Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ENGINEERING
LIBRAP
BALDWIN M. WOODS
BY
FREDERICK BEDELL,
Author of Airplane Characteristics,
PH.D.
etc.
Aeronautical Society of America, Past Vice-President American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Fellow and Past General Secretary American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member the American Physical Society and Managing Editor of The Physical Review.
Member
ILLUSTRATED
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by E.
L. Nichols)
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with A. C. Crehore)
Also, editions in
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Airplane Characteristics, 1918; cloth, $1.60.
The
The Airplane, in preparation for 1920; cloth, $3.00. Most of the chapters in this volume will consist
time.
of material to be published therein for the first Six chapters will consist essentially of
material that has appeared in the two preceding volumes, revised and amplified.
Orders for any of the foregoing works may be sent to D. Van Nostrand Company, 25 Park Place, New York.
BY
FREDERICK BEDELL,
Author of Airplane Characteristics,
PH.D.
etc.
Aeronautical Society of America, Past Vice-President American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Fellow and Past General Secretary American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member the American Physical Society and Managing Editor of The Physical Review.
Member
ILLUSTRATED
D.
Engineerisg
Library
PREFACE
It is with
some
He
so,
however,
because
many
discussions
the
subject
are
unsatisfying
and
in
to present a brief
and simple
practical
who want a
characteristics
and a general
treatment
knowledge of
will at the
its
theory.
same time serve as a general introduction for those who wish to pursue the subject further and to make a more
detailed study of the propeller, either in its theoretical or
practical aspects.
is
would welcome
criticism,
and
error
or obscurity in presentation.
He
desires to
for valuable assistance in the preparation of this book, particularly in the calculation of the characteristics of the propeller.
in
The
Airplane,
now
in preparation;
see notice
page.
CONTENTS
PAGE
n
-
Introductory
19 25
(b)
(c)
31 67
(d)
Theory
APPENDIX
Glossary
-
77
Power
Characteristics
(power required)
91
POWER AVAILABLE FROM THE AIR PROPELLER AND THE AIRPLANE ENGINE
The power required for airplane flight at different velocidepends upon airplane structure, varying as the product of airplane velocity and the total airplane resistance. Neither the source of power nor the amount of power available is
ties
is
Curves for power are shown in an appendix and will not be discussed required
engine.
here.
and
On
is
power, depends entirely upon the air propeller and the airplane The power available is derived directly from the engine.
thrust of the propeller, being proportional to the product of
propeller thrust
of the airplane;
in
horse power,
it is
pounds and
by
375.
The power
propeller
supplied by the airplane engine. Although the and engine perform their separate functions, the
upon the
must exactly equal the power the engine of rotation of the one must be the speed
Although no complete discussion of the airplane engine can be here undertaken, an outline will be given of its chief
(9)
10
characteristics that
in airplane flight.
have a bearing on the power available This will be followed by a more complete
its
and
Theory.
11
is
it
and, although
air-
some* of
plane
characteristics
meets the important requirement of low Each year airplane engines have been horse power. weight per
flight,
made
of greater
power and
less
made by
H.P.
may
hereafter be intro-
many thousand
*Particularly undesirable is the decrease in the power developed by a gas engine at high altitudes, the power developed being in direct proportion to the density of the air, as discussed in a later chapter. At an
altitude of about 20,000 feet, only half as much power is developed as near the ground. To obviate this decrease in power with altitude has been the aim of inventors. Methods for accomplishing this have
been devised but are not in general use. not included in this volume.)
is
The original motor of the Wright \Size and weight of engines. Brothers, used in the first airplane flight in 1903, gave 12 horse power, with a weight of 12.7 Ibs. per horse power. The development of the
airplane engine since then, until the 1918 Liberty motor, is shown by the following table. The numbers, except in the'first and last column,
Year
1903
12
Ibs.
1910
1914
112
1915
133
512
3.8
1916
185
Horsepower
Weight,
152
12.7
54 309
5.7
1917 243
437
3.9
570
3.1
693
2.8
Lbs.perH.P.
To obtain greater power than can be obtained from a single engine, several engines (and usually as many propellers) are employed. As many as six engines, developing a total of 3000 H. P. have thus been
used.
The
NC
4 hydroplane, in the
first
12
horse power,
may
The power developed by a gas engine, with throttle wide open or in other constant position, increases in proportion to the number of explosions in a given time and hence in
proportion to the number of revolutions per minute, which
hereafter will be referred to as the speed
N.
is
For a consider-
reached at which the power is a maximum and beyond falls off. This falling off in power is due
is
and passages.
The variation of power with speed for a typical enginef is shown in Fig. 44, in which the solid curve shows the brake horse power when the throttle is wide open. It is seen that
power increases very nearly
in this case, a in proportion to speed until,
is
of 1240 R. P.
maximum M.
of 106 H.P.
reached at a speed
When power
portion to speed, torque is constant. The torque in a gas engine is nearly constant through the working range. As the power curve falls
off
from a straight
line,
fOne hundred H. P. Gnome Monosoupape Motor. This particular motor is no longer made. Its performance, however, may be taken as
typical.
13
120
100
80
GO
^-o
20
200
400
GOO
800
1000
1200
HOC
Fig. 44.
Variation of brake horse power of a typical gas engine with speed. Dotted curves show reduction of
throttle control.
power by
15
Mechanical
efficiency.
H. P.
Some
power.
The mechanical
brake horse
is
thus
effi-
when the
ciency
is
90 or 85 per cent.
as well as its
engine
is
run.
(*'.
an engine, power, varies with the speed at which the The efficiency is low at low speed and at very
efficiency of
The
high speed
nearly a
e.,
delivered
is
low)
and
is
maximum when power is a maximum. The speed for maximum efficiency is a little lower than the speed for maximum power, but the efficiency remains high (within a few per cent, of its maximum value) for a wide range of speed
a range,
44, this
let
(In Fig.
maximum
power.)
Range
of engine speed.
