Master Plato Training Manual For Trainee Instructors

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A Brief Note on the Manual

The manual is concerned with the basic tools of production management, the tools of supervision. It concentrates on the current problems, like meeting todays targets. It is structured so that it can form the basis of a middle management or Junior managers course. Indeed, such courses are often run for production managers and as such, it is worded almost as it might be delivered, as a series of lectures. The Manual has been laid out in such a format that it provides the list of the topic to be discussed on each day of training of Instructors, suggesting number of hours to be put in a given discussion. All the topics and exercises have been compiled at relevant place of occurrence of a particular topic. The trainees taking up this course are expected to spend four hours in the class room training and 4 hours on doing the practical sewing exercises, to have a better practical understanding of topics covered in the classroom sessions.

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Table of Contents.
Day
Day 1

Description
Discussion 1 (Executive Training)

Topics to be covered
Introduction Importance of Executive training Responsibilities of Executives Primary and secondary Obligations Goals of Executive Training 1. Activity Sheet

Page No.
09

Day 2

Discussion 1 Cont. ( Executive Training )

Daily activities of Executives Maintenance Machine problems checklist Handling machine Delays Safety Using stopwatch Conversion Calculations Conversion exercises Introduction Marker Making, planning and reproduction Spreading Lay planning exercises

18

Discussion 2 (Stopwatch Functioning)

25

Day 3

Discussion 3 (Manufacturing Process) Discussion 4 (Cutting)

29 30

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Day 4

Discussion 4cont. (Cutting)

Cutting equipments and methods Cutting quality Numbering Introduction Definitions Seam types Seam Classes Stitch types Stitch classes Thread consumption and Calculation Machine parts and their functions Feeding Mechanisms Functions of Sewing Needles Needle parts and Functions Needle types Needle sizes Purpose of Finishing and Pressing Pressing equipments and methods The concept of customer Executives job related to quality DHU AQL At Fabric Stage

35

Day 5

Discussion 5 (Sewing Seams and Stitches)

39

Day 6

Day 7

Discussion 5cont. (Sewing Seams and Stitches) Discussion 6 (Sewing Thread Consumption) Discussion 7 (Sewing Machinery)

43

49

51

Day 8

Discussion 8 (Sewing - Needles)

56

Day 9

Discussion 9 (Finishing and Pressing) Discussion 10 (Quality)

60

Day 10

64

Day 11

Discussion 11 (Quality - Quality control

69

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Procedures)

In Cutting In Sewing In Finishing In Packing Introduction Procedure for doing Quality drill Introduction Definition Scope of Apparel engineering Functions of apparel engineer Fundamental Parts Method study 7 step procedure. Method Engineering Principles of Motion economy Principles of Motion Economy related to Human Body Principles of Motion Economy related to workplace Principles of Motion Economy related to tools and equipments Introduction Big methods Little Methods Benefits of Method Improvement.

Discussion 12 (Quality Drill) Day 12 Discussion 13 (Apparel Engineering)

77

80

Discussion 14 (Apparel Engineering Work Study)

84

Day 13

Discussion 15 (Apparel Engineering Motion Economy)

89

Day 14

Discussion 16 (Apparel Engineering Engineering Method Improvements)

94

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Good Sewing Methods checklist Sewing Room Method Improvement approaches Introduction Important concepts Quota Piece Rate Elements & Break Points Rating Allowances Conditions of Time study Making time study Predetermined Time Systems Time study Procedure Notes on Time study What is Capacity study Making Capacity study Measuring Capacity Potential Performance Development Introduction Reasons for Balancing Balancing Tools Balancing Matrix Work In Process

Day 15

Discussion 17 (Apparel Engineering Time study)

101

Day 16

Discussion 17..(cont.) (Apparel Engineering Time study) Discussion 18 (Capacity Study)

111

114

Day 17

Discussion 19 (Balancing)

119

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Discussion 20 (Cost Control)

Managing Work In Process Introduction Garment Costs Contributors to exceeding Costs Minimizing Wastage Team Building Problem solving Ishikawa Analysis Brainstorming Idea mapping How do Human Relations benefit the Company Preventing Turnover

125

Day 18

Discussion 21 (Human Relations)

132

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Day 1
INTRODUCTION
Among the various major challenges being faced by Apparel Industry, which is labour intensive by nature, is shortage of trained work force. In the present scenario, where global apparel trade is increasing at a very rapid pace, shortage of a trained pool of employees or low performing employees turns out to be a real limiting factor for organizations survival and growth. To deal with it, Industry world over agrees to a single solution Training. Training is not only an essential for organizations success, but also its continuation and consistency. When we talk about training it involves following aspects: 1. Training of Middle Management. 2. Training of Operators, helpers, Quality Controllers, IEs across the organization. 3. Re-training to improve the quality and productivity of the employees. 4. Cross training for developing the multi skilled operators or promoting employees to more rewarding job on the basis of their capability (e.g. training Ironers for stitching). The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 1 (Executive Training)

Introduction Importance of Executive training Responsibilities of Executives Primary and secondary Obligations Goals of Executive Training Activity Sheet

240 Minutes

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Discussion 1 EXECUTIVE TRAINING

Introduction

240 Minutes

Executive training program is intended to broaden and improve the Executives knowledge. This will not only help the Executive be more effective on the shop floor but will also increase his/her job satisfaction.

Importance of the Executive Training Program

Every task that the Executive does is of utmost importance to the success of the factory. In an Executives work area expensive fabrics, industrial machinery, intense labour, electricity, and floor space are all used to produce garments that a customer has ordered. Executives usually do not realise the magnitude of the operations they manage day to day: Labour 325 operators, earning approximately 8 rupees an hour x 48 hours per week = Rs.9,600 per week X 50 weeks in a year = Rs.62,40,000 in a year Fabric Parts for one garment at Rs.52 x 2200 pieces a day = Rs.1,14,400 a day x 6 days a week x 50 weeks a year = Rs. 3,43,20,000 a year Machinery 140 machines at Rs. 35,000 each = Rs. 49,00,000 Installations Rs.14 per ft2 a month x 2,500 ft2 x 12 months a year = Rs.26,88,000 a year So an Executive manages a unit that handles: Rs. (62,40,000 + 3,43,20,000 + 49,00,000 + 26,88,000) = Rs. 4.81 Crores a year Training will include areas familiar to current Executives as well as areas that might be new to them. The new material will provide you with new tools and techniques that will help you approach a situation in an effective way. The training program will

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prove to be challenging at times and will require dedication and hard work. Fortunately, it has proven to be very useful in the field.

