·o ·he idea of ge··ing
ho1d of some·hing. A1so, chec' ·he ·hird
principa1 par·, "comprehendi". Some of ·he forms
of ·he perfec· ·ense wi11 be iden·ica1 ·o ·hose of
·he presen· ·ense: "comprehendi·" (he grasps), and
"comprehendi·" (he grasped); "comprehendimus" (we
grasped), and "comprehendimus" (we grasped).
01/10/93
CHARTER 31
"Cum wi·h ·he Sub·unc·ive; Eero"
CUM AS A SUBORÐINATING CONJUNCTION
You're a1readv we11-acquain·ed wi·h ·he preposi·ion "cum" +
ab1a·ive case, meaning "wi·h". There is a1so a word "cum" which
is no· a preposi·ion a· a11, bu· a subordina·ing con·unc·ion.
Even ·hough "cum" ·he con·unc·ion 1oo's exac·1v 1i'e "cum" ·he
preposi·ion, ·he ·wo words ac·ua11v have differen· his·ories.
Thev are no· ·he same word a· a11. The difficu1·v wi·h
·rans1a·ing ·he con·unc·ion "cum" is ·ha· i· has a wide varie·v
of meanings and can ·a'e ei·her ·he indica·ive or ·he sub·unc·ive
mood in i·s c1ause.
Even ·hough we can dis·inguish some broad c1asses of meanings, i·
is s·i11 difficu1· some·imes ·o ·e11 ·us· which one of ·hem "cum"
is using in a given sen·ence, and ·herefore which of our severa1
Eng1ish con·unc·ions wi11 bes· ·rans1a·e i·. In ·his respec·,
"cum" is is simi1ar ·o our con·unc·ion "as", which has qui·e a
range of meanings, and a· ·imes seems ·o be using manv of ·hem
a11 a· once. Eor examp1e,
"As I was coming in ·he door, I saw mv friend".
Ðoes ·his sen·ence mean "I saw mv friend because I was coming in
·he door" or does i· mean "I saw mv friend whi1e I was coming in
·he door". I·'s hard ·o sav, and in fac· bo·h cou1d be ·rue a·
·he same ·ime. Eor if I hadn'· been coming in ·he door a· ·ha·
·ime I wou1dn'· have seen mv friend. This same 'ind of fusion of
meanings exis·s for ·he con·unc·ion "cum", so i· wi11 ·a'e some
sensi·ivi·v ·o ·he con·ex· for vou ·o come up wi·h an accura·e
·rans1a·ion for "cum".
There are ·wo ca·egories of meanings for "cum": (a) s·ric·1v
·empora1 (when); (b) circums·an·ia1 (as, whereas, since, because,
a1·hough). When "cum" is ·empora1, ·he mood of ·he verb in i·s
c1ause is of·en indica·ive. I· is a1mos· a1wavs indica·ive when
·he ·ense of ·he verb in ·he main c1ause is presen· or fu·ure
·ense. When ·he ·ense of ·he main verb is one of ·he pas·
·enses, ·hen ·he mood of ·he "cum" c1ause is mos· of·en
sub·unc·ive. Bu· when ·he "cum" c1ause is circums·an·ia1, ·hen
·he mood of i·s verb is a1wavs sub·unc·ive.
A circums·an·ia1 "cum" c1ause can be ·rans1a·ed as "since",
"because", and "a1·hough". This mav seem odd, because "a1·hough"
indica·es ·ha· ·here is an incompa·ibi1i·v be·ween ·he
subordina·e and main c1auses -- ·ha· given ·he circums·ances of
·he subordina·e c1ause, ·he even· in ·he main shou1d no· ·a'e
p1ace. We ca11 a c1ause 1i'e ·his "concessive". "Because" and
"since", however, indica·e a direc· causa1 1in' be·ween ·he
subordina·e and main c1auses. How can ·he same subordina·ing
con·unc·ion deno·e ·wo such dispara·e re1a·ions? And how wi11
vou 'now which is being represen·ed in a given "cum" c1ause?
The answer ·o ·he firs· ques·ion isn'· easv, bu· perhaps i· wi11
he1p ·o remember ·ha· a "cum" c1ause is genera11v circums·an·ia1
-- i· mere1v se·s a bac'drop for ·he ·he ac·ion in ·he main
c1ause -- wi·hou· spe11ing ou· wha· ·he re1a·ionship is be·ween
·hem. You've a1readv seen in par·icip1es and ab1a·ive abso1u·e
cons·ruc·ions ·ha· La·in ·ends ·o be much 1ess insis·en· abou·
specifving ·he exac· 1ogica1 or ·empora1 re1a·ionship be·ween
subordina·e and main e1emen·s in i·s sen·ences. The answer ·o
·he second ques·ion is ·ha· vou mus· re1v on con·ex· ·o ·e11 vou
which of ·he re1a·ionships is ·he more p1ausib1e. Tha· is,
admi··ed1v, somewha· unsa·isfac·orv, bu· of·en ·ha· is a11 we'11
have ·o go bv. Verv of·en, however, La·in wi11 he1p ·he reader
a1ong bv inser·ing a "·amen" or some o·her such word in ·he main
c1ause if ·he "cum" c1ause is mean· ·o be ·a'en as concessive.
Obvious1v ·here's more here ·han vou rea11v need ·o 'now ·o ge·
s·ar·ed wi·h "cum" c1auses -- and ·here is s·i11 more vou'11 have
·o 'now ·o read La·in a· advanced 1eve1s. Eor vour needs, a·
vour s·age in La·in, vou shou1d 'now ·ha· "cum" c1auses are
ei·her ·empora1 or circums·an·ia1, have a range of possib1e
meanings which vou mus· consider, and mav ·a'e ·he indica·ive of
·he sub·unc·ive mood. Bu· when i· does emp1ov ·he sub·unc·ive
mood, "cum" c1auses mus· observe ·he sequence of ·enses, which
govern ·he ·enses of subordina·e sub·unc·ives. Le·'s 1oo' a·
severa1 examp1es of ·he differen· "cum" c1auses.
(a) "Cum responderi· [fu·. perf.|, omnia in·e11ege·is".
This "cum" c1ause is ·empora1, and because ·he sub·unc·ive
isn'· being used, ·he sequence of ·enses doesn'· app1v. Tr.
"When he answers (wi11 have answered), vou wi11 unders·and
everv·hing".
(b) "Cum respondisse·, omnia in·e11exis·is".
Now ·he "cum" c1ause is sub·unc·ive, so we have ·o bring in
·he ru1es governing ·he ·enses of subordina·e sub·unc·ives.
Since ·he sen·ence is in secondarv sequence because of ·he
·ense of ·he main verb, ·he p1uperfec· sub·unc·ive in ·hhe
"cum" c1ause show ·ime prior. Tr. "Because he had answered,
vou unders·ood everv·hing", or "When he had answered..". or
"Since he had answered..".
(c) "Cum respondisse·, non ·amen in·e11exis·is".
Here ·he "·amen" ·e11s us ·ha· ·he "cum" c1ause is no·
causa1 or ·empora1 bu· concessive. Tr. "A1·hough he
answered, vou s·i11 (never·he1ess) did no· unders·and".
(d) "Cum respondere·, non adera·is".
In secondarv sequence -- "ad + era·is" -- ·he imperfec·
sub·unc·ive of ·he subordina·e sub·unc·ive "respondere·"
shows con·emporaneous ·ime. Tr. "When he was answering, vou
were no· presen·".
(e) "Cum responderi·, omnia iam in·e11egi·is".
In primarv sequence ·he perfec· sub·unc·ive shows ·ime
prior. Tr. "Because he answered, vou now unders·and
everv·hing".
THE IRREGULAR VERB EERO, EERRE, TULI, LATUS
"Eero" is a verv wide1v-used verb in La·in, as i·s s·em shows up
in more ·han a dozen compound verbs. I·'s impor·an· ·o mas·er i·
·horough1v righ· now, o·herwise i· wi11 haun· vou for as 1ong as
vou read La·in. Jus· bv 1oo'ing a· ·he principa1 par· of ·he
verb, vou can ·e11 ·ha· ·he verb "fero" is going ·o be un1i'e anv
verb vou've seen before. The verb is ·hird con·uga·ion, so ·he
s·em of ·he verb in ·he presen· svs·em is "fere-", wi·h a shor·
"-e-" ·hema·ic vowe1. Eor ·he mos· par·, ·he verb con·uga·es
·us· 1i'e a regu1ar ·hird con·uga·ion verb.