The best speed for engine operation is no one precise speed but extends through a moderate range of values just below the speed for maximum power. In this range, efficiency and power are both high
there
is
;
a large falling
is
off
An
range,
engine
desirable, despite
rarely run at
much
higher
16
speed,
and
efficiency.
The
etc.
size of ports
and bore,
of the engine,
of
moving
parts,
As a usual
lower speed than automobile engines so as to permit of direct connection to the propeller. Structural and other
reasons
make high
this
beyond
an added
Throttle control.
The
the
full
power when
all
carburetor are
made
power
at each speed.
by
means
power being obtained by partly closing the throttle. (In some engines, however, the only power control is the ignition switch, by which the power
of the throttle, less
is
off.)
figure,
marked "three-quarters
power
is
and "half
throttle,"
To
full
power at each
speed would require some adjustment of throttle (with constant throttle, the fractional power being not exactly
three-fourths or one-half, or other definite proportion of
17
speeds), but this adjustment
therefore,
full
power, at
all
would not be
illustrat-
great.
be considered as
would require
discussed
some modification.
also,
later
same
as throttling.)
The curves
with
and show
amounts
of
is
throttle.
Before
determine
we can we must
19
Introductory
The
shaft,
air propeller is
mounted on
either
behind
it
as a pusher.
The
less
propeller
is
but not uncommonly it is constructed commonly with three blades when propel-
diameter
is
limited
is
by the space
available.
blade
propeller
is
structurally
difficult.
strength
most readily obtained with two blades, which pass through the hub as one member. The forward thrust required to overcome airplane resistance in
flight is
backward velocity of
volume, the greater
thrust.
its
In the same
way
that an
upward
it is
force or
lift is
obtained
from a moving
aerofoil because
stream
Although there are various ways of treating the propeller and it is commonly referred to and considered as an air screw, it is most satisfactory to consider the propeller blade or
each element thereof
as
an
aerofoil,
with
lift
and drag
an
aerofoil
determined by
for
its
cross-section
lift
and angle
its
of incidence as
any
aerofoil.
its
The
of a propeller blade as
determines
thrust as a propeller;
drag as an aerofoil
it
as a propeller,
more
fully later.
20
\
Screw
definitions; pitch
and
pitch ratio.
is
When a screw passes through a solid, the distance it moves forward in one revolution is called the pitch of the screw.
its pitch ratio.
This distance divided by the diameter of the screw is called The pitch and pitch ratio of a screw may
be exactly determined from its dimensions (the distance between threads, and the diameter), the values thus deter-
The terms
pitch
and pitch
as to a screw.
of a propeller
It is found,
through the
air in
one revolution
called
its
is
its
determined from
solid.
through a
In propeller operation
its
it is its
than
(As
structural pitch, in
later,!
interested.
shown
by
*"~
I
its
dimensions.
power and
The power
air
comes
directly
thrust, the
amount
21
Fig. 45.
Two-blade
propeller.
23
of
The
it
propeller
itself,
merely transmits power that it receives from the engine, the power it thus receives being proportional to
power;
the product of the torque* in the propeller shaft and
in revolutions per minute.
its
speed
here and elsewhere in this discussion, refers to speed of rotation, often referred to as "revs." or
flight,
engine, propeller
and
thus seen to be the intermediary or "middle-man," receiving power from the engine and
the propeller
is
delivering this
airplane.
power
in a
form available
The power the propeller receives is torque horse power and this is the brakehorse power of the engine The power the propeller delivers is discussed/)
and
this is the
power available
for air-
plane propulsion.
The
efficiency of a propeller
is
power to torque horse power. The entire output of the engine would thus be available as thrust horse power for propelling
the airplane,
cent.
if
On
account of
propeller
is less
not
all of
the
engine output
thus available.
Under
best conditions,
*Torque is a turning moment equal to the product Fr of a force F and the perpendicular distance r from the force to the center of rotation. If F is in pounds and r in feet, torque horse power is 2 v F r/33OOO, for one horse power is 33000 ft. Ibs. per min.
24
the efficiency of a propeller
may
be 80 or 85 per
cent.,
but
under working conditions it is usually less; thus, when the brake horse power of the engine is 100, perhaps only 60 or 70
horse power
The
more
that
is
air propeller,
efficient
practically incompressible.
pression before
when a negative
it is
by
To
ler.)
avoid
made
short
an
air propel-
by
most
Let us
first
see
operation.
We
will
what are the varying conditions of propeller then see what are the characteristics
different conditions of operation,
of a propeller
after
under these
which we
Adequate power being assured, conditions of operation that give high efficiency should be sought.
25
Conditions of Propeller Operation
(6)
V and
During flight the two variables in propeller operation upon which other quantities depend are its forward velocity
and
its
(The
effect
is
a later discussion.)
itself
the propeller
peller
when not
in flight.*
be found that propeller characteristics depend not but upon their only upon the absolute values of V and
It will
The
ratio of
to
N, and the
ratio
V /ND, where D is propeller diameter, have special significance. The values of V and N are known to the pilot by his airspeed meter and his revolution indicator. They are, furthermore, quantities that he directly controls. For these reasons, propeller characteristics are better understood by a
pilot at least
when expressed
in terms of
and
than
when expressed
incidence or
slip,
known
It is well,
however, to be able to
expressed in these
effective pitch
when
its significance;
and
slip
flight,
*Adjustable propellers, in which the pitch can be changed during have been used but have not been widely introduced.
26
When a propeller making N revolutions per minute, is moving forward with a velocity of V ft. per minute, the distance that the propeller moves forward in one revolution
is
seen to be
is
V/N
feet.
of length,
and N, under
different
is
R. P.
when V = 5000 ft. per min. and N = 1000 M., the propeller moves forward in one revolution
(Thus,
a distance
propeller;
V/N = 5 when V =
equal to
ft.,
which
is
6000 and
5 ft.)
V/N is
V/ND,
still
term
is
of propeller diameter
example,
5
-f-
V/ND =
0.625,
which
is
peller
diameter.