Responsibility of the Executive

As department manager/ In-charge each Executive has 8 areas of responsibility that need to be managed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Safety Line Balancing- WIP flow control Quality- operation control Training- how to train new employees Operator output- maintain high output & improve those with low output. Loss control- minimise off-standard loss Waste control- in materials, supplies, machinery Standard conditions- in the workplace, in sewing method, in the machines

Each of these areas is important. In fact, many of these responsibilities are closely related and sometimes overlap. Nevertheless, close and individual attention should be paid to each one of them to get the desired results in your dept. To be able to manage the Executives area of responsibility there are a number of activities that the Executive must do. These are the following: Look-out for the well-being and safety of all employees Meet quality expectations for his/her dept. Meet production expectations for his/her dept. Meet cost expectations for his/her dept. Enforce maintenance guidelines for all machines and work areas

Besides these activities, a good Executive will provide leadership to all employees. A good way of showing leadership is to be a good example for others. Every Executive must remember that in the eyes of all operators he/she represents the company and as such his/her actions are an extension of the companys actions. Unacceptable behaviour will confuse the operator into thinking it is OK. The Executive will loose the employees respect if he or she disciplines an employee for doing something if the Executive does it himself/herself. Executives must be leaders in the following areas: Safety Turnover and absenteeism Moral behaviour Motivation Discipline and Order Maintenance UNDP Page 10 of 149

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 Quality work Productivity Authority is usually earned but from the beginning Executives will be assigned to do the following tasks that require authority: Operator Training Line Balancing Employee transfers between operations Assigning of off-standard tasks Overtime planning Rejecting defective product Disciplinary actions Recommendations for dismissal

A good Executive will be able to handle the above tasks without having to abuse his/her authority. Employee respect will depend on how the Executive acts as a leader and uses his/her authority to benefit all employees in his/her dept.

Primary and secondary obligations of an Executive

One of the characteristics of a successful Executive is the ability to separate and identify primary and secondary obligations. He/she must first take care of primary obligations adequately. In some cases this means that secondary obligations will have to be delegated to someone under the Executives authority. As an Executive you should expect to have the following primary and secondary responsibilities: Primary Obligations Provide safety Plan and Balance production Control quality Develop employees Follow-up on low-output employees Maintenance Material utilisation Handle repairs Secondary Obligations Bundle handling Adjustments to machines Distribute supplies Handle parts that need reprocessing Samples Miscellaneous

Experience tells us that successful Executives use approximately 85% of their time in primary obligations. They also manage to perform their other activities through effective delegation.

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This training program will try to develop and improve your ability to deal with primary obligations. It will provide you with tools that will make primary obligations much easier to manage.

Goals of Executive Training

Successful Executives combine knowledge, specific management techniques and hard work to create a fun, challenging and rewarding work environment. This training program is focused toward developing the knowledge and management techniques needed for successful supervision. The goals of the program are: 1. Introduce everyone taking course to management concepts and tools used in the apparel industry 2. Increase the knowledge and understanding that current Executives have about their jobs. 3. Develop management skills through: Proven management concepts Proven Supervisory tools Proven Supervisory techniques 4. Increase the rate of Executive success 5. Make the Executives work more meaningful and rewarding It is up to the Executive to concentrate on working hard!

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Activity Sheet
I) Information on the value of an Executives dept. (Data) Operators a)_______________________ Wages per hour b)_______________________ Hours per week c)_______________________ Workweeks in a year d)_______________________ Fabric meterage per garment e)_______________________ Fabric cost per metre f)_______________________ Trim cost per garment (buttons, zippers, g)_______________________ elastic, binding tape, etc.) Units produced a week h)_______________________ Number of machines in dept. i)_______________________ Average machine cost j)_______________________ Approximate area of dept. k)_______________________ Rent and energy cost per sq. mt. (yearly) l)_______________________

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II) Information on the value of an Executives dept. (Calculations) A) Labour Force ________Operators X Rs________ per hour _____________ = $________ per hour X ________hours a week _____________ = Rs ________ per week X ________weeks per year _____________ = Rs ________ per year B) Fabric ________Yards per garment X Rs________ per garment _____________ = Rs________ per garment(fabric) + Rs________ per garment(trims) _____________ = Rs ______ per garment (fabric + trim) X ________garments per week _____________ = Rs ________ per week X ________ weeks per year _____________ = Rs ________ per year

C) Machinery ________machines in dept. X Rs________ per machine _____________ = Rs ________ in machinery

D) Energy and Rent ________sq.m. in dept. X Rs________ per sq.m. a year _____________ = Rs ________ in installations

TOTAL VALUE Labour Force Fabric Machinery Energy and Rent TOTAL ________ ________ ________ +________ ________

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Administrative role of the Executive Main areas of administrative responsibility: 1. ____________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________ 4. ____________________________________________________ 5. ____________________________________________________ 6. ____________________________________________________ 7. ____________________________________________________ 8. ____________________________________________________ Specific activities that an Executive must do 1. ____________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________ 4. ____________________________________________________ 5. ____________________________________________________ Leadership responsibilities 1. ____________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________ 4. ____________________________________________________ 5. ____________________________________________________ 6. ____________________________________________________ 7. ____________________________________________________ 8. ____________________________________________________ Areas of 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Executive authority ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

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Primary and secondary responsibilities Primary Obligations ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ Secondary Obligations _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Executive Training Programs goals A. B. C. ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ 1. _______________________________________________ 2. _______________________________________________ 3. _______________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

D. E.

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Day 2
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 1 Cont. (Executive Training)

Daily activities of Executives Maintenance Machine problems checklist Handling machine Delays Safety Using stopwatch Conversion Calculations Conversion exercises

120 Minutes

Discussion 2 (Stopwatch Functioning)

120 Minutes

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Discussion 1(cont.)