If vou 1oo' a· ·he second principa1 par·, however, ·he ·hema·ic
vowe1 "-e-" is missing: ·he infini·ive ending "-re" is added ·o
"fer-" no· ·o "fere-". Hence ·he infini·ive form "ferre" ins·ead
of "ferere". This is ·he main irregu1ari·v of ·he verb "fero".
In ·he presen· ·ense, ·he ·hema·ic vowe1 is dropped before some
endings. The ·hema·ic vowe1 -- a shor· "e" -- is dropped before
endings ·ha· begin wi·h ·he 1e··ers "r"",s", or "·". Keeping
·his in mind, ·rv ·o wri·e ou· ·he presen· svs·em ac·ive and
passive.
I. RRESENT SYSTEM
A. INÐICATIVE ACTIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
Ðid vou ge· ·hem a11? As vou can see, ·he irregu1ari·v does no·
app1v a· a11 ·o ·he fu·ure and imperfec· ·enses, where ·he
in·ervening vowe1s and ·ense signs come be·ween ·he s·em and ·he
persona1 endings ·ha· wou1d have produced ·he irregu1ari·v. Now
·he passive voice in ·he presen· svs·em indica·ive.
B. INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
Once again, ·he irregu1ari·v of ·he disappeaaring ·hema·ic vowe1
is res·ric·ed ·o ·he presen· ·ense where ·here is no ·ense vowe1
be·ween ·he s·em and ·he persona1 endings. Le·'s 1oo' now a· ·he
presen· svs·em sub·unc·ive ac·ive.
C. SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
The presen· sub·unc·ive uses ·he vowe1 "-a-" as i·s mood sign, so
·he endings are no· added direc·1v ·o ·he s·em. No
irregu1ari·ies here. I· 1oo's ·us· 1i'e a norma1 ·hird
con·uga·ion verb in ·he presen· sub·unc·ive. Bu· 1oo' a· ·he
imperfec· sub·unc·ive. The formu1a for a11 imperfec·
sub·unc·ives is: s·em + "se" + persona1 endings. The "-s-" of
·he mood sign becomes in·ervoca1ic and ·urns ·o an "-r-" and
"-r-" is one of ·hose consonan·s ·he s·em vowe1 doesn'· 1i'e. So
·he base form for ·he imperfec· sub·unc·ive becomes "ferre-".
And ·ha· 1oo's ·us· 1i'e ·he ac·ive infini·ive. Now ·he presen·
svs·em of ·enses in sub·unc·ive passive.
Ð. SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
II. REREECT SYSTEM
The perfec· svs·em, because i· is formed from ·he ·hird and
four·h principa1 par·s, is eni·re1v regu1ar (excep· ·ha· ·hird
and four·h principa1 par·s are ·hemse1ves unusua1 supp1e·ive
forms). Eor ·he sa'e of ·horoughness, and ·o prove ·o vou ·ha·
·he verb is no· so irregu1ar as vou mav ·hin', wri·e ou· ·he
perfec· svs·em for ·he verb "fero".
A. INÐICATIVE ACTIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
B. INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
C. SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
Ð. SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
Eina11v, we shou1d have a 1oo' a· ·he impera·ive, par·icipia1,
and infini·ive moods.
III. IMRERATIVES
Sing. ____________________
R1ur. ____________________
IV. RARTICIRLES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________ ____________________
REREECT ____________________
V. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________ ____________________
EUTURE ____________________ [____________________|
REREECT ____________________ ____________________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
Confero, conferre, con·u1i, co11a·us
As I warned vou, ·he verb "fero" is used in a grea· number
of compound verbs -- preposi·iona1 prefixes added ·o verb
roo·s. Here ·he preposi·ion "cum" is prefixed ·o ·he roo·
"fero", rendering ·he meaning "·o bring ·oge·her", or "·o
bring ·oge·her for comparison". Loo' a· ·he four·h
principa1 par· of ·his verb. I·'s no· "con1a·us" as vou mav
expec·, bu· ·he "-n-" of ·he prefix assimi1a·es ·o ·he "-1-"
of ·he verba1 s·em. You've go· ·o be on ·he 1oo' ou· for
·his, because if vou saw ·he form "co11a·us" in vour reading
and ·ried ·o 1oo' i· up under "co1fero" vou wou1dn'· find
i·. You've go· ·o ge· good a· recognizing ·he s·em "1a·-"
from "fero" and ·hen a11owing vourse1f some f1exibi1i·v a·
coming up wi·h ·he righ· prefix.
Se conferre
A verb common idiom wi·h ·he "confero" is ·o use ·he
ref1exive pronoun ·o mean "·o go" (1i·. "·o be·a'e
onese1f"). So "me confero" means "I go", "·e confers" means
"vou go", "nos conferimus" means "We go", "Vos con·u1is·is"
means "vou wen·", e·c.
Offero, offerre, ob·u1i, ob1a·us
I· means "·o offer", obvious1v, bu· 1oo' a· ·he ·hird and
four·h principa1 par·s: ·he prefix has been rep1aced bv
"ob-". You mus· simp1v remember ·his.
01/10/93
CHARTER 32
"Adverbs: Eorma·ion and Comparison; Vo1o"
AÐVERBS
Adverbs, of course, are words which modifv verbs; ·ha· is, ·hev
·e11 vou some·hing abou· ·he wav in which, or ·he condi·ions
under which, ·he ac·ion of ·he verb is under·a'en: "quic'1v",
"s·upid1v", "easi1v", "sudden1v" and so for·h. And because ·hev
don'· agree wi·h ·heir verb in anv wav, adverbs don'· dec1ine or
·a'e on a varie·v of endings ·o ma·ch ·hem wi·h ·heir verbs.
The adverbs vou've been wor'ing wi·h up ·o now are, sha11 we sav,
"obvious" adverbs. Adverbs 1i'e "·amen" or "·um" aren'·
morpho1ogica11v re1a·ed a· a11 ·o anv o·her words in anv wav.
Thev aren'· derived from ad·ec·ives or nouns; ·hev are on1v
adverbs. Bu· if vou 1oo' a· an Eng1ish adverb 1i'e "quic'1v",
vou can c1ear1v see how ·his is a form derived from ·he ad·ec·ive
"quic'". To ·urn i· in·o an adverb, Eng1ish simp1v a··aches ·he
ending "-1v".
This mav no· seem 1i'e a monumen·a1 discoverv, bu· i· does have
an impor·an· consequence. Since "quic'1v" is a form which is
derivab1e from "quic'" according ·o a ra·her s·raigh·-forward
ru1e of Eng1ish grammar, an Eng1ish dic·ionarv wi11 no· 1is·
"quic'1v" as a separa·e word. You'11 find i· men·ioned in
passing on1v under ·he en·rv for "quic'", which is i·s ances·or,
so ·o spea'.
La·in a1so has a se· of ru1es for deriving adverbs from
ad·ec·ives, and i· is impor·an· ·ha· vou 'now ·hem -- for ·he
same reason i·'s impor·an· ·o 'now ·he Eng1ish ru1es of crea·ing
adverbs from ad·ec·ives: because an adverb which is a derived
form from an ad·ec·ive wi11 no· be given a separa·e dic·ionarv
1is·ing. To 1oo' up a derived adverb, vou'11 firs· have
decons·ruc· i·, bv undoing ·he ru1es ·ha· made i· an adverb in
·he firs· p1ace. You have ·o reduce ·he adverb ·o ·he origina1
ad·ec·ive; ·hen vou can 1oo' ·he ad·ec·ive up. Once vou have ·he
meaning of ·he ad·ec·ive, ·hen vou can go bac' ·o vour sen·ence
and "adverbize" ·he meaning of ·he ad·ec·ive. Le·'s ge· s·ar·ed.
Jus· as ·here are ·hree degrees of ad·ec·ives, so a1so ·here are
·hree degrees of adverbs. An adverb in ·he posi·ive degree is
formed off ·he posi·ive degree s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive; ·he
compara·ive degree of ·he adverb is formed from ·he compara·ive
degree s·em of ·he ad·ec·ive; and ·he super1a·ive degree of ·he
adverb is formed from ·he super1a·ive degree s·em of ·he
ad·ec·ive. As a brief refresher, here are ·he ru1es for forming
·he degrees of ad·ec·ives.