V/ND
is
ft.
is expressed in R. P. M. and D in feet, V must be expressed in per minute. For example, an 8 ft. propeller makes 1200 R. P. M. When V/ND = 0.5, V = 0.5 X 1200 X 8 = 4800 ft. per min. (54.5
*If
V/ND V/ND
is
= 9600 ft. per min. (109 MPH.). The i, V frequently in this range (0.5 to i.o), but these values
are given for illustration and not as limits. If were revolutions per sec. and D meters,
second;
27
The value
units, it is
of
V /ND
more
and
56)
V/ND.
is
nND,
it is
V/ND
is
Dynamic
pitch
and pitch
ratio.
The
effective pitch, or
under
different conditions of
operation.
It will
be shown
later,
and
finally
becomes
zero.
The
no
slip,
air
The
thrust
called the
propeller.
It is
and
like
a dimension (ex-
The dynamic
units.
pitch ratio
is
and
it is
is
a number independent of
Otherwise defined,
is
the value of
V/ND when
no thrust
9
ft.,
there
no thrust and no
slip.
creates
V /N =
=
the
is 9-5-10 0.9. a constant of the propeller and is the same whether V and be large or small. Practical values for dynamic pitch ratio
V/ND =
This
and
1.5.
28
Slip.
Positive thrust
is
The
difference
When the
tion
is
slip is 5
V JN =
As a
effective pitch
(i
s)
dynamic
pitch.
ratio in terms of
D, we have accordingly
when the
slip is zero,
pitch.
Dynamic pitch greater than structural pitch. The dynamic pitch and pitch ratio of a propeller is greaterf
than the nominal or structural pitch and pitch
the air for no thrust
greater than
solid,
ratio.
In
its
travel calculated as a
It is for
unyielding material.
The explanation
the propeller
is
lies in
passing
unyielding solid.
air acts
The
*When the travel is greater than the dynamic pitch and the slip is negative (as in diving) a negative thrust is developed, the propeller then acting as a brake; see Fig. 51. fForty-eiglrt propellers discussed by Durand in Report No. 14,
referred to later, have values of
1.17
and
1.54
29
under propeller theory and, like any aerofoil, gives rise to a rarefaction* on its upper surface (in front of the propeller) and a condensation on the lower surface (back of propeller)
.
air
and
much
from the actual dynamic values. The result in flight is the same as though the whole body of air immediately
it,
more than the calculated velocity is necessary in order to get zero thrust and this may serve as a rough explanation.
Dynamic
pitch
and pitch
be determined by
nominal pitch or structural pitch and pitch ratio can be determined by measurements described later on the propeller
itself.
For
and pitch
ratio
The
relation
between
and
slip,
31
Propeller Characteristics
(c)
The behavior
will
of a propeller
be understood by examining the characteristic operation curves that follow. These are working results, independent
of
many
importance.
discussion of theory
will follow,
but some
may
The
upon the
will
relation
between
and N, and
study of
Other characteristics
be studied in
of
N and V.
forward velocity
moving
through the air. For any constant value of V, torque horse power increases as the revolutions per minute increase; in other words, it is
found, as might be supposed, that
more power
it
is
required to
is
slowly.
This
shown
of a
by the curves
power
and
By comparing these
power
is less
curves
it is
for high
"The curves in Figs. 46 (and subsequent curves, unless otherwise stated) relate to a propeller 8' 9" in diameter, with nominal pitch ratio 0.9.
The curves have been plotted from calculations based upon experimental data for Propeller No. 3, as given by W. F. Durand in Report No. 14, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1917. All curves relate to ground level, air density = 0.0789. The point m on any curve
is
the point of
32
The
is
which
It takes less
power to drive a
than when
it is
any
Prothe
given
number
when the
propeller
stationary.
a
is
maximum when
propeller
is
stationary;
torque, also,
then a maximum, as
As
certain velocity
is
reached.
At
negative;
the pro-
power from the engine, then drives power as an air motor from the air.
is
is
supplied
by
The
airplane
is
by the
propeller as
is
by a brake.
in determin-
an important element
N and V.
flight is
Relation between
N and V.
of
The
its
velocity
an airplane in
determined by
controlled
by
the elevator.
minute or speed N, although controlled by the throttle, depend not only upon engine
velocity V.
throttle
but also
upon airplane
For any given velocity, have a curve, as in Fig. 46, showing torque horse power for each value of speed N. But torque horse power received by
the propeller must equal brake horse power delivered
engine.
by the up
33
until a speed
all
is
power
of the propeller
power
This
made
engine brake horse power for a particular amount of throttle (reproduced from Fig. 44 with full throttle) and a curve for
propeller
V=
100
M P H.)
The
inter-
and also two curves determines the speed the power, for the particular value of V and particular amount
of throttle.
is
The
shifted
by
both
curves
may
motion.
Value of
The
is
control of
shown
in
As the
changed from
"full throttle" to
"24 throttle" and "J^ throttle," the intersection is changed from N' to N" and N"', with corresponding change in speed
and power.
Value of
The change
of speed
and power for several different values of V, is shown in the same manner in Fig. 50. The speed and power corresponding
to velocities of 50, 75, 100, 125
and 150
M P H.,
are deter-
mined
"K
by the
several intersections.
may be drawn for engine and propeller torque, instead of engine and propeller power, determining by their intersection in the same manner. Curves for propeller torque, at different speeds N, are
*Curves
continuously rising curves, somewhat like the curves for torque horse power in Fig. 46. Curves for engine torque at different speeds are
nearly horizontal, through a certain range of speed, dropping sharply at higher speeds.
*
34
It is seen that the
speed
directly controlled
is
by
indirectly
by the
pilot
is
by means
of the elevator.