120 Minutes

Daily activities of executives

First thing in the morning Arrive early Greet arriving employees Encourage them to start to work early (before the bell) Check attendance Assign production goals Prepare the bi-hourly, plan production and balancing for the day Make adjustments to balance plan according to absences Plan on your own: How to increase efficiency in your section How to improve outgoing quality How to prepare for or solve routine problems that might arise Attend production meeting and discuss yesterdays results and todays goals and plans During the day Measure production and goals bi-hourly Check quality level Perform Quality Drills Speak with quality inspectors Check operator quality cards Work with low output operators Check proper method Motivate and empower operator Follow-up on new operators in training Follow-up on operators in re-training Perform operation transfers according to need Control discipline and order problems that might arise Provide immediate and continuous follow-up to repairs Monitor number of outgoing bundles Authorise any off standard clock-outs Order supplies and material for production At the end of the day Make sure the operators have turned off their machines, cleaned their work area, and covered their machines UNDP Page 18 of 149

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Check and authorise transfers in production sheets Organise production sheets and check last bi-hourly with sheets Write down production and wastes on board Analyse tomorrows needs and take notes for morning meeting Calculate tomorrows initial inventory according to production information Write down production and inventory information on production sheets

Weekly Perform capacity studies on low output operators Plan operator retraining to solve balancing problems As Required Resolve any operator pay or efficiency problems Follow-up and motivate new employees Work out quality problems with quality inspectors Work out problems with the operators, review the proper method with them when necessary

Maintenance
Maintenance: Everybodys responsibility Maintenance of the resources existing within the factory is the responsibility of all those who are directly or indirectly involved in the functioning of the factory. Mechanic Daily: Lubricate all machines specially if the operator cannot do it Check appropriate supply of air, oil, vapour, and electricity Check regularly used shop tools Report to the Executive any negligent action on the operators part Weekly Check all machines and remove with brush/air/tweezers all foreign objects when necessary (when using air to clean take care not to stain WIP with oil) All oil deposits should be free of foreign objects All machines should have the adequate oil level Order all necessary parts for adequate inventory Order and stock necessary needles and bobbins Review machine cards and report to manager any excessive use of parts, needles, or off-standard time Keep all used equipment functioning properly Keep extra equipment in working conditions ready to replace used equipment UNDP Page 19 of 149

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Keep all necessary shop supplies to adequate level

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Operator Daily:

Remove all threads around the work area with a brush or with tweezers Clean excess oil from machine specially the needle point. Check all oil level meters Oil when necessary Turn motor off when machine not in use Leave a piece of cloth under the needle when machine is not in use

Executive Daily:

Check that operators are following their daily maintenance responsibilities Make sure that all safety measures are being followed. Refill the needle stock box with the appropriate needles Place all broken needles in the appropriate container. DO NOT leave them in any other place. Check how much thread is being consumed and make sure it is not being wasted. Make sure all machines are threaded correctly and that the threads are not too close to the machines pulley.

Before starting on the machine Check the type of thread being used and check for proper threading Adequate thread and needle type for the operation Thread cone is placed properly (even level) over holder Thread guides dont produce any unusual friction to thread Guides threaded correctly All tensioning plates threaded correctly All needles/bobbins/loopers are threaded properly Needle point is not broken

Watch the machine and evaluate its operation Silently softly and firmly at the maximum RPMs Noisy, violently, vibrating at slow or high speeds Belts appropriately placed on machine pulley or motor pulley Belt tension is too tight or too loose Thread stuck on pulleys or belts Belt is broken or worn-out Belt is soaking in oil Machine or motor pulley is loose or damaged UNDP Page 21 of 149

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Pulley size is inappropriate (check RPM and check against recommended) Be careful not to keep machine at high RPMs or injuries may happen. Check lubrication Check oil gauges Check for leaks Observe the operators position when sewing Is the tables height appropriate (at elbow level)? Are the pedals in the right position? Check the motor adjustments Clutch adjustments Pedal movement doesnt engage machine Machine engages too easily and abruptly (too little movement of the pedal Before opening the machine: Verify that the needle is: Located properly Not bent Not broken (specially the tip) Not too sharp around the tip and eyelet Appropriate type for the thread and fabric being used Check the machine for appropriate threading Thread guides Thread pullers Tensioners Needles Loopers Spreaders Clean all thread and oil from the sewing area Check the appropriate movement of the needle Check the presser foot, throat plate and feeders to see if they are working correctly Check if the minor adjustments have improved the sewing problem

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Machine Problems Checklist

The Operator can often help himself/herself when the machine is not working properly. The following list shows solutions to common problems. Following the advice can many times save the time wasted waiting for the mechanic. Problem Upper thread keeps breaking Top thread tension is too tight Machine is improperly threaded Thread is not placed through tension rings Thread is twisted in guide posts Broken or bent tension spring Thread is not placed through guides Needle bent or burred Bad cone of thread Lower thread breaks Bobbin spring is too tight Bobbin is not threaded properly Bobbin is too tight or warped Lint or threads in Bobbin case Lint or threads in hook Warped bobbin case Skipped stitches Broken needle point Needle is not located properly Thread is not place through guides Thread is not place through tension rings Irregular stitch formation Knots on top Knots on bottom Bobbin not placed properly Bobbin thread slipped from under tension Lint or threads in top tension Tighten Bobbin tension or loosen upper (needle) tension Tighten upper tension Replace bobbin Check for proper bobbin case threading Clean tension rings Try another needle Check needle placing Check for proper threading Check for proper threading Loosen tension Check proper threading Try another bobbin Clean inside bobbin case Clean inside hook Check bobbin case Loosen the tension by one turn Check for proper threading Check for proper threading Check for proper threading Inspect the action of spring Check for proper threading Try a new needle Try another cone Solution

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Handling machine delays

To be able to control the companys costs it is necessary to identify them and identify the cause. For this reason the company keeps track of how much time the sewing machine delays the sewing time. This category is called Machine Delay (MD). During this time the operator is not able to work normally due to machine failure. For this reason the company will make sure he or she is not penalised in efficiency points. To be able to manage this cost category more effectively we have a set procedure: The operator informs the Executive that he/she is having trouble with the machine The Executive checks the machine make any quick adjustments to the machine if possible Call the mechanic if necessary Take the employee to a temporary location either to another workstation where he/she can continue with the work If this is not possible then to another area where he/she will wait for the machine and mark the production sheet with MD off-standard category The mechanic repairs the machine The operator returns to his/her workstation The operator sews a specified number of garments in front of the mechanic If the machine is working properly then you mark the operators production sheet and put him/her back on standard time The Executive moves the work back from the temporary workstation Other related considerations All workstations should be at (operators) elbow level All machines should always be ready to start work: Threaded correctly Connected Covered Clean With Needle, bobbins, chairs and work-aids All work-aids should be as approved and in good condition (no exposed splinters, screws, nails). All under bed trimmers, needle petitioners, stackers and other mechanical workaids should be working properly, if they are not they will be a source of machine delay and the operator will be working off-standard costing the company money.