COMRARATIVE ÐEGREE OE AÐJECTIVES
s·em + -ior, -ius
AÐJECTIVE STEM COMRARATIVE ÐEGREE
1ongus, -a, -um 1ong- 1ongior, -ius
miser, -a, -um miser- miserior, -ius
pu1cher, -chra, -chrum pu1chr- pu1chrior, -ior
acer, acris, acre acr- acrior, -ius
for·is,-e for·- for·ior, -ius
SURERLATIVE ÐEGREE OE AÐJECTIVES
A. Eor ad·ec·ives whose s·em does no· end in "-r"
s·em + -issimus, -a, -um
AÐJECTIVE STEM SURERLATIVE ÐEGREE
1ongus, -a, -um 1ong- 1ongissimus, -a, -um
for·is, -e for·- for·issimus, -a, -um
po·ens, -n·is po·en·- po·en·issmus, -a, um
B. Eor ad·ec·ives whose s·em ends in "-r"
s·em + -rimus, -a, -um
AÐJECTIVE STEM SURERLATIVE EORM
miser, -a, -um miser- miserrimus, -a, -um
pu1cher, -chra, -chrum pu1cher- pu1cherrimus, -a, um
acer, acris, acre acer- acerrimus, -a, -um
C. Eor ·he six excep·ions whose s·em ends in "-1":
simi1is, -e; dissimi1is, -e; faci1is, -e; diffici1is,
-e; graci1is, -e; humi1is, -e.
s·em + -1imus, -a, -um
AÐJECTIVE STEM SURERLATIVE EORM
faci1is, -e faci1- faci11imus, -a, -um
simi1is, -e simi1- simi11imus, -a, -um
Of course, vou mus·n'· forge· ·he ad·ec·ives, mos· of ·hem verv
common, which form ·heir degrees irregu1ar1v.
ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
bonus, -a, -um me1ior, -ius op·imus, -a, -um
magnus, -a, -um maior, -ius maximus, -a, -um
ma1us, -a, -um peior, -ius pessimus, -a, -um
mu1·us, -a, -um -----, p1us p1urimus, -a, -um
parvus, -a, -um minor, minus minimus, -a, -um
--------------- prior, -ius primus, -a, -um
superus, -a, -um superior, -ius summus, -a, -um
supremus, -a, -um
AÐVERBS IN THE ROSITIVE ÐEGREE
Now 1e·'s have a 1oo' a· how La·in "adverbized" an ad·ec·ive. In
Eng1ish, as vou 'now, we can easi1v ·urn mos· ad·ec·ives in·o
adverbs simp1v bv added "-1v" ·o ·he s·em: "quic'1v", "speedi1v",
"ferocious1v", e· ce·era. In La·in, ·o form an adverb in ·he
posi·ive degree, vou s·ar· wi·h ·he s·em of ·he posi·ive degree
of ·he ad·ec·ive.
Eor adverbs derived from ad·ec·ives of ·he firs· and second
dec1ension, ·he ru1e is simp1e:
s·em + -e
Eor adverbs derived from ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ives:
s·em + -i·er
Eor adverbs derived from ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ives whose s·em
ends in "-n·-":
s·em + -er
This is fair1v easv, bu· 1e·'s ·rv a few exercises: Eorm ·he
posi·ive degree of ·he fo11owing adverbs.
AÐJECTIVE STEM ROSITIVE AÐVERB
acer, -cris, -re________________________________________
sapiens, -n·is________________________________________
for·is, -e ____________________ ____________________
iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________
1iber, -a, -um________________________________________
c1arus, -a, -um________________________________________
ce1er, -is, -e________________________________________
COMRARATIVE ÐEGREE OE AÐVERBS
In Eng1ish, we compare adverbs bv using ·he word "more" p1aced in
fron· of ·he adverb in ·he posi·ive degree: "more quic'1v".
La·in forms a compara·ive adverb simp1v bv using ·he compara·ive
ad·ec·ive in ·he neu·er accusa·ive singu1ar form. So ·o sav
"more beau·ifu11v", or "ra·her beau·ifu11v", or "·oo
beau·ifu11v", Romans said "pu1chrius". Le·'s ·rv a few ou·.
AÐJECTIVE STEM COMRARATIVE AÐVERB
acer, -cris, -re________________________________________
sapiens, -n·is________________________________________
for·is, -e ____________________ ____________________
iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________
1iber, -a, -um________________________________________
c1arus, -a, -um________________________________________
ce1er, -is, -e________________________________________
SURERLATIVE ÐEGREE OE AÐVERBS
The Eng1ish super1a·ive adverb is "mos·" p1us ·he adverb in ·he
posi·ive degree. To form ·he super1a·ive degree of an adverb,
vou simp1v use ·he s·em of ·he super1a·ive degree of ·he
ad·ec·ive and add a "-e". To sav "mos· beau·ifu11v", or "verv
beau·ifu11v", Romans said "pu1cherrime". Le·'s have a 1oo'.
AÐJECTIVE STEM SURERLATIVE AÐVERB
acer, -cris, -re________________________________________
sapiens, -n·is________________________________________
for·is, -e ____________________ ____________________
iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________
1iber, -a, -um________________________________________
c1arus, -a, -um________________________________________
ce1er, -is, -e________________________________________
ÐRILLS
Wri·e ou· ·he posi·ive, compara·ive and super1a·ive degree
adverbs derived from ·he fo11owing ad·ec·ives.
AÐJECTIVE ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
1ongus, -a, -um ________________________________________________
miser, -a, -um ________________________________________________
pu1cher, -chra, -chrum ________________________________
________________
fe1ix, -icis ________________________________________________
po·ens, -n·is ________________________________________________
faci1is, -e ________________________________________________
ÐEGREES OE AÐVERBS EROM IRREGULAR AÐJECTIVES
As vou 'now, ·here are some common ad·ec·ives which form ·heir
degrees irregu1ar1v. We wou1d hope ·ha· ·he adverbs wou1d ·us·
use ·he irregu1ar s·ems ·o form ·heir degrees. And some·imes
·ha·'s wha· happens. Bu· some·imes o·her irregu1ari·ies s·ar· ·o
creep in. Le·'s 1oo' a· ·hem. Here are some of irregu1ar
ad·ec·ives in ·heir ·hree degrees. Trv ·o wri·e ·hem ou· firs·
on vour own.
IRREGULAR AÐJECTIVES
AÐJECTIVE ROSITIVE COMRARATIVE SURERLATIVE
bonus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________
ma1us, -a, -um____________________________________________________________
magnus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________
mu1·us, -a, -um____________________________________________________________
parvus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________
(prae, pro)____________________________________________________________
1. Erom bonus, -a, -um
S·ar·ing wi·h "bonus, -a, -um", if we were ·o fo11ow ·he
ru1es for deriving ·he posi·ive degree adverb, we'd ge· a
form 1i'e ·his: "bone". And ·ha·'s pre··v c1ose ·o ·he
ac·ua1 form "ben". The compara·ive degree of ·he ad·ec·ive
is "me1ior, -ius", so, fo11owing ·he s·andard ru1es, wha·
wou1d be ·he compara·ive adverb? The ru1e savs ·o use ·he
neu·er, accusa·ive singu1ar of ·he compara·ive ad·ec·ive for
·he compara·ive adverb, so ·he form wou1d be "me1ius". And
·ha· is in fac· ·he rea1 form. Eor ·he super1a·ive, ·he
form of ·he adverb wou1d be "op·ime", and ·ha·'s wha· ·he
rea1 form is. Now fi11 in ·he spaces in ·he ·ab1e above
wi·h ·he degree of ·he adverb derived from "bonus".
2. Erom ma1us, -a, -um
The adverbs derived from "ma1us" are en·ire1v regu1ar --
once vou remember ·he irregu1ar degrees of ·he ad·ec·ive
i·se1f. Ei11 in ·he nex· row of b1an's.
3. Erom magnus, -a, -um
The adverbs in ·he posi·ive and compara·ive degrees from
"magnus" a verv odd: "magnopere" for ·he posi·ive degree
(no· "magne") and "magis" for ·he compara·ive degree (no·
"maius"). Bu· ·he super1a·ive degree fo11ows ·he ru1es.