For
a definite speed
N corresponding
is
and
speed
and
50, relate to
a particular
and engine;
and
propellers the
differ.
velocities.
by a
obviously
produce thrust and thrust power. Like other propeller and V are varied. It is, quantities these both vary as
made between
let
us consider propeller
Propeller
by the
propeller, that
is,
the
slip
stream with
respect to the
The
thrust developed
by a
V V is zero, namely,
when
the airplane
35
stream, with respect to the surrounding
air, is
then a maxiis
mum.
The
thrust,
when the
airplane
is
stationary,
called
When
the propeller
is
velocity V,
with respect
accordingly
in Fig. 51.
is
Thrust decreases as
increases, as
shown
increases,
and
finally
The
with respect to the stationary air, is then zero and no thrust is created, for no velocity has been imparted to the air by
the propeller.
Slip is then zero.
The
with velocity for a particular propeller when driven at 1200 R.P.M. The dotted curves show the thrust at 1000 and 800
R.P.M.
In
all
of thrust
and velocity
Fig. 52 shows curves for thrust and velocity, and a curve for thrust power thus obtained from their product. It is
is
zero
when
is
V=
o,
thrust
is
then a maximum.
zero
It is seen,
that
thrust power
is
when
thrust
V then
for a
1200 R.P.M.
A
is
shown
makes
possible a
Fig. 52,
maximum
;
thrust .power
is
when the slip is 44 per cent. maximum the point m, when the slip is 28.7 per cent.
efficiency,
The curves
in Fig. 53
of thrust horse
power with velocity for a propeller driven at different speeds N. They strikingly show that, for each speed, there is a
certain velocity at which the
power
is
is
maximum, and
that
maximum
speed N.
for
for power required have an important bearing upon power relations in flight. They are the most useful of propeller curves and should be
in
mind.
Although
power available
any
it
propeller.
They
cient
may
be used provided
has
suffi-
propeller.
when a
particular engine
used, are
shown
the
slip
is,
say, 40 to 50 per cent, (in this case about 45 per cent.); discussed in a later paragraph it has its maximum efficiency
when the
30 per cent.)
40 per cent,
about
in these values
maximum power
always occurs
37
at a
maximum
efficiency.
The
best
range
maximum power
and
maximum
efficiency.
Greater thrust horse power can be obtained by increasing as just shown, but is often better obtained by using a
power
in this
volume
The curves
velocities,
An
in Fig. 54 show the power obtained, at different from propellers of different diameters. airplane should be designed for as large a propeller as
is
high speed;
necessitates
airplane.
is
objectionable
if it
an undue elevation
On
account of this limitation and the necessity between the propeller and the
ground, the huge propellers satisfactorily used on airships A clearance as little as 10 inches
Assured of
ler,
sufficient thrust
we next
V/ND.
Note the
The
efficiency of
a propeller
is
delivered divided
a comparison
very interesting.
V and N
38
are both changed in the
same proportion,
efficiency
remains
unchanged.
Furthermore, in comparing propellers of the same design but with different diameters D, it is found that
efficiency
V /N
but upon
V /ND,
slip.
namely,
Propeller
are,
therefore, plotted
for
slip.
various values of
V /ND
shown
or
for
various values of
Both
scales
are
in Fig. 55.
5 5,
Referring to Fig.
and to
Fig. 52
which
relates to the
o,
same
propeller,
it is
seen that
slip,
when
As
V /ND =
is
correspond-
thrust power
zero
and hence
is zero.
V /ND
increases, propeller
efficiency of 80 per
maximum
As
V /ND is
efficiency decreases,
when
ratio
slip.
V /ND
of the
It is
and
zero
from Fig.
55,
is 0.9.
Fig. 55.
Every propeller has an efficiency curve of the type shown in It is seen that for a given number of revolutions
is
N, at which the
propeller
is
a maximum.
accordingly, be selected* that has high
be taken in case of a marine propelidentical hulls
A propeller should,
ler.
in selection has to
illustration
and
One boat, with propeller that gives engines, but different propellers. full power when travelling at high velocity, far outstrips the other in the race to an incoming steamer, but when it comes to pulling a load it is
inferior to the other
power when
travelling
full
39
efficiency and power at the operating values of V and N. A propeller that is very good for a certain airplane and engine
may
each
In other
so that,
It is
V /ND somemaximum
what lower
The points for maximum power* and maximum efficiency are marked on the curve. As already stated, maximum efficiency occurs when
efficiency, in order to
the slip
is,
when the
slip
usually
more
desirable
efficiency.
The
with different
in Fig.
56.
shown
The nominal pitch ratios of the three propellers are 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9; the dynamic pitch ratios (shown by the values of V/ND when the efficiency curves fall to zero) are 0.76, 0.96
and
1.2, respectively.
Which
is
propeller
is
is
the value of
Thus, when
V/ND
is
is
is less
when
V/ND
efficient.
more than
.052, this
same
propeller
is
the least
In Fig. 57 are
for
is
The point
maximum power depends upon D and pitch marked here for D = 8' 9" and pitch ratio = 0.9.
40
shown curves
of thrust
power
for the
same three
0.9.
propellers,
0.5, 0.7
and
It is
seen that
maximum
maximum
efficiency,
the
value of
pitch.
is
V /ND
must be greater
maximum power
is
propeller characteristics.
We
have
discussed
various
propeller
characteristics
and propeller being for most purThus, in Fig. 53, was shown the thrust horse power obtained from a certain propeller driven at This constant specified constant speeds by any motor.
separate study of engine poses preferable.
speed
is
is
used.
In Fig. 58 are shown curves for thrust horse power for a given propeller driven by a particular gas engine, these
curves being not for constant speed as in Fig. 53, but for
constant throttle.
It
was shown
in Fig. 50
how
1
speed
is
^ or y
throttle)
when
F is 50,
or
50
M P H.
may
shown, by
be obtained by multiplying brake horse power, as here efficiency, which is known from Fig. 55 when V,
and
are known.
The curves
in Fig.
58 were thus
determined.
The
power required.
Let us
now examine
41
120
100
40
2QO
t+00
Fig. 46.
peller
different speeds (revolutions per travelling through the air at 50, 100 and 150
level.