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Safety
Safety: For Everyone Everyone working on a production floor should uses their senses to identify danger signals that can cause any threat to the safety of all those working there. Danger signals (Use all your senses) Look! Excessive oil concentrated on one area of the machine Unusual machine or motor movements Excessive threads, fabric rags around sewing area Smoke Listen! Strange sounds like: Shaking/Vibrating Crushing Thumps Screeching The sound of the motor Excess speed Dragging (too slow) Low voltage Inadequate electric phase What the operator/Executive reports Air or vapour leaks Machines that remain on when not being used Security alarms, bells, whistles Touch! To feel unusual vibrations in motors or engines To make sure that the motor is turned off when not in use To feel unusual heat from the machines To check worn parts for shaking or looseness Smell! To see if there is smoke due to overheated metal electrical insulation burned Burnt oil Burning thread Electrical parts on fire Solenoids Cables Transformers Rectifiers Unusual odours

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Discussion 2

120 Minutes

THE STOPWATCH
The stopwatch is another tool that is easy to learn and very useful in the manufacturing plant. The stopwatch is of vital importance to measure work on the shop floor. In other words, it is the tool we use to determine how long it takes to do an operation. Time is divided into 100 parts instead of the usual 60 seconds that you are familiar with. Dividing a minute in hundredths makes calculations very easy. To illustrate, 1/4 of a minute is 15 seconds and since 100 parts make a minute (each 0.01) then 1/4 of 1 is 0.25 minutes. 15 seconds = 0.25 minutes. Lets do more of these calculations: An operation takes 10 seconds how many minutes is this? Well, to do this we take 10 and divide it by 60 (because there are 60 seconds in one minute) and we get 0.1667 min How many minutes is 25 seconds? 25/60 = 0.4167min Its logical that since 25 seconds is less than 1 minute, 0.4167 is also less than 1 minute. We will do more of these examples after we look at the stopwatch and its functions.

Using the Stopwatch

The main functions on a stopwatch are as follows: A button to start and stop the stopwatch A button to change the time unit to measure (seconds, minutes, hours) A button to measure lap times A button to recall the last 9 times taken You can see in the display 3 readings:

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SPLIT TIME: Split time is the time elapsed from the starting point to a specific point LAP TIME: is the time elapsed for one time through the cycle or since the last time the LAP button was pressed. TOTAL ELAPSED TIME: This is the total time the stopwatch has been running since the START button was pressed

1 t S lit s p 2 dS lit n p 3dS lit r p

1 tL p s a 2 dL p n a 3dL p r a

TOTAL ELAPSED TIME

When you need to do a time study and take a number of readings the procedure to follow is the following: 1. Place the stopwatch in 1/100 mode 2. Start the stopwatch by pressing button A 3. Press the D button for each reading 4. Press the C button to review more than one reading 5. Once you are finished press the A button to stop the stopwatch 6. Press the D button to reset the stopwatch to zero Conversions - Going from Hour : Minutes to Hour : Hundredths For most calculations in apparel engineering you will see a minute and fractions of a minute represented as decimals. In other words, instead of using one minute and 30 seconds we would use 1.5 minutes The 0.5 is the equivalent of a minute or 30 seconds. The following are more examples of this decimal representation: 2 minutes 15 seconds 3 minutes 45 seconds 1 minute 10 seconds 4 minutes 6 seconds is equivalent to: 2.25 minutes 3.75 minutes 1.1667 minutes 4.1 minutes

You might be asking yourself how we got those decimal values. It is actually a very simple conversion: (Example) converting 7:10 or 7min 10 seconds to decimals: Separate the seconds from the minutes in this case there are 10 seconds Divide the seconds into 60 this would be 10/60 which equals 0.166666667 Now add this result to the minutes you had in you Min: Sec This gives you 7 + 0.166666667 = 7.1667 (rounding off to 4 decimal places) UNDP Page 27 of 149

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For converting Hours: Min to decimals you can use the same approach substituting hours for the minutes and minutes for the seconds. Remember to use military time (24hr) for your calculations Eg. 11:59 pm equals 23:59 and 5:34pm equals 17:34 These conversions make it easy to find out time intervals between events: Lets say you were timing an operator who worked on standard time from 8:17am to 11:46 had a problem with her machine until 12:22 and then worked until her lunch break at 1:00pm. Now you need to know how long she worked On standard. You can do this a number of ways but the expected way you should approach this would be to convert all times to decimals and then do the appropriate arithmetic. 8:17 11:46 12:22 13:00 8.283 11.767 12.36 7 13.0 Then do the Appropriate Arithmetic TOTAL TIME 13.0-8.283=

4.717

MINUS OFFSTDTIME 12.367-11.767= 0.6 STDTIME= 4.117 hrs

Going from Hour: Hundredths to Hour: Minutes Sometimes you might need to express your time values in Hours: minutes or in Minutes: seconds . Doing this conversion is just as simple: (Example) converting 7.1667min to minutes and seconds: Separate the decimals from the minutes in this case the decimal part is 0.1667 Multiply the decimal part by 60 this would be 0.1667 x 60 which equals 10.002 seconds Now put this result in the seconds part of Min:Sec This gives you 7:10 (you can eliminate the fractional part of the seconds if not needed) For converting hours. Fraction to Hour: Minutes you can use the same approach substituting hours for the minutes and minutes for the seconds. Remember to use military time (24hr) for your calculations Eg. 11:59 pm equals 23:59 and 5:34pm equals 17:34