Ei11 ·hem in.
4. Erom mu1·us, -a, -um
The adverbs from "mu1·us" are odd, ·oo. Jus· "mu1·um" for
·he adverb in ·he posi·ive degree, "p1us" for ·he
compara·ive degree, and "p1urimum" (no· ·he expec·ed
"p1urime") in ·he super1a·ive degree.
5. Erom parvus, -a, -um
The adverbs from "parvus" fo11ow ·he ru1e, excep· for ·he
posi·ive degree, where we have "parum", ins·ead of "parve".
6. Erom prior, -ius
As vou migh· expec·, ·here is no adverb for "before"; La·in
ins·ead uses a subordina·ing con·unc·ion and a subordina·e
c1ause for ·ha·. The compara·ive degree of ·he adverb is
regu1ar; ·he super1a·ive degree is ei·her "primum" or
"primo", (no· "prime").
7. "Eor a 1ong (1onger) (1onges·) ·ime"
Whee1oc' a1so shows vou degree of an adverbs which means
"for a 1ong ·ime", "for ra·her 1ong ·ime", and "for a verv
1ong ·ime". This adverb is no· derived from an ad·ec·ive,
bu· i· does show degrees as if i· were. Besides, i·'s a
verv common adverb, so vou need ·o recognize i·:
diu diu·ius diu·issime
8. Magnopere, magis, maxime
Whee1oc' gives vou ano·her se· of adverbs which are a1so
derived from ·he ad·ec·ive "mu1·us, -a, -um". The meanings
are s·raigh·-foward enough -- "grea·1v, more, and mos·" --
bu· ·here is a fine dis·inc·ion is usage of ·hese forms from
·he o·her adverbs derived from "mu1·us", "mu1·um, p1us, and
p1urimum". In ·he compara·ive, "p1us" is used ·o compare
amoun·s of ac·ion under·a'en: "Video p1us quam ·u" (I see
more ·han vou). "Magis", however, is used ·o compare
cer·ain ad·ec·ives: "Hoc idoneum es· quam i11ud" (This is
more sui·ab1e ·han ·ha·.) This mav seem odd, because vou
1earned in Chap·er 26 ·ha· compara·ive ad·ec·ives are formed
bv adding ·he suffixes "-ior, -ius" ·o ·he s·em. This ru1es
ho1ds excep· for ad·ec·ives whose s·em ends in "-e-", as
"idoneus, -a, -um" does. These ad·ec·ives use ·he
compara·ive adverb "magis" ·o form ·heir compara·ive degree.
Simi1iar1v, ·he super1a·ive degree of ·hese ad·ec·ives is
"maxime" p1us ·he posi·ive degree. (You won'· see "magis"
or "maxime" much in ·his boo'.)
THE IRREGULAR VERB Vo1o, ve11e, vo1ui, -----
The verb "·o wish" has some irregu1ari·ies in ·he presen· svs·em
of ·enses, i· has no passive voice in ei·her ·he presen· or ·he
perfec· svs·em. (Hence no four·h principa1 par·.) The perfec·
svs·em ac·ive, however, is en·ire1v regu1ar. Unfor·una·e1v,
·here isn'· anv wav ·o predic· or exp1ain manv of ·hese oddi·ies,
so vou simp1v mus· memorize ·hem. Basica11v "vo1o" is a ·hird
con·uga·ion verb, so vou shou1d be no·ing how i· differs from a
regu1ar ·hird con·uga·ion verb. Tha· wi11 give vou some s·andard
agains· which ·o compare i·. In ·he fo11owing ·ab1es, I'11 fi11
in ·he irregu1ar forms; vou fi11 in ·he res·.
I. THE RRESENT SYSTEM
(a) Indica·ive
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd vis ________________________________________
3rd vu1· ________________________________________
1s· vo1umus ________________________________________
2nd vu1·is ________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
(b) Sub·unc·ive
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· ve1im ve11em
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
II. REREECT SYSTEM
(a) Indica·ive
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd ____________________________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd ____________________________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
(b) Sub·unc·ive
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
III. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE
IV. RARTICIRLES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT
EUTURE
V. IMRERATIVES (No impera·ive forms)
THE RELATEÐ IRREGULAR VERBS No1o ANÐ Ma1o
The ·wo irregu1ar verbs "no1o" (no· ·o wan·) and "ma1o" (·o
prefer) are deriva·ives of "vo1o". "No1o" is a 'ind of
con·rac·ion of "ne + vo1o", meaning 1i·era11v "I don'· wan·", and
"ma1o" comes from "magis + vo1o", meaning 1i·era11v "I wish
more". Because ·hese verbs are so c1ose1v re1a·ed, ·herefore, ·o
·he irregu1ar verb "vo1o", Whee1oc' ·hin's i· righ· ·o pu· ·hem
·oge·her in ·he same chap·er. Whv no·?
Wri·e ou· ·he con·uga·ions of ·hese ·wo verbs. Again, I'11 pu·
in ·he irregu1ar forms; vou shou1d be ab1e ·o produce ·he forms
·ha· aren'· irregu1ar on vour own.
No1o, no11e, no1ui, -----
I. THE RRESENT SYSTEM
(a) Indica·ive
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd non vis ________________________________________
3rd non vu1· ________________________________________
1s· no1umus ________________________________________
2nd non vu1·is ________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
(b) Sub·unc·ive
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· no1im no11em
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
II. REREECT SYSTEM
(a) Indica·ive
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd ____________________________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd ____________________________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
(b) Sub·unc·ive
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
III. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE
IV. RARTICIRLES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT
EUTURE
V. IMRERATIVES
SINGULAR no1i
RLURAL no1i·e
Ma1o, ma11e, ma1ui, -----
I. THE RRESENT SYSTEM
(a) Indica·ive
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd mavis ________________________________________
3rd mavu1· ________________________________________
1s· ma1umus ________________________________________
2nd mavu1·is ________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
(b) Sub·unc·ive
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· ma1im ma11em
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
II. REREECT SYSTEM
(a) Indica·ive
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd ____________________________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
1s· ____________________________________________________________
2nd ____________________________________________________________
3rd ____________________________________________________________
(b) Sub·unc·ive
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
1s· ____________________ ____________________
2nd ____________________ ____________________
3rd ____________________ ____________________
III. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE
IV. RARTICIRLES (No par·icip1es)
V. IMRERATIVES (No impera·ive forms)
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
divi·iae, -arum (f) The noun has no singu1ar forms, and s·uden·s
of·en confuse ·his noun wi·h ad·ec·ive
"dives, divi·is (di·is)" meaning "wea1·hv
rich".
dives, divi·is (di·is) This is a ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ive of
one ·ermina·ion, which a1so has ·wo
possib1e s·ems: "divi·-" or "di·-". You
mus· wor' hard ·o 'eep ·he form derived
from ·he s·em "divi·-" and ·he noun for
"riches" ("divi·iae, -arum (f)")
dis·inc·.
pauper, pauperis Ano·her ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ive of one
·ermina·ion. I· is verv of·en used ·o mean
"a poor person", or "·he poor".
par, paris Once again, a ·hird dec1ension ad·ec·ive of
one ·ermina·ion. Ðon'· confuse ·his wi·h ·he
noun "pars, par·is (f)". "Rar" means "equa1"
and ·a'es ·he da·ive case: "equa1 ·o".
(Remember ·he parisv11abic (equa1 sv11ab1e)
ru1e?)
honor, -oris (m) I· verv of·en means "pub1ic office"; a
posi·ion wi·h ·he governmen·.
1ex, 1egis (f) Whee1oc' reminds vou ·o con·ras· (c.p.)
"1ex", which means a wri··en 1aw, wi·h "ius",
which means "righ·, ·us·ice" No· a11 righ·s
become wri··en 1aw, and ·us·ice is of·en no·
en·ire1v recognized in 1aw. "Leges" a··emp·
·o codifv "iura", bu· ·hev don'· a1wavs
succeed.
01/10/93
CHARTER 33
"Condi·ions"
To unders·and condi·ions and condi·iona1 sen·ences, we need
some specia1ized ·ermino1ogv. There is no easv wav ·o do ·his,
so vou're going ·o have ·o spend some ·ime up fron· ge··ing
fami1iar wi·h ·hem. Af·er a basic in·roduc·ion ·o condi·iona1
sen·ences, we'11 1oo' a· condi·iona1 sen·ences in La·in and ·heir
formu1ae.