M P H., at ground
Maximum
minute)
when
propeller efficiency
43
tso
100
75
50
25
20
14-0
Fig. 47.
when
46.
propeller
Variation of propeller torque horse power with velocity is driven at constant speed. Same data as Fig.
efficiency at
Maximum
m.
45
120
m.
100
S.60
Ul
40
20
200
4-00
GOO
QOO
1000
1200
KOO
MINUTE
Fig. 48.
and power, of particular engine and propeller, Speed determined by intersection of curves for engine brake horse power
and propeller torque horse power.
47
120
80
GO
40
20
200
400
600
,
800
1000
1200
WO
SPEED
Fig. 49.
Speed N', N" and N'" and corresponding power, for particular engine and propeller, determined for three different amounts of engine throttle, when velocity is 100 MPH.
120
100
80
60
40
20
1400
Curves for engine brake horse power for different amounts Fig. 50. of throttle and propeller torque horse power for different velocities.
and amount
Intersections determines speed and power for each velocity of throttle. Maximum efficiency at m.
51
1000
800
500
17400
200
20
40
140
Fig. 51.
peller,
8' 9'.
when driven
Variation of thrust with velocity, for a particular proat constant speed. Pitch ratio 0.9, diameter
53
'
20
40
CO
60
100
120
HO
80
70
CO
50
40
SLIP
30
20
10
PERCENT
Variation of thrust horse power with velocity for a partiFig. 52. cular propeller when driven at 1200 R. P. M. Dotted curves
show thrust and velocity. The upper curve, reproduced from Fig. 47, shows torque horse power.
55
230
180
20 COWSLIP
40
60
BO
100
120
140
160
Fig. 53.
Curves for thrust horse power (usually called power available) for particular propeller driven at different speeds N, by any engine. Maximum propeller efficiency is at m.
57
220
ISO
1 120
580
^40
40
CQ
80
,
100
120
H-0
VELOCITY
Fig. 54.
Thrust horse power of similar propellers with different = 1200 R. P. M. Pitch ratio
59
0'80
5040
u.
&
Q'20
0'2
100
0-8
70
ro 20
10
SO
80
50
40
30
PERCENT SLIP
Fig. 55.
ciency
is
Propeller efficiency for different values of V/ND. Effiequal to thrust horse power divided by torque horse
Values for V,
or
61
0-60
Ui
020
Fig.
63
IJ20
100
20
40
60
80
100
1-20
HOUR
maximum
efficiency is
marked
byx.
65
O.
UJ
50
140
J00
2 20
25
50
75
100
US
150
Fig. 58.
Combined engine and propeller characteristic. Thrust horse power, or power available, for constant throttle; a particular propeller (pitch ratio 0.9, diameter 8' 9") driven by a
Maximum
efficiency at
m.
For engine
67
(d)
Propeller Theory
The
peller in operation
shows working
~T
any theory that may be used to explain them. The oldest theory of the propeller treats it as a screw, which
as
it
moves forward
turns,
and upon
is
based
many
fluid,
propeller terms in
common
use.
In an incompressible
fairly satisfactory
and the
marine propeller
accordingly,
When, however, the medium is air, that can be compressed and rarefied as any gas and has a density only i /8oo the
density of water, the screw theory
is
far
from satisfactory
abandoned.
The most
ler is
When the
propel-
merely rotating and has no forward velocity, each element of the blade moves in a circle, the plane of rotation being
perpendicular to the propeller shaft.
When
the propeller
makes
of
N
r
is 2
N feet
per minute.
In
to
its
flight
rotation,
of
any element
is
a cork-screw
circle.
The
r
velocity of
its
any element
forward velocity
and
its
velocity of rotation, 2
N.
Fig. 59
sections
at
shows the plan of a propeller blade and several The different distances from the center.
68
similarity of these sections to the section of
an airplane wing
scale) of
an
illustrative
diagram (not to
one sec-
more
theory.
Each
may
thus
be treated as an
The angle
of incidence
at
due to
its
motion,
its
is
the angle
of the element
and
resultant flight
shown
in Fig. 60.
any
As shown
we
proceed from hub or boss to tip; that is, the blade angle a decreases* as the distance r from the hub increases.
When
its
a propeller
is
no forward
velocity,
motion is in the plane of rotation and the angle of incidence of a blade element is obviously equal to the pitch angle a, for
this is then the angle at
relative air
due to
its rotation.
is
In
flight,
when
there
motion or
flight
path
of
a blade element
the angle
between
its
OP,
in Fig. 60,
be seen
V increases
(relative to
N)
the angle
is
^Determination of pitch from propeller measurement. The tangent of a equal to the structural pitch divided by 2 v r. The structural pitch of a propeller is, accordingly, equal to 2 IT r tan a and can be determined by measuring the pitch angle at any distance r from the hub.
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
Fig. 59.
71
The
angle
e
shown
in the figure,
is
the
flight
of rotation.
The
V /N
The
The
and
zero
when
V =
and
is
then a
a maximum.
and
drag.
lift
As
in the case of
to,
element has a
perpendicular
The
direction of
L and D
= L = K L SVR 2 Drag = D = K D SV R
Here S
is
FR
its
resultant
KL
and
KD
aerofoil
The component
of force parallel to
Although
lift, it is
is
not precisely
equal to
lift
The
is
total thrust
nor is torque precisely equal to drag. and torque for the propeller as a whole
the
sum
of the thrust
and torque
elements.
The angle
of incidence
varies
from, say,
2
.
or perhaps
in climbing
72
(with an increase in slip
and decrease in
V /N) the
lift,
and so
The
and decrease
.
in
in Fig. 5 1
may
be obtained by
a decrease in
V or an increase in N,
or both.
of
of
V/N)
the
lift,
and so the
is still
thrust, decreases;
lift
but at zero
incidence there
aerofoil there
is
is
some
and
thrust.