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Day 3
The topics that would be covered in todays discussion are as follows:

Discussion 3 (Manufacturing Process) Discussion 4 (Cutting)

Introduction Introduction Marker Making, planning and reproduction Spreading Lay planning exercises

20 Minutes 220 Minutes

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Discussion 3

20 Minutes

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Introduction
Garments are shaped and formed in three ways: Materials formed to a form, fabric pieces cut to shape and assembled by bonding, and pieces cut to shape and sewn. The first two methods are used to a limited degree. Sewing garment pieces together with thread formed into stitches and seams is the most used method at this time. In the future more garments may be assembled with seam alternatives, such as adhesives, fusing, spot welding, or moulding, but for the present time, thread and stitches are the primary means of garment assembly. Fabric goes through 3 major processes before becoming a garment. They are: 1. Cutting 2. Sewing 3. Finishing In the coming Discussion, we will discuss these three processes to understand the entire process of garment manufacturing.

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Discussion 4 CUTTING
Introduction

220 Minutes

The first stage in the manufacture of garments is the cutting of materials into the necessary pattern shapes. These are then joined together by means of seams to create three-dimensional garments. Where large quantities of a garment style must be cut, a lay is created which consists of many plies of fabric spread one above the other. From this, all the garment pieces for all the sizes that have been planned for that lay are cut. The pattern shapes for these garments may be drawn on a paper marker placed on top of the lay, or information as to their shape and position may be held within a computer, to be plotted similarly on a paper marker or used to drive an automatic cutter. The three processes involved in cutting of garment parts accurately and economically and in sufficient volume to keep the sewing room supplied with work are: 1. The Planning, drawing, and reproduction of the marker 2. The spreading of the fabric to form a lay 3. The cutting of the fabric

The Making, Planning and Reproduction of the marker

Marker making may be broken into two parts: 1. Marker planning or the placement of pattern pieces to meet technical requirements such as no. of pieces, grain, etc. and the needs of material economy. 2. Material utilisation, which may include drawing the marker plan directly onto fabric, drawing it onto a paper marker by pen or automatic plotter. Its better to use a method where same marker plan can be used many times. Requirements of Production planning The requirements of production planning and control will be to supply the sewing room with an adequate amount of cut garments at sufficiently frequent intervals, consistent with availability of fabric and the best utilisation of cutting room resources. Among latter considerations are that for a given quantity of garments, a high lay rather then a low lay gives a lower cutting labour cost per garment. a. Size ratios When an order is placed for a quantity of garments, it normally specifies a quantity of each size and colour, the former often given as a ratio. E.g. a common ratio often used for sizes S, M, L, & XL is 1:2:2:1. UNDP Page 32 of 149

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b. The mixing of sizes in a marker, as opposed to cutting single sizes at a time, is termed scrambling and, up to a point, the more sizes that are included in a marker, the greater is the scope for fabric savings. c. Efficiency of marker plan - The efficiency of a marker is calculated by a formula: = (Area of patterns in the marker/Total area of marker) x 100% Reproduction of Markers Where a paper marker is used, it is normally stabilised on the top ply of the lay by stapling or by ironing so that an adhesive backing on the paper may lightly stick to the surface of the fabric. The paper marker is cut along with the fabric plies, and thus destroyed. Such a marker can be used more than once and is an economical way of duplicating to provide copies. Where marking is done directly on the fabric, it must be repeated for each spread of fabric, which is time consuming and less consistent in terms of marker efficiency. The nature of the fabric and the desired result in the finished garment a. Pattern alignment in relation to the grain of the fabric Pattern pieces normally carries a grain line. When pattern pieces are laid down a piece of cloth, the grain line should lie parallel to the line of warp in a woven fabric or the wales in the knitted fabric. When pattern pieces are laid across a piece, the grain line should lie parallel to the weft or course direction. In bias cutting, the grain lines will be normally be at 45 degrees to the warp. b. Symmetry and Asymmetry - Many fabrics can be turned around (through 180 degrees) and retain the same appearance and these are designated either way or symmetrical. In some cases, when a fabric ply is turned around, it does not retain the same appearance, but it is acceptable to have all the pattern pieces of a garment facing one side. These fabrics are known as one way either way or asymmetrical. E.g. fabrics with a nap or pile, which is brushed in one direction, fabrics with a surface design that does not run the same way turned around but where either direction is acceptable. Even more restricting are fabrics which are one way only. E.g. fabrics with a surface design which runs one way and is acceptable one way only. c. The design characteristics of finished garments The left and right sides of the garments may be mirror images of each other, which affects the way fabric is layed.

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Spreading
Traditionally, spreading of fabrics is one of the most time consuming manual processes and tends to control the capacity of the cutting section. The objective of spreading is to place the required number of plies of fabric one on top of the other (lay), that the production planning process has dictated, to the length of marker plan, in the colours required, correctly aligned as to length and width, and free from tension. However, spreading must achieve a number of specific objectives. The following points should be taken care off while spreading plies of fabric to form lay in order to achieve good cutting quality. 1. Shade sorting of cloth pieces Lays commonly require more than one roll of fabric to achieve enough plies in total. It is likely that different lots of fabrics that are same colour wont have an exact shade match. A garment made from parts cut from the rolls of different shade lot would most likely show a shade variation between its different panels. Thus when deliveries of a number of rolls of cloths of the same colour are received, they should be sorted into batches such that shade differences between them are undetectable. This process of sorting is called shade sorting or shade lot making. 2. Correct ply direction The various types of fabrics, in terms of surface direction, that are available, designated either way, one way either way or one way only, have been described above. For one way-either way, and one way only fabrics, where the pattern pieces have been positioned in a particular direction in the marker plan, it is essential that the fabric is spread in a way that maintains that direction. Typical examples of such fabrics are velvet or corduroy where and change in the direction of pattern placement would clearly show on the garment as different parts of the garment would show the nap of the fabric in different directions. 3. Adequate lay stability The number of plies that should be spread in one particular lay depends on the thickness of the fabric and also the equipment being used for cutting. As such, a thicker fabric such as denim would have less plies in a lay, whereas a sheer fabric such as chiffon would have more plies in a lay. Care should be taken to spread neither too less nor too much extra plies then the prescribed no of plies in a lay to provide lay stability when the cutting equipment cuts through the plies. 4. Alignment of ply Every ply should comprise at least the length and width of the marker plan, but should have the minimum possible extra outside those measurements. All the plies should be aligned to the edges form one side at least. 5. Width of fabric - The nature of textile material is such that the pieces of fabric as delivered from suppliers, vary in width, both from piece to piece and to UNDP Page 34 of 149