CONÐITIONAL STATEMENTS IN ENGLISH
A condi·iona1 sen·ence has ·wo par·s: ·he subordina·e "if"
c1ause, ca11ed ·he "pro·asis" (RRAH ·a sis) of ·he condi·ion, and
·he main "·hen" c1ause, ca11ed ·he "apodosis" (a RAH da sis) of
·he condi·ion. The pro·asis s·a·es ·he condi·ion under which ·he
main c1ause wi11 be (wi11 no· be), is being (is no· being), or
was (was no·), fu1fi11ed:
RROTASIS AROÐOSIS
If i· is raining ou·side ·hen ·he grass is we·.
If vou saw him ves·erdav ·hen he mus· have been here.
There are basica11v ·wo 'inds of condi·iona1 sen·ences,
ca·egorized bv ·he expec·a·ion ·he spea'er has concerning ·he
possibi1i·v of ·he fu1fi11men· of ·he condi·ion s·a·ed in ·he
pro·asis:
OREN OR SIMRLE CONÐITIONS
A. The spea'er mav be ma'ing no imp1ica·ion as ·o whe·her ·he
condi·ion was (no·), is (no·) being, or wi11 (no·) be,
fu1fi11ed. These condi·ions are ca11ed "open" or "simp1e"
condi·ions.
1. "If x approaches 0, ·hen ·he va1ue of f(x) approaches
infini·v."
(No·ice ·ha· ·he spea'er is no· imp1ving ·ha· i· is doub·fu1
·ha· x is approaching 200, bu· if i· is, ·hen ·he apodosis
ho1ds ·rue.
2. "If vou saw him ves·erdav, ·hen he was here."
(The spea'er is no· doub·ing or sugges·ing ·ha· vou did no·
see him ves·erdav, bu· if vou did, ·hen he was here.)
3. "If vou come ·omorrow, I wi11 be happv."
(Again, ·he spea'er is no· saving ·ha· i· is un1i'e1v ·ha·
vou wi11 come ·omorrow, bu· if vou do, ·hen... When a
simp1e or open condi·ion app1ies ·o a fu·ure even·, i· is
of·en ca11ed ·he "fu·ure-more-vivid," or ·he "fu·ure rea1"
condi·ion.)
UNREAL CONÐITIONS
B. The spea'er mav be imp1ving or exp1ici·1v s·a·ing ·ha· ·he
condi·ion s·a·ed in ·he pro·asis wi11 no· be, is no·, or was
no· fu1fi11ed. These ca·egorv of condi·ions are some·imes
ca11ed ·he "unrea1" condi·ions, and are fur·her bro'en down
in·o ·he ·ime ·o which ·he condi·ions are being app1ied.
1. When ·he pro·asis app1ies ·o a fu·ure even·, ·hese
condi·ions are ca11ed "fu·ure-1ess-vivid," "fu·ure
unrea1" or "shou1d-wou1d" condi·ion.
"If vou shou1d come (or were ·o come) ·omorrow, ·hen I wou1d
be happv."
(The spea'er doub·s ·ha· vou wi11 come, bu· if vou shou1d,
·hen he wou1d be happv.)
2. When an unrea1 condi·ion per·ains ·o a presen·
condi·ion ·ha· is no· being fu1fi11ed, i· is ca11ed ·he
"presen· con·rarv-·o-fac·" condi·ion.
"If vou were eigh· and a ha1f fee· ·a11, vou wou1d be a
grea· bas'e·ba11 p1aver."
(Bu· vou are no· eigh· fee· ·a11, so vou are no· a grea·
bas'e·ba11 p1aver. Bu· if vou were...)
3. When an unrea1 condi·ion per·ains ·o a pas· condi·ion
·ha· was no· fu1fi11ed, i· is ca11ed ·he "pas·
con·rarv-·o-fac·" condi·ion.
"If George had been ·here, we wou1d have won ·he game."
(Bu· he was no· ·here, so we did no· win ·he game. Bu· if
he had been ·here...)
Le·'s summarize ·he basic formu1ae for Eng1ish condi·iona1
sen·ences. No·ice ·ha· i· is ·he change in ·ense and mood in ·he
pro·asis which indica·es ·he 'ind of condi·ion of ·he sen·ences.
I. Simp1e or Open Condi·ions
RROTASIS AROÐOSIS CONÐITION
pres. indic. fu·. indic. EUTURE MORE VIVIÐ
pres. indic. pres. indic. RRESENT SIMRLE
pas·. indic. pas· indic. RAST SIMRLE
II. Unrea1 (and Con·rarv ·o Eac·) Condi·ions
RROTASIS AROÐOSIS CONÐITION
shou1d, were ·o wou1d EUTURE LESS VIVIÐ
imperf. indic. wou1d RRESENT CONTRARY TO EACT
p1perf. indic. wou1d have RAST CONTRARY TO EACT
REVIEW
C1assifv ·he fo11owing condi·iona1 s·a·emen·s:
1. I wi11 be mos· apprecia·ive if vou ·rv vour bes· on ·he
exam. [We of·en omi· ·he "·hen" of ·he apodosis.|
_________________________
2. If Cap·ain Kangaroo said i·, i· mus· have been ·rue.
_________________________
3. If ·he bendix drive is ben·, ·he car wi11 no· s·ar·.
_________________________
4. If ·he song were in ·he 'ev of G f1a· minor, ·hen vou wou1d
be singing ·he righ· no·e.
_________________________
5. Had I 'nown ·ha· ·he ·eacher wou1d be bac' nex· ·erm, I
wou1d no· have wri··en such acidic commen·s on ·he course
review.
_________________________
CONÐITIONAL STATEMENTS IN LATIN
The same c1assifica·ion of condi·iona1 sen·ences which vou
·us· 1earned for Eng1ish condi·ions app1ies ·o La·in condi·ions
as we11. Here is a ·ab1e of ·he formu1ae for s·andard La·in
condi·ions.
I. OREN OR SIMRLE CONÐITIONS
RROTASIS AROÐOSIS CONÐITION
fu·ure indic. fu·ure indic. EUTURE MORE VIVIÐ
presen· indic. presen· indic. RRESENT OREN
pas· indic. pas· indic. RAST OREN
II. UNREAL CONÐITIONS
RROTASIS AROÐOSIS CONÐITION
presen· sub·. presen· sub·. EUTURE LESS VIVIÐ
imperf. sub·. imperf. sub·. RRES. CONTRARY TO EACT
p1pf. sub·. p1pf. sub·. RAST CONTRARY TO EACT
One fea·ure vou shou1d no·ice abou· ·hese formu1ae is ·ha·
·he simp1e condi·ions a11 have ·he indica·ive mood in ·he
pro·asis, whereas a11 ·he unrea1 condi·ions have ·he sub·unc·ive
mood in ·he pro·asis. If vou can remember ·his, vou'11 be be··er
ab1e ·o un·ang1e condi·iona1 sen·ences when vou're reading.
If ·he mood of ·he verb in ·he pro·asis is in ·he
indica·ive, ·hen ·he condi·ion is one of ·he simp1e or open
condi·ions. Eur·her refinemen· of ·he condi·ion is ·hen
de·ermined bv ·he ·ense of ·he verb in ·he pro·asis. Eor
examp1e, if ·he mood of ·he verb in ·he pro·asis is indica·ive
and in ·he fu·ure ·ense, ·hen ·he condi·ion is fu·ure more vivid.
If ·he mood of ·he verb in ·he pro·asis is in ·he sub·unc·ive,
·hen ·he condi·ion is one of ·he unrea1 condi·ions. Again,
fur·her c1assifica·ion of ·he condi·ion is de·ermined bv ·he
·ense of ·he verb in ·he pro·asis. Eor examp1e, if ·he mood of
·he verb is sub·unc·ive and i·s ·ense is presen·, ·hen ·he
condi·ion is fu·ure 1ess vivid. Le·'s 1oo' a· some examp1es.
1. "Si hoc facie·, bea·us ero."