As with any
no
lift
(as
element there
no
thrust.
in Fig. n, pagef 18), so with a propeller a certain negative incidence at which there is The resultant path of a blade element is then as
is
shown
indicated
by the dotted
line
OF in Fig.
60, in
advance of the
it
as
shown by
OF
and the
direction of rotation
OB,
is
is
To
upon the
slip.t
L/D
The L/D
It is
section has a
maximum
say, 4
incidence
is,
or
5.
"Thrust is equal to the component of L parallel to the shaft, less the component of D in that direction. Torque is the sum of the components of L and D in the plane of rotation. Thus,
Thrust
Torque
= L = L
cos e
sin e
sin
e. e.
+D
cos
100% SLIP
Fig. 60.
Particular section of propeller blade at distance of r from center of shaft, showing the behavior of a propeller blade as an aerofoil, attacking the air at an angle of incidence i.
75
in this ratio
(or rather in the thrust /torque ratio) but there are limita-
make
this difficult.
Blade shape.
The problem
peller blade is
much
section for
any
aerofoil,
and the
and consequent
and
vortices
produced.
The
an aerofoil in the usual manner) is highly The amount of this camber and its distribution depends somewhat upon the intended service. The back
considered as
cambered.
surface
is flat,
it is
no gain in shaping
design
this surface.
much
as in the design of
any
aerofoil.
To
obtain the
is
(Not so for a marine propeller.) The greatest thrust and torque in a propeller blade is obtained toward the tip, the maximum being about 4 /$ the
to tip.
is
Mechanical strength
produce little Changes change in aerod^Tiamic efficiency, may have a large effect upon strength. In fact in propeller design the question of
strength
is
foremost.
Particularly true
is
this as the
hub
is
on account of
its
contributes
little
to thrust, so that
strength
is
is
High
is
polish
The
surface
given
Very important
is
unbalancing at high velocities of rotation causing forces that soon become destructive.
mean
pitch.
When
all parts,
a propeller
is
from hub to
the pitch
is
said to be uniform.
When
tip,
the pitch
is
is
said to
be variable.
A mean
then sometimes
is
mean
pitch
somewhat
^
1
-*
The
a
scientific basis
or,
mysterious
of course,
Recourse,
must be made
data, but
may
when the theory is understood these experiments be made systematically and not blindly.
propeller
Although a knowledge of the working characteristics of the is all that is needed for many purposes, some
knowledge of the theory of the propeller as an aerofoil proves its behavior under different
its
operation?]
The
foregoing
more
APPENDIX
GLOSSARY*
AEROFOIL:
to obtain reaction
winglike structure, flat or curved, designed upon its surface from the air through
which
it
moves.
:
AEROPLANE
AILERON:
rolling
See Airplane.
moment about
AIRCRAFT:
of the air
Any form
AIRPLANE:
A form of aircraft heavier than air which has wing surfaces for support in the air, with stabilizing surfaces, rudders for steering, and power plant for propulsion through the air. This term is commonly used in a more
is
restricted sense to refer to air-planes fitted with landing gear suited to operation from the land. If the landing
gear
plane"
term "sea-
Pusher.
A
A
of the engine.
AIR-SPEED METER: An instrument designed to measure the speed of an aircraft with reference to the air.
ALTIMETER
An
aneroid
mounted on an
aircraft to indicate
continuously
its
ANEMOMETER
Any
of the wind.
15,
78
ANGLE:
Of attack or of incidence of an aerofoil. The acute angle between the direction of the relative wind and the chord of an aerofoil; i. e., the angle between the chord of an aerofoil and its motion relative to the air.
(This definition
may be
an
its
axis.)
The angle of attack at which the hit-curve has maximum; sometimes referred to as the "burble point." (If the "lift curve" has more than one maximum, this refers to the first one.) The angle the flight path makes with the horiGliding. zontal when flying in still air under the influence of
Critical.
first
gravity alone,
i. e.,
APPENDIX:
The hose
inflation. In the case of a spherical balloon it also serves for equalization of pressure.
ASPECT RATIO
AVIATOR: The operator or pilot of heavier-than-air craft. This term is applied regardless of the sex of the operator.
AXES OF AN AIRCRAFT:
usually centroidal
Three fixed
lines
of reference;
rectangular. The principal longitudinal axis in the plane of symmetry, usually parallel to the axis of the propeller, is called the fore
and mutually
and
aft axis (or longitudinal axis) the axis perpendicular to this in the plane of symmetry is called the vertical axis; and the third axis, perpendicular to the other two, is called the transverse axis (or lateral axis). In mathematical
;
discussions the first of these axes, drawn from front to rear, is called the axis; the second, drawn upward, the Z axis;
and the
third,
Y axis.
BALANCING FLAPS
BALLONET:
See Aileron.
or dirigible for the purpose of controlling the ascent or descent, and for maintaining pressure on the outer envelope so as to prevent deformation. The ballonet is kept inflated
79
with air at the required pressure, under the control of a blower and valves.
BALLOON:
basket.
form
bag and a
The support in the air results from the buoyancy of the air displaced by the gas bag, the form of which is maintained by the pressure of a contained gas lighter than
air.
Barrage.
balloon restrained from free flight Captice. of a cable attaching it to the earth.
Kite.
by means
An elongated form of captive balloon, fitted with appendages to keep it headed into the wind, and deriving increased lift due to its axis being inclined to
tail
the wind.
Pilot.
up
to
show the
Sounding.
small spherical balloon sent aloft, without passengers, but with registering meteorological instru-
ments.
BALLOON BED
balloon.
usually
cotton,
of
which
usually rubberized,
BANK:
To incline an airplane laterally i. e., to roll it about the fore and aft axis. Right bank is to incline the airplane with the right wing down Also used as a noun to describe
the position of an airplane to the horizontal.
when
inclined
BAROGRAPH:
An
barometric pressure. In aeronautics the charts on which the records are made indicate altitudes directly instead of
barometric pressures.