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lesser extent within single pieces. The marker plan is made to fit the narrowest width. The surplus width of the fabric is distributed outside the edge of the marker plan. In addition, the ends of the plies must be cut off squarely, allowing the smallest possible loss at both ends. 6. Correct ply tension If the plies are spread with too slack a tension they will lie in ridges with irregular fullness. If plies are spread in a stretched state they will maintain their tension while held in the lay, but will contract after cutting or during sewing, thus shrinking the garment parts to a smaller size than the pattern pieces. It is important to have correct ply tension before cutting them into garment parts. 7. Elimination of fabric faults Fabric faults may be detected during examination of the fabric by the garment manufacturer prior to spreading. It is possible that the spreading operator may also find faults which somehow got missed in previous examination. These faults have to be marked with a tag or a strip of paper in spreading stage in a way that they can be identified after cutting and the faulty parts are changed. 8. Avoidance of distortion in the spread A layer of brown paper, laid glazed side down and rough side up, is normally placed at the bottom of the spread. This helps to avoid disturbing the lowest plies of material in the spread when the base plate of a straight knife passes underneath and also if it is to be moved on a floatation table, while the rough side gives stability to the lay by providing better friction between the paper and the fabric if it is to be moved on a floatation table.

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Day 4
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 4cont. Cutting equipments and (Cutting) methods Cutting quality Numbering

240 Minutes

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Discussion 4.(Cont.)

240 Minutes

Cutting Equipments and Methods

In the majority of cutting rooms today, the cutting process makes use of hand shears, a mechanised knife blade in one of the several possible types, or a die press which stamps out the garment shape. Some of the methods currently in use are described below: 1. Hand Shears Hand shears are normally used when cutting only single or double plies. The lower blade of the shears passes under the plies, and some distortion of the fabric might occur which can be avoided with practice. 2. 3. Straight Knife A straight knife is used where the quantities for cutting do not justify purchase of a computer-controlled cutter. The elements of a straight knife consist of a base plate, usually on rollers for ease of movement, an upright or a standard carrying a straight, vertical blade with varying edge characteristics and an electric motor above it, a handle for the cutter to direct the blade, and a sharpening device. Normally, available blade height varies from 10 cm to 33 cm. 4. Round Knife - The elements of a round knife are a base plate, above which is mounted an electric motor, a handle for the cutter to direct the blade, and a circular blade rotating so that the leading edge cuts downwards into the fabric. Blade diameters vary from 6 cm to 20 cm. Round knife is used only for straight lines or lower lays of relatively few plies. 5. Band Knife Band knives are used when a higher standard of cutting accuracy is required than can be obtained with a straight knife. Pieces to be cut are first cut on a block, and then cut exactly on a band knife. 6. Notchers Many garments require that notches are cut into the edges of them to enable alignment during sewing with other garment parts. Specialised notching equipment provides greater accuracy because a guide lines up the notcher with the cut edge to give consistent depth of notch at a consistent right angle to the edge. 7. Drills and thread markers Where reference marks are needed away from the edge of a garment part, such as for the position of the pockets, darts and similar features, a hole is often drilled through all the plies of fabric in the lay. On looser weave fabrics, where the hole may close up, a hot drill is used which will UNDP Page 37 of 149

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slightly scorch or fuse the edges of the hole. All drill holes must eventually be concealed by the construction of the garment. 8. Computer controlled cutting knives This method provides the most accurate possible cutting, at high speed, and to keep the larger systems fully occupied they are frequently used in a central cutting facility that supplies a number of separate sewing factories. 9. Die Cutting Die cutting involves pressing of a rigid blade through the layed fabric. The die (called a clicker in the shoe industry) is a knife in the shape of the pattern periphery, including notches. Die cutting also offers much faster cutting than knife cutting for the same depth of cut. It is proportionally more economic for small parts which have a greater periphery in relation to their area.

The requirements of quality in cutting

The objective of cutting is to separate fabric parts as replicas of the pattern pieces in the marker plan. In achieving this objective, certain requirements must be fulfilled: 1. Precision of cut Garments cannot be assembled satisfactorily, and they may not fit the body correctly, if they have not been cut accurately to the pattern shape. In manual cutting using a knife, accuracy of cut depends on appropriate, well-maintained cutting knives and on the skill and motivation of the cutter. In both die cutting and computer controlled cutting, the achievement of accuracy comes from the equipment. 2. Clean edges The raw edge of the fabric should not show fraying or snagging. Such defects come from an imperfectly sharpened knife. 3. Un-scorched, un-fused edges The build-up of heat in the knife blade comes from the friction of the blade passing through the fabric. This, in extreme cases, leads to scorching of the fabric and, more frequently, to the fusing of the raw edges of thermoplastic fibre fabrics, such as those containing polyamide or polyester. 4. Freedom of knife movement - While placing of pattern pieces on the fabric, some freedom of knife movement has to be given on curves & turns in order to get accurate cutting. 5. Pattern Count - A pattern count must be made at the completion of the planning of marker to check that the complete menu of patterns has been included. 6. Labelling - Correct labelling of cut garment parts is essential while sorting and bundling a multi size lay after cutting.

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Numbering
All cut parts need to be numbered before sending to sewing section to avoid shade variation while assembling. All the parts in a single garment should possess the same panel number. Generally, size of the garment is also mentioned in the number and the last two digits are the running numbers.