(Because ·he pro·asis is ·he indica·ive mood, i· is a simp1e
condi·ion -- one ·ha· does no· imp1v anv doub· abou· ·he
fu1fi11men· of ·he condi·ion s·a·ed in ·he pro·asis.
Because ·he ·ense of ·he pro·asis is fu·ure, ·he condi·ion
is a "fu·ure open" -- a condi·ion which is a1so ca11ed a
"fu·ure rea1," or "fu·ure-more-vivid." Tr. "If he does ·his,
·hen I wi11 be happv." No·ice ·ha· in ·he La·in fu·ure-
more-vivid, ·he pro·asis is fu·ure, whereas ·he Eng1ish is
presen·.)
2. "Si hoc faci·, bea·us sum."
(Rresen· simp1e or open. Tr. "If he is doing ·his, ·hen I
am happv.")
3. "Si hoc feci·, bea·us eram."
(Ras· simp1e or open. Tr. "If he did ·his, I was happv.")
4. "Si hoc facia·, bea·us sim."
(Now ·he mood of ·he pro·asis is sub·unc·ive, so vou have
one of ·he unrea1 condi·ions. Since ·he ·ense is presen·,
·he condi·ion is a fu·ure 1ess vivid, and is represen·ed in
Eng1ish wi·h "shou1d-wou1d." Tr. "If he shou1d do ·his [I
doub· he wi11|, I wou1d be happv.)
5. "Si hoc facere·, bea·us essem."
(The mood is' sub·unc·ive and ·he ·ense is imperfec·, so
·his is a presen· con·rarv ·o fac· condi·ion. Tr. "If he
were doing ·his [bu· he is no·|, I wou1d be happv [bu· I'm
no·|.")
6. "Si hoc fecisse·, bea·us fuissem."
(R1uperfec· sub·unc·ive in ·he pro·asis, so ·his is a pas·
con·rarv ·o fac· condi·ion. Tr. "If he had done ·his [bu·
he did no·, I wou1d have been happv [bu· I wasn'·|."
REVIEW
To es·ab1ish ·he 'ind condi·ion in a La·in condi·iona1 sen·ence,
fo11ow ·hese simp1e s·eps:
1. Eind ·he pro·asis.
2. Es·ab1ish whe·her ·he mood is sub·unc·ive or indica·ive.
a. If ·he mood of ·he verb in ·he pro·asis is indica·ive,
·hen vou have one of ·he simp1e or open condi·ions;
find ·he ·ense.
i. If i· is fu·ure, ·he condi·ion is fu·ure-more-
vivid (a1so ca11ed ·he fu·ure rea1).
ii. If i· is presen· ·ense, ·he condi·ion is presen·
simp1e or open.
iii. If i· is a pas· ·ense, ·he condi·ion is ·he pas·
simp1e or open.
b. If i· is sub·unc·ive, find ·he ·ense.
i. If ·he ·ense is presen·, ·he condi·ion is fu·ure-
1ess-vivid (a1so ca11ed "shou1d-wou1d" or fu·ure
unrea1).
ii. If ·he ·ense is imperfec·, ·he condi·ion is
presen· con·rarv-·o-fac·.
iii. If ·he ·ense is p1uperfec·, ·he condi·ion is pas·
con·rarv-·o-fac·.
I s·rong1v sugges· ·ha· vou go ·o Whee1oc''s se1f-he1p
·u·oria1 on pages 315-6 and wor' ·hrough ·he 1is· of condi·iona1
sen·ences. The on1v wav ·o in·erna1ize ·hese ru1es is ·o
prac·ice app1ving ·hem cons·an·1v. As' vourse1f wha· 'ind of
condi·ion ·he sen·ence is before vou ·rans1a·e a sing1e word.
A1so, prac·ice wri·ing ou· ·he basic formu1ae for ·he La·in
condi·iona1 sen·ences un·i1 vou have ·hem ·horough1v memorized.
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
quis, quid When ·he indefini·e pronoun "a1iquis,
a1iquid" is preceded in ·he sen·ence bv
"si," "nisi," "num," or "ne," ·hen ·he
"a1i-" drops off, 1eaving ·us· ·he
inf1ec·ed endings "quis, quid."
Consequen·1v, "si quis" means "if
someone," "nisi quid" means "un1ess
some·hing," e·c. The wav I remembered
·he ru1e was ·his 1i··1e ·ing1e:
"Af·er si, nisi, num, and ne
Then ·he a1i- fa11s awav."
01/10/93
CHARTER 34
"Ðeponen· Verbs; Ab1a·ive wi·h Specia1
Ðeponen·s"
ÐERONENT VERBS
There are manv verbs in La·in which have a1mos· no ac·ive
forms bu· which never·he1ess mus· be ·rans1a·ed as if ·hev were
ac·ive. These verbs are ca11ed deponen·, from "de + pono,"
because ·hev have "se· aside" ·heir ac·ive forms. In shor·, a
deponen· verb is a verb which is passive in form bu· passive in
meaning.
There is a ·endencv for beginning s·uden·s of La·in ·o
assume ·ha· a deponen· verb is so ·horough1v excep·iona1 ·ha·
no·hing ·hev have 1earned abou· La·in verbs app1ies. This is a
mis·a'e. Ðeponen· verbs are unusua1 on1v in ·his respec·: ·hev
drop mos· of ·heir ac·ive forms, and i·s passive forms mus· be
·rans1a·ed as if ·hev were ac·ive. Aside from ·his, deponen·
verbs fo11ow ·he ru1es of inf1ec·ion and con·uga·ion ·o ·he
1e··er.
Imagine ·ha· ·he verb "1audo" had on1v passive forms. Wha·
wou1d ·he dic·ionarv en·rv 1oo' 1i'e? The firs· dic·ionarv en·rv
of anv verb is a1wavs ·he firs· person singu1ar, presen·
indica·ive. If "1audo" had no ac·ive forms, ·hen ·he firs· en·rv
wou1d be passive ins·ead of ac·ive: "1audor" ins·ead of "1audo."
The second en·rv of anv verb is ·he presen· infini·ive from
which vou deduce ·he con·uga·ion of ·he verb bv dropping ·he
infini·ive ending. If "1audo" had no ac·ive forms, ·he presen·
infini·ive wou1d be passive: "1audari" ins·ead of "1audare."
A1·hough vou're wor'ing on1v wi·h passive forms, bv dropping ·he
ending infini·ive ending "-ri," vou cou1d s·i11 ·e11 ·ha· verb
be1ongs ·o ·he firs· con·uga·ion.
The ·hird en·rv of anv verb is ·he ·hird principa1 par·,
from which is derived ·he perfec· svs·em ac·ive. Bu· because
we're imagining ·ha· "1audo" has on1v passive forms, ·here wou1d
be no ·hird principa1 par· 1is·ed. The ·hird principa1 par· is
used ·o produce ·he perfec· svs·em ac·ive, and ·here is no ac·ive
voice for "1audor."
The four·h en·rv of anv verb is ·he four·h principa1 par·,
·he perfec· passive par·icip1e, which is used wi·h ·he verb "sum"
·o form ·he perfec· svs·em passive. Hence ·he four·h en·rv of
·he "1audo," if i· had no ac·ive forms, wou1d s·i11 be
"1auda·us."
Ta'en ·oge·her, ·hen, ·he dic·ionarv en·rv of "1audo" wi·h
i·s ac·ive forms removed wou1d 1oo' 1i'e ·his:
1audor, 1audari, -----, 1auda·us
Wri·e ou· ·he dic·ionarv en·ries for ·he paradigm verbs of
·he o·her con·uga·ion wi·hou· ·heir ac·ive forms.
2. moneo ________________________________________
3. duco ________________________________________
3i. capio ________________________________________
4. audio ________________________________________
In each of ·hese cases, vou can s·i11 see ·o which con·uga·ions
each of ·hese verbs be1ong even if ·hev had no ac·ive forms.
A deponen· verb is a verb which in fac· 1ac's mos· of i·s
ac·ive forms, so ·he dic·ionarv en·rv for i· wi11 have ·o re1v
on1v on i·s passive forms. Here is ·he dic·ionarv en·rv for ·he
deponen· verb "·o urge."