80
BASKET:
The
BIPLANE
surface
BODY OF AN AIRPLANE:
power
The
BONNET
BRIDLE:
The appliance, having the form of a parasol, which protects the valve of a spherical balloon against rain.
The system
of
BULLSEYES:
ropes.
Small rings of wood, metal, etc., forming part of balloon rigging, used for connection or adjustment of
See Angle,
BURB LE POINT
CABANE
:
critical.
pyramidal framework upon the wing of an plane, to which stays, etc., are secured.
air-
CAMBER:
from
its
The convexity
an
aerofoil
mum
chord, usually expressed as the ratio of t he maxideparture of the curve from the chord to the length
aerofoil,
"Top camber" refers to the top surface of an and "bottom camber" to the bottom surface; "mean camber" is the mean of these two.
of the chord.
CAPACITY:
See Load.
The
CENTER
Of pressure of an aerofoil. The point in the plane of the chords of an aerofoil, prolonged if necessary, through
:
force
passes.
(This
definition
may
be
CHORD:
Of an aerofoil section. A right line tangent at the front and rear to the under curve of an aerofoil section.
Length.
The length
on the chord.
81
CLINOMETER:
See Inclinometer.
CONCENTRATION RING:
CONTROLS
for operating the devices used to control speed, direction of flight, and attitude of an aircraft
CONTROL COLUMN:
The
vertical lever
by means
of
which
CROW'S FOOT:
system of diverging short ropes for distributing the pull of a single rope.
DECALAGE: The angle between the chords of the principal and the tail planes of a monopolane. The same term may
be applied to the corresponding angle between the direction of the chord or chords of a biplane and the direction of a tail plane. (This angle is also sometimes known as the
longitudinal
DIHEDRAL
IN
AN AIRPLANE
the inter-
section of the imaginary surfaces containing the chords of the right and left wings (continued to the plane of symmeif necessary). This angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to that intersection. The measure of the dihedral is taken as 90 minus one-half of this angle as denned.
try
dihedral of the upper wing may and frequently does from that of the lower wing in a biplane. A form of balloon, the outer envelope of which DIRIGIBLE is of elongated form, provided with a propelling system, car, rudders, and stabilizing surfaces. Nonrigid. A dirigible whose form is maintained by the
differ
:
The
by the by a
car-
suspension system.
Rigid. dirigible whose form is maintained structure contained within the evnelope.
rigid
Semirigid.
means
82
DIVING RUDDER:
See Elevator.
DOPE
A general term applied to the material used in treatusually has a cellulose base.
ing the cloth surface of airplane members and balloons to increase strength, produce tautness, and act as a filler to
maintain air-tightness;
it
DRAG:
The component
on an
total force
aircraft
due to the
air
moves.
That part
of the drag
called
"wing
resistance" (formerly called "drift"); that due to the rest of the airplane is called "parasite resistance" (formerly
called
"head resistance").
See Drag.
q. v.
DRIFT:
way,"
DRIFT METER:
An
A Curtain around the equator of a balloon, which prevents rain from dripping into the basket. ELEVATOR A hinged surface for controlling the longitudinal attitude of an aircraft; i. e., its rotation about the transDRIP CLOTH:
:
verse axis.
EMPANNAGE
See Tail.
:
ENTERING EDGE
peller blade.
of
an
aerofoil or pro-
ENVELOPE:
The portion of the balloon or dirigible which contains the gas. The
largest
EQUATOR:
balloon.
horizontal
circle
of
spherical
FINS
craft, in
Small fixed aerofoils attached to different parts of airorder to promote stability; for example, tail fins, skid fins, etc. Fins are often adjustable. They may be
:
FLIGHT PATH
The path
an
air-
83
FLOAT
That portion of the landing gear of an aircraft which when it is resting on the surface of the
See Body.
FUSELAGE
GAP
of the
GA s B A G
GLIDE
:
See Envelope
GLIDER
When utilized in variable winds it makes use of the soaring principles of flight
is
machine.
GORE
GROUND CLOTH
balloon.
to protect a
GUIDE ROPE
ballast.
The long trailing rope attached to a spherical balloon or dirigible, to serve as a brake and as a variable
:
GUY:
HANGAR:
HELICOPTER A form of aircraft whose support in the derived from the vertical thrust of propellers.
air is
HORN:
short
arm
INCLINOMETER:
An
made by any
axis of
instrument for measuring the angle an aircraft with the horizontal, often
called a clinometer.
INSPECTION WINDOW: A small transparent window in the envelope of a balloon or in the wing of an airplane to allow
inspection of the interior.
84
KITE: A form of aircraft without other propelling means than the towline pull, whose support is derived from the
force of the
its surface.
LANDING GEAR:
The understructure
of
an
aircraft designed
to carry the load when resting on or running on the surface of the land or water.
LEADING EDGE:
LEEWAY
earth,
The angular
also called
drift;
LIFT:
The component
pressure caused
LIFT BRACING
See Stay.
LOAD:
Dead.
Full.
The
structure,
power
plant,
and
essential acces-
sories of
an aircraft.
The maximum weight which an aircraft can support in flight; the "gross weight." The excess of the full load over the dead-weight Useful. of the aircraft itself, *'. e., over the weight of its structure,
last
essential accessories.
(These
LOADING
LOBES
to give
directional stability.
LONGERON:
See Longitudinal.
:
LONGITUDINAL
air-plane body, or of the floats, usually continuous across a number of points of support.
MONOPLANE
form of airplane whose main supporting surface is a single wing, extending equally on each sideof the body.
:
A
:
MOORING BAND
The band
85
NACELLE:
See Body.
Limited to pushers.
of ropes
NET:
rigging
made
and twine on
carried.
spherical bal-
loons,
ORNITHOPTER:
form of aircraft deriving its support propelling force from flapping wings.
of fabric of
and
is
PARACHUTE
An apparatus, made like an umbrella, used to retard the descent of a falling body.