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Day 5
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 5 (Sewing Seams and Stitches)

Introduction Definitions Seam types Seam Classes

240 Minutes

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Discussion 5 SEWING
Introduction

240 Minutes

The objectives of sewing are the construction of seams which combine the required standards of appearance and performance with an appropriate level of economy in production. Assuming that the fabric is sewable and suitable for garments, the achievement, at an economical level, of the various requirements of appearance and performance of sewn seams, both initially and during use, is the result of the selection of five factors during manufacturing: (a) The seam type (b) The stitch type (c) The sewing machine feeding mechanism which moves the fabric the needle and enables a succession of stitches to be formed (d) The needle which inserts the thread into the fabric (e) The thread which forms the stitch which either holds the fabric together, neatens it or decorate it These factors are closely interrelated to each other and will be discussed in the following chapter, with a view to understand the sewing process in detail. A stitch, which is the elementary basis of sewing, can be formed without fabric, within fabric, or through or on fabric. For the purpose of standardisation of stitches and seam formations, the U.S. government developed a guide that defines stitches and seams in current use. This guide is known as United States Federal Stitches and Seams Specifications (Federal Standard 751a). Federal Standard 751a makes the following distinction by defining these terms: 1. A Stitch in one unit of conformation of thread resulting from repeatedly passing a strand or strands and/or loop or loops of thread into or through a material at uniformly spaced intervals to form a series of stitches. 2. A Seam is a joint consisting of a sequence of stitches uniting two or more pieces of material(s) and is used for assembling parts in the production of sewn items.

3. A Stitching consists of a sequence of stitches for finishing an edge or for ornamental purposes or both in preparing parts for assembling. UNDP Page 41 of 149

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Seam Types
The choice of seam types is determined by aesthetic standards, strength, durability, comfort in wear, convenience in assembly in relation to the machinery available, and cost. Certain seam types are more appropriate for some products and fabrics than others. A seam has three dimensions, length, width, and depth. Seam length is the total distance covered by a continuous series of stitches, such as a side seam or shoulder seam. Seam width considerations are width of a seam allowance, the seam heading of a lapped or a top stitched seam, and the width of a line of stitches relative to the seam. A seam allowance is measured from the cut edge of the fabric to the main line of stitches. Seam depth is the thickness or compressibility (flatness) of a seam.

Seam Classes
Seams are formed by sewing two or more pieces of fabric together, but the basis of seam classification is the position of the pieces relative to each other. Many variations in fabric position and treatment account for the many different types of seams in each classification. The Federal Standard 751a, which is the basis of stitch classes identifies four seam classes and two stitching classes. Each class includes many seam types. 1. The Superimposed Seam (SS) class is formed by joining two or more pieces of fabric, usually with seam allowance edges even and one piece superimposed over the second. These seams can be sewn with a lock stitch, chain stitch, overedge stitch, or safety stitch. Some examples of superimposed seams are shown below:

2. The Lapped Seam (LS) class is defined as two or more pieces of fabric joined by overlapping at the needle. This is the largest seam class, including 101 different seam types, with a great deal of variety as to where a seam is lapped and how it is lapped. These seams are used to attach front band to shirts, setting pockets, side seams of quality dress shirts, side seam or inseam of jeans, and so on. Lapped seams may be stitched with a lockstitch or a chain stitch but not an overedge stitch. Some examples of Lapped seam types are shown below:

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3. The Bound Seam (BS) Class requires a separate piece of fabric that encompasses the edge of one or more pieces of the garment. These seams are used to finish plain necklines, edges of short sleeves on some styles of T-shirts, and so on. Bound seam may be sewn with a lock stitch, chain stitch, or cover stitch. They would never be sewn with an edge stitch as the knife would cut off the binding. Examples shown below:

4. The Flat Seam (FS) class is the smallest class with only six different types. The formation of this seam occurs with the butting together of two pieces of fabric, but not overlapping them. Flat seams are constructed to remain flat through care and wear. They are commonly used for seams of sweatshirts, lingerie, and long underwear.

Stitching Classes - The two stitching classes are ornamental stitching (OS) and edge finishing (EF). The finishing of either of these classes is performed on a single piece of fabric. The fabric may be folded in a variety of ways so that the stitching may be through more than one thickness, but it remains a single piece of fabric. Edge finishing is stitching that encompasses the cut edge or provides a finish for a single ply of fabric with a folded edge configuration. Stitches from any of the classes may be used depending on the type of fold and placement of stitching. Ornamental stitching may be used on a single ply for decorative purposes. It can be done anywhere on the garment except the edge. The decorative stitching may be used on jeans pockets, logos, and pin tucks.

Ornamental stitching (OS)

Edge Finishing (EF)

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Day 6
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 5 (Sewing Seams and Stitches)

Stitch types

150 minutes

Stitch classes Discussion 6 Thread consumption (Sewing Thread Consumption) and Calculation

90 minutes

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Discussion 5(cont.)
Stitch types

150 Minutes

Stitch classification is based on structure of the stitch and method of formation. Stitch properties such as size, balance, and consistency determine stitch quality, performance, and appropriateness for end use. Properties of stitch that relates to aesthetics and performance are size, tension, and consistency. Stitch size has three dimensions: length, width, and depth. Stitch length is specified as the number of stitches per inch (SPI) and can be an indicator of quality. Stitch length is determined by the amount of fabric that is advanced under the needle between penetrations. High SPI means short stitches, low SPI means long stitches. Long stitches are usually less durable and may be considered low quality because they are more subject to abrasion and are likely to snag. Stitch width refers to the horizontal span (bight) covered in the formation of formation of one stitch or single line of stitching. Stitches that have width dimensions require multiple needles or lateral movement of thread carriers such as needle bars, loopers, or spreaders. Stitch depth is the distance between upper and lower surface of the stitch. For example, the depth of the blind stitch determines the amount of penetration by a curved needle. Thread tension affects stitch formation in two ways. Thread tension involves (1) the balance of force on the threads that form the stitch and (2) the degree of compression on the fabric created by the threads as a stitch is formed. Tension ensures a uniform supply of thread and determines how well stitches conform to the standard formation. Two much tension causes seam pucker, uneven stitches, unbalanced stitches, weakened thread, and damaged fabric. Too little tension might result in loose or skipped stitches, grinning, weak seams. Stitch consistency is the uniformity with which each stitch is formed in a row of stitches. Each stitch should be exactly like the previous one regardless of curves, corners, or varying thickness of the fabric.