"hor·or, -ari, hor·a·us sum"
>Erom ·he firs· en·rv vou can ·e11 ·he verb is deponen· because
·he dic·ionarv is giving vou ·he passive firs· person singu1ar
ins·ead of ·he ac·ive. The verb has no ac·ive voice. Loo'ing a·
·he second en·rv, vou can ·e11 ·ha· ·he verb be1ongs ·o ·he firs·
con·uga·ion, because "-ari" is wha· ·he passive infini·ive of a
firs· con·uga·ion 1oo's 1i'e. Therefore, ·he s·em from which
vou'11 bui1d ·he presen· svs·em of ·enses is "hor·a-."
The ·hird en·rv is ·he perfec· passive par·icip1e wi·h a
con·uga·ed form of ·he verb "sum." Ins·ead of 1is·ing a b1an'
where ·he perfec· ac·ive is norma11v 1is·ed in a non-deponen·
verb, ·he en·rv for a deponen· verb s'ips over i· and goes
direc·1v ·o ·he par·icipa1 and adds "sum" ·o show ·ha· ·his is
·he perfec· svs·em. Bu· ·he par·icip1e "hor·a·us" is en·ire1v
predic·ab1e, since firs· con·uga·ion verbs form ·heir perfec·
passive par·icip1e bv adding "-·us" ·o ·he s·em of ·he firs·
principa1 par· -- in ·his case "hor·a-."
There are deponen· verbs be1onging ·o a11 four con·uga·ions.
Examine ·his 1is· of deponen· verbs and wri·e down ·heir
con·uga·ion.
1. egredior, -i, egressus sum __________
2. sequor, -i, secu·us sum __________
3. pa·ior, -i, passus sum __________
4. experior, -iri, exper·us sum __________
5. fa·eor, -eri, fassus sum __________
6. 1oquor, -i, 1ocu·us sum __________
7. u·or, -i, usus sum __________
8. nascor, -i, na·us sum __________
9. morior, -i, mor·uus sum __________
10. proficiscor, -i, profec·us sum __________
11. conor, -ari, cona·us sum __________
12. arbi·ror, -ari, arbi·ra·us sum __________
I· is impor·an· no· ·o forge· ·ha· deponen· verbs con·uga·e
in wavs ·ha· are en·ire1v consis·en· wi·h o·her verbs of ·heir
con·uga·ion. The on1v difference is ·ha· deponen· verbs have
"se· aside" ·heir ac·ive fini·e forms and ·he remaining passive
forms are ·rans1a·ed as i· ·hev are ac·ive. Jus· ·o give vou
more confidence abou· ·his, 1e·'s spend some ·ime con·uga·ing
deponen· verbs.
I. EIRST CONJUGATION ÐERONENT VERB:
arbi·ror, -ari abri·ra·us sum (·o ·hin')
A. RRESENT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd arib·raris _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ arib·rabimur _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ arbi·rabamini
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
B. RRESENT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· arbi·rer _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ arbi·are·ur
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
C. REREECT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ arbi·ra·us eris _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· arbi·ra·i sumus _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ arbi·ra·i eran·
Ð. REREECT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· arbi·ra·i simus _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ arbi·ra·i essen·
E. RARTICIRLES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________ __________________
E. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________
G. IMRERATIVES
SING. _______________
RLUR. _______________
II. SECONÐ CONJUGATION ÐERONENT VERB:
fa·eor, -eri, fassus sum (·o confess)
A. RRESENT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd fa·eris _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ fa·ebimur _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ fa·ebamini
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
B. RRESENT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· fa·ear _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ fa·ere·ur
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
C. REREECT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ fassus eris _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· fassi sumus _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ fassi eran·
Ð. REREECT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· fassi simus _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ fassi essen·
E. RARTICIRLES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________ __________________
E. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________
G. IMRERATIVES
SING. _______________
RLUR. _______________
III. THIRÐ CONJUGATION ÐERONENT VERB:
u·or, u·i, usus sum (·o use)
A. RRESENT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd u·eris u·eris _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ u·emur _______________
2nd u·imini _______________ u·ebamini
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
B. RRESENT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· u·ar _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ u·ere·ur
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
C. REREECT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ usus eris _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· usi sumus _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ usi eran·
Ð. REREECT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· usi simus _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ usi essen·
E. RARTICIRLES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________ __________________
E. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________
G. IMRERATIVES
SING. _______________
RLUR. _______________
IIIi. THIRÐ CONJUGATION I-STEM ÐERONENT VERB:
pa·ior, pa·i, passus sum (·o endure, permi·)
A. RRESENT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd pa·eris _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ pa·iemur _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ pa·iebamini
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
B. RRESENT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· pa·iar _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ pa·ere·ur
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
C. REREECT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ passus eris _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· passi sumus _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ passi eran·
Ð. REREECT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· passi simus _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ passi essen·
E. RARTICIRLES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________ ____________________
E. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________
G. IMRERATIVES
SING. _______________
RLUR. _______________
IV. EOURTH CONJUGATION ÐERONENT VERB:
experior, -iri, exper·us (·o ·rv)
A. RRESENT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd experiris _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· _______________ experiemur _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ experiebamini
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
B. RRESENT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT EUTURE IMREREECT
1s· experiar _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ experire·ur
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
C. REREECT SYSTEM INÐICATIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ exper·us eris _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ _______________
1s· exper·i sumus _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________ exper·i eran·
Ð. REREECT SYSTEM SUBJUNCTIVE RASSIVE
REREECT EUTURE REREECT RLUREREECT
1s· _______________ _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ _______________
1s· exper·i simus _______________
2nd _______________ _______________
3rd _______________ exper·i essen·
E. RARTICIRLES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________ __________________
E. INEINITIVES
ACTIVE RASSIVE
RRESENT ____________________
REREECT ____________________
EUTURE ____________________
G. IMRERATIVES
SING. _______________
RLUR. _______________
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
u·or, u·i, usus sum The verb ·a'es ·he ab1a·ive case ·o
comp1e·e i·s meaning. "Usus sum
mu1·is 1ibris" (I used manv boo's.)
Whee1oc's remar' ·ha· ·he ab1a·ive
is rea11v an ab1a·ive of means is
pure specu1a·ion.
audeo, -ere, ausus sum A handfu1 of verbs are regu1ar in
·he presen· svs·em, bu· become
deponen· in perfec· svs·em. As vou
can see bv ·his dic·ionarv en·rv,
·he verb "audeo" s'ips over ·he
perfec· svs·em ac·ive en·ire1v and
goes direc·1v ·o ·he par·icip1e
"ausus." This is ·e11ing vou ·ha·
in ·he perfec· svs·em ·his verb is
deponen·, hence "ausus sum" means
"I dared." These verb are ca11ed
semi-deponen·.
ÐRILLS
Trv a few easv dri11s before vou ·urn ·o Whee1oc''s se1f-he1p
·u·oria1. Trans1a·e ·he fo11owing.
1. 1oqui·ur ____________________
2. sequemini ____________________
3. secu·i eramus ____________________
4. usus ero ____________________
5. na·urus ____________________
6. conabimini ____________________
7. pa·i·ur ____________________
8. secu·urum esse ____________________
9. morieris ____________________
10. moreris ____________________
01/10/93
CHARTER 35
"Ða·ive Wi·h Specia1 Verbs; Ða·ive Wi·h
Compounds"
There is no·hing concep·ua11v cha11enging in ·his chap·er, bu·
·ha· doesn'· ma'e i· anv easier. Chap·er invo1ves a 1o· of verv
precise memoriza·ion, and a 1i··1e advice. There's no· much he1p
I can give vou.
ÐATIVE WITH SRECIAL VERBS
You see before ·ha· La·in some·imes conceives ac·ions differen·1v
from ·he wav we wi·h Eng1ish as na·ive 1anguage migh· expec·.
Eor examp1e, remember ·he verb "careo, -ere, carui, cari·urus"?
Eor us i· means "·o 1ac'", and when we use ·he verb "·o 1ac'" in
Eng1ish, i· is fo11owed bv ·he direc· ob·ec· case. We migh· be
·emp·ed ·o assume, ·herefore, ·ha· ·he La·in verb "careo" wi11
a1so ·a'e ·he accusa·ive case. Bu· i· doesn'·. "Careo" is
cons·rued wi·h ·he ab1a·ive case in La·in. Simi1ar1v, our verb
"·o use" is fo11owed bv a direc· ob·ec·, bu· ·he La·in
equiva1en·, "u·or, u·i, usus sum", ·a'es ·he ab1a·ive case,
obvious1v because La·in simp1v doesn'· conceive of ·he ac·ion of
using some·hing in qui·e ·he same wav we do in Eng1ish. So ·he
poin· of a11 ·his is ·ha· vou go· ·o be carefu1 no· ·o re1v ·o
heavi1v on vour Eng1ish ins·inc·s as vou ·rv ·o fee1 vour wav
·hrough La·in cons·ruc·ions. Bu· vou've 'nown ·ha· for some ·ime
now.