:
PATCH SYSTEM:
PERMEABILITY.
The measure of the loss of gas by diffusion through the intact balloon fabric.
:
A tube with an end open square to the fluid PITOT TUBE It is stream, used as a detector of an impact pressure. usually associated with a coaxial tube surrounding it, having perforations normal to the axis for indicating static
pressure; or there is such a tube placed near it and parallel to it, with a closed conical end and having perforations in
its side.
The
from
the difference between the impact pressure and the static This instrument is pressure, as read by a suitable gauge.
often used to determine the velocity of an aircraft through the air.
PONTOONS
See Float.
See Airplane.
PUSHER
PYLON
RACE OF A PROPELLER:
RELATIVE WIND:
The motion of the air with reference to a moving body. Its direction and velocity, therefore, are found by adding two vectors, one being the velocity of the air with reference to the earth, the other being equal and
opposite to the velocity of the
earth.
body with
reference to the
86
RIP CORD
RIP PANEL
torn off
A strip
in the
is
when immediate
desired.
RUDDER:
flat or
A hinged or pivoted surface, usually more or less stream lined, used for the purpose of controlling the attitude of an aircraft about its "vertical" axis, i. e., for
movement.
of
Rudder
is
bar.
operated.
:
SEAPLANE
ing gear
land-
SERPENT
SIDE SLIPPING
Sliding downward and inward when making a turn; due to excessive banking. It is the opposite of
skidding.
SKIDDING: Sliding sideways away from the center of the turn in flight. It is usually caused by insufficient banking in a turn, and is the opposite of side slipping.
SKIDS
Long wooden or metal runners designed to prevent nosing of a land machine when landing or to prevent dropping into holes or ditches in rough ground. Generally designed to function should the landing gear collapse or
:
fail
to act.
:
The stream
of air driven
by the
propeller
SOARING MACHINE
:
See Glider.
SPAN OR SPREAD The maximum distance laterally from tip to tip of an airplane wing, or the lateral dimension of an
aerofoil.
87
STABILITY
A quality in virtue of which an airplane in flight tends to return to its previous attitude after a slight dis:
turbance.
Directional.
Dynamical.
causes
its
it
The
first,
moments
Inherent.
of the structure;
damping
of
the oscillations
by the
tail, etc.
and arrangement
flight
Stability of an aircraft due to the disposition of its fixed parts i. e., that property
which causes it to return to its normal attitude of without the use of the controls.
Stability with reference to the longitudinal (or
axis.
Lateral.
fore
and aft)
Longitudinal.
axis.
Statical.
there
is
In wind tunnel experiments it is found that a definite angle of attack such that for a greater
angle or a less one the righting moments are in such a sense as to tend to make the attitude return to this
This holds true for a certain range of angles on angle. each side of this definite angle; and the machine is said to possess "statical stability" through this range.
STABILIZER:
aircraft.
Any
STAGGER:
The amount of advance of the entering edge of the upper wing of a biplane over that of the lower, expressed as percentage of gap; it is considered positive when the
upper surface
is
forward.
STALLING: A term describing the condition of an airplane which from any cause has lost the relative speed necessary
for control.
88
STATOSCOPE:
ing.
An
STAY
wire, rope, or the like used as a tie piece to hold parts together, or to contribute stiffness; for example, the stays of the wing and body trussing.
: :
STEP
STREAM-LINE FLOW:
describe
as distinguished
STREAM-LINE SHAPE: A shape intended to avoid eddying and to preserve stream-line flow.
STRUT:
compression
member
members
of
a truss frame;
for
of the
wing truss
of a
biplane.
SUSPENSION BAND
SUSPENSION BAR:
SWEEP BACK:
of
The horizontal angle between the lateral axis an airplane and the entering edge of the main planes.
aircraft, to
stabilizers,
TAIL CUPS:
The steadying
THIMBLE
An
rope or cable.
TRACTOR:
See Airplane.
TRAILING EDGE:
peller blade.
of
an
aerofoil or pro-
TRIPLANE:
face
is
A form of airplane whose main supporting surdivided into three parts, superimposed.
89
TRUSS: The framing by which the wing loads are transmitted to the body comprises struts, stays, and spars.
;
UNDERCARRIAGE
WARP WASH
To change
OUT:
by
twisting
it.
A permanent warp
Gross.
an
aerofoil
WEIGHT:
See Load,
full.
WINGS
WING
FLAP:
WING
LOADING:
The weight
porting surface.
WING MAST
The mast structure projecting above the wing, to which the top load wires are attached.
:
WING
its
RIB: A fore-and-aft member of the wing structure used to support the covering and to give the wing section
form.
transverse
member
of the
YAW
Angle
The temporary angular deviation of the foreof. and-aft axis from the course.
91
POWER REQUIRED
92
MINIMUM VELOCITY
40
VELOCITY - -
40
eo
eo
iqo-
MILES PER
HOUR
39-
= 20001bs.; W/S =
velocities,
parasite resistance
when =0.04^.
20
40
6C
80
100
VELOCITY - -
MILES PER
HOUR
Fig. 40.
The
three curves
(W
constant
(W/S =
show effect of changing weight and 3000 Ibs.) when loading is kept
6); parasite resistance
0.04 F
2
.
94
20
40
SO
80
1OO
VELOCITY
- - MILES PER
HOUR
Fig. 41.
The
three curves
4,
show
effect of
(W/S =
(W =
2000
0.047*.
95
140
o
**
50
I
,0
20
40
60
80
100
VELOCITY
Fig. 42.
required power with velocity. show effect of changing weight (W = 1333, 2000 and 2666 Ibs.) and loading in proportion (W/S = 4, 6 and 8), wing-area :being constant;
Variation of
The
three
curves
parasite resistance
0.04 F
2
.
96
20
4J>
60
89
100
VELOCITY
Fig. 43.
Variation
of
required
effect of
2
,
power
2
with
velocity.
re-
The
three curves
show
changing parasite
sistance (R
0.02
R =
and
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