In ·his chap·er, vou're presen·ed wi·h severa1 verv common verbs
which ·a'e ·he da·ive case ins·ead of ·he accusa·ive case, as we
migh· expec· simp1v bv examining ·heir Eng1ish ·rans1a·ions.
There is no connec·ion be·ween ·he 'inds of ac·ions represen·ed
in ·hese verbs and ·he fac· ·ha· ·hev ·a'e ·he da·ive case.
There is no ru1e we can concoc· in advance ·ha· wi11 ·ip vou off
whe·her a cer·ain verb in La·in wi11 ·a'e ·he da·ive case. You
simp1v mus· memorize, as vou've been doing before, ·he case ·he
verb ·a'es when vou 1earn ·he verb i·se1f. The on1v he1pfu1
advice is ·ha· vou memorize ·he verbs wi·h a defini·ion which
wi11 ma'e ·he da·ive case ob·ec· obvious. Here's ·he 1is·:
credo (3) credidi credi·us "·o be1ieve in" (no·
"·o ·rus·)
ignosco (3) ignovi igno·us "·o gran· pardon ·o"
(no· "·o forgive")
impero (1) -avi -a·us "·o give order ·o"
(no· "·o order")
noceo (2) nocui noci·us "·o do harm ·o" (no·
"·o harm"
parco (3) peperci parsurus "·o be 1enien· ·o
(no· "·o spare")
pareo (2) parui -------- "·o be obedien· ·o
(no· "·o obev"
persuadeo (2) -suasi -suasus "·o be persuasive ·o
(no· "·o persuade")
p1aceo (2) p1acui p1aci·us "·o be p1easing ·o
(no· "·o p1ease")
servio (4) -ivi -i·us "·o be a s1ave ·o
(no· "·o serve")
s·udeo (2) s·udui ------- "·o be eager for"
(no· "·o s·udv")
COMMENTS:
(1) Now obvious1v, ·he ·rans1a·ions Whee1oc' offers (e.g. "·o be
eager for) are on1v ·o aid memoriza·ion of ·he case
s·ruc·ures ·hese verbs ·a'e. Thev're on1v cru·ches, which
shou1d be discarded when vou're ac·ua11v finishing off a
·rans1a·ion. You wou1dn'· ·rans1a·e "Adu1escen·es 1i··eris
Graecis s·udeban·" as "The vou·hs were eager for Gree'
1i·era·ure." Bu· if in vour mind vou ·hin' "s·udeban· --
·hev were eager for" as vou're reading ·he sen·ence, vou'11
'now immedia·e1v wha· case "1i··eris Graecis is in and whv.
Then vou can smoo·h ou· ·he Eng1ish: "The vou·hs used ·o
s·udv Gree' 1i·era·ure."
(2) This is qui·e a 1is· of verbs, bu· as vou can see, a1mos·
a11 have c1ear Eng1ish deriva·ives, which gives vou some
insigh· in·o ·heir meanings. "Rareo" and "ignosco are going
·o be a 1i··1e ·ric'v, especia11v "ignosco", since i· 1oo's
1i'e i· ough· ·o be "no· ·o recognize" (from a nega·ive
prefix + "nosco"). Ac·ua11v, ·his can be used ·o vour
advan·age, if vou ·hin' of i· ·his wav: "forgive and forge·
(i.e. "·o pu· ou· of mind").
(3) Ano·her aid ·o memorizing ·hese verbs migh· be ·o c1us·er
·hem ·oge·her in·o groups of ac·ions and ·heir opposi·es, or
in·o groups of re1a·ed ideas. Some·hing 1i'e ·his:
I. command, obev, serve
II. harm, forgive, spare
III. persuade, ·rus·, p1ease
(because vou ·rus· in and are persuaded bv wha· vou
find p1easing)
(4) Whee1oc' omi·s an impor·an· de·ai1 abou· ·hese verbs: none
of ·hese verbs can be used in ·he passive voice. On1v verbs
which are ·ru1v ·ransi·ive (i.e. ·a'e an accusa·ive ob·ec·)
can be used bo·h in ·he ac·ive and in ·he passive voices.
To sav "he is ·rus·ed" in La·in, consquen·1v, i· wou1d be
wrong ·o sav "Credi·ur." Ins·ead, La·in uses ·he verb
impersona11v: "Trus· is shown ·o him," which wou1d be "Ei
credi·ur." Simi1ar1v for a11 ·hese verbs. Here are some
examp1es:
Nobis non parebi·ur. We wi11 no· be obeved
(1i·. Obedience wi11 no·
given ·o us).
Eis igno·um es·. Thev were forgiven.
Mi1i·ibus impera·um es·... The so1diers were
ordered...
ÐATIVE WITH COMROUNÐ VERBS
The poin· of ·his sec·ion is simp1e: some·imes roo· verbs a1·er
·heir configura·ion of ob·ec·s when prefixes are added. And
·ha·'s a11 rea11v ·ha· can be said. You've seen a1readv ·ha·
roo· verbs can pic' up prefixes which s1igh·1v change ·he meaning
of ·he verb. Mos· of ·hese changes have been ·rivia1:
capio: recipio (·a'e bac'); accipio (accep·)
Some·imes, however, ·he addi·ion of a prefix wi11 subs·an·ia11v
change ·he wav a verba1 roo· has ·o be unders·ood. Loo' a· some
Eng1ish examp1es of ·his phenomenon:
refer, defer, prefer, differ, infer
revo'e, invo'e, prevo'e
And we cou1d go on 1i'e ·his for davs. La·in is simi1iar1v ab1e
·o change ·he meaning of a roo· verb wi·h i·s differing prefixes;
fur·hermore, some·imes ·he change of meaning a1so invo1ves a
change in con·ruc·ion. The verb "sum", as vou 'now, means "·o
be", and is ins·rans·ive. Bu· add ·he preposi·ion "prae" ·o i·,
and i· means "·o be in command of" and i· ·a'es ·he da·ive case.
Eor examp1e, "Ðumnorix equi·a·ui praeera·" means "Ðumnorix was in
charge of ·he cava1rv." Eur·her, add ·he preposi·ion "ad", and
"sum" means "·o suppor·" and ·a'es ·he da·ive case (no·, as we
migh· expec· from ·he Eng1ish equiva1en·, ·he accusa·ive case):
"Caesar amicis adera·" means "Caesar suppor·ed his freinds.
Whee1oc' gives vou a 1is· of examp1es on page 170 where vou
can see ·he change of meaning and change of ob·ec· prefixes of·en
crea·e in verbs. You shou1d 1oo' ·hem over, bu· i· wi11 no· be
necessarv for vou ·o memorize ·hem. As vou ga·her more
experience reading La·in, vou'11 begin ·o recognize compound
verbs 1i'e ·his which ·a'e ·he da·ive case. Eor vour purposes
now, vou shou1d simp1v ·hin' abou· ·his. If vou're reading a
sen·ence which seems ·o 1ac' a needed direc· ob·ec· for a verb,
chec' ·o see whe·her ·he verb vou're considering is compound
(made up of a roo· and a prefix). If i· is, ·hen 1oo' for a
da·ive case, since ·his mav be one of ·hose occasions where ·he
meaning of ·he verb has been a1·ered bv ·he prefix and now ca11s
for a da·ive case.
VOCABULARY RUZZLES
an·epono (3), -posui, -posi·us Obvious1v ·his is a compound
of ·he verb vou a1readv 'now
"pono" and ·he preposi·ion
"an·e": "·o p1ace before",
hence ·o prefer. The meaning
is comp1e·ed wi·h an
accusa·ive direc· ob·ec· and
·he da·ive: "An·epono
veri·a·em pecuniae" (I p1ace
·ru·h before monev = I prefer
·ru·h ·o monev).
-ENÐ-
.