Stitch Classes
Industrial sewing machines are classified according to their intended use and the means of forming stitches. A stitch can be defined as one unit of conformation resulting from one or more strands or loops of thread intralooping, interlooping, or passing through material. UNDP Page 45 of 149

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The six classes of stitches as given in Federal Standard 751a are as follows: Class 100 chain stitches Class 200 stitches originating as hand stitches Class 300 lock stitches Class 400 multi thread chain stitches Class 500 over edge stitches Class 600 covering chain stitches Class 100 chain stitches -The stitch class 100 includes stitch types 101, 102, 103, 104 and 105. The chain stitch class 100 is formed with one or more needle threads that form a loop on the underside of the fabric. There is no lower thread. One of the simplest of all stitch types is 101, which is formed from a single thread. It can be easily removed and it is used for basting operations in tailored men swear and womens wear. It can only be used where the marks of needle penetration close up afterwards in pressing. A basting operation, in positions such as edges, flaps, collars, and so on, is a temporary stitch, allowing accurate placement of permanent stitches. The blind stitch version, 103, utilises a curved needle in order to, successively penetrate partially into the fabric, and then into the hem edge, while showing minimally or not at all on the right side of the garment. Class 200 stitches originating as hand stitches Stitch class 200 consists of hand formation of stitches done by hand with the exception of 205, which simulates a hand running stitch but is formed by a special machine. Typical types are basting stitches and back stitches. Class 300 lock stitches The lock stitch class 300 is the most commonly used and is easiest to understand. Lock stitch machine requires 2 threads to form a stitch, a needle thread that feeds from the top and a lower thread that feeds from a bobbin. A rotary hook or shuttle catches the needle thread loop as it passes around the bobbin and interlocks the two threads. If a lock stitch thread breaks, the two threads used to form the stitch lock and the whole line of stitches wont unravel. Lock stitch machines are versatile and can be used for a variety of operations. It is also the only stitch formation that can be backstitched. Thus, a lock stitch machine is a good choice for a small manufacturer that produces fashion goods. A complete garment can be sewn on a lock stitch machine. Also, if versatility is needed, a lock stitch is a good choice but if speed and efficiency are the priorities, it may not be the right selection. Lock stitch machines are slower than other classes of industrial machines. Operating speeds range from 3000 to 5000 rpm while other machines can operate at 9000 rpm or more. On short seams, an operator would not be able to reach maximum speed; therefore, it is recommended to be used on small parts, while faster stitch types should be used for larger parts and longer seams.

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Some of the most common type of stitches in this class are: Stitch type 301 The 301 is referred to as a plain stitch or a straight stitch. It is the stitch type performed by the standard home sewing machine. Equal amount of needle and bobbin threads are used and upper and lower threads interlocks in the centre of the fabric. The 301 uses the least amount of thread and produces the flattest stitch. It is the tightest and most secured stitch among all stitch types. Because this stitch formation is the same on both sides of he seams, it is reversible and used extensively for top stitching, especially along collar and cuff edges, and fronts of jackets. It is a poor choice in areas that need to stretch as it has least amount of elongation potential. The 301 is inappropriate to attach elastic or sew knit or bias seams that are expected to stretch. Stitch type 304 Type 304 is the traditional one stitch zig0zag that is used to sew appliqus, attach lace on lingerie, and produce forgetting. Forgetting is a decoration stitch used to connect two pieces of fabric but allowing space (width of stitch) between the pieces. It provides elongation, is smooth, and will not ravel out. Other types of zig-zag lock stitches are class 308 and 315 which form a longer and a wider zigzag by using several stitches before changing direction. Lock stitch machines generally have more down time because they operate with a limited supply from bobbins that have to be replaced as they run out. Repair time is also more as opening a lock stitch is more time consuming than a chain stitch. Class 400 multi thread chain stitches The 400 class is the second most frequently used stitch type. This multi thread chain stitch requires one or more needle threads that form loops as they pass through the fabric and interloop with the looper thread on the underside, all of which feed continuously from the cones. The 400 class requires an upper and a lower thread and use a looper to carry the lower thread and form a thread loop on the underside of the fabric. Machines producing 400 class do not back tack although stitches can be condensed to secure the ends of the threads. The most common stitch types in this class are: 1. The 401 or two thread chain stitch It is also called double locked chain stitch. Its appearance is the same as the 101 with a flat straight thread formation similar to a lock stitch on the face of the fabric and a loop on the underside. The 401 can be unravelled, but only if the looper thread is pulled in the direction the stitches were formed. The 401 machines are capable of operating at very high speeds. These chain stitch machines often use multiple needles to produce parallel rows of stitching. The loop formation of the chain stitch elongates when extended; thus it is used UNDP Page 47 of 149

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for seams that require elasticity, such as setting sleeves and attaching elastic. This stitch type is also well suited to automated sewing equipment such as automatic seamers. 2. Stitch type 402 or cording stitch - It is used primarily for stitching permanent creases. It uses two needle threads that produce two parallel rows of stitching on the face of the fabric. A looper thread travels between the two needle threads on the back of the fabric creating a ridge or crease between the needle threads on the face. This type of stitching can be found on sportswear where a crease needs to be maintained or on the back of the gloves. 3. Stitch type 404 It is similar in appearance to a 304 stitch in the sense that it is also a zigzag stitch except the difference that it is formed as a chain stitch and contains loops on one side. 4. Stitch type 406 & 407 they are known as bottom cover stitches. They are used to cover seam or unfinished edges on the inside of garments and to keep them flat. They appear as 2 or 3 rows of parallel lock stitching on the face of the fabric while a looper thread connects the rows on the back. Stitch type 406 is used to produce flat, comfortable seams on necklines of T-shirts bottom felling of T-shirts, or on binding of mens briefs. The 406 stitch uses 2 needle threads and 1 looper thread like a 402 except that it does not ridge up. Stitch type 407 is very much similar to 406 except that it uses three needle threads and has even more stretch. The primary use of 407 is to attach elastic to undergarments, which require maximum stretch. 5. Class 500 over edge stitches The stitch types in this class are formed with one or more groups of threads, and have as a general characteristic that loops from at least one groups of threads pass around the edge of the material. The loops form a narrow band of stitching along the edge of the fabric with threads intersecting at the edge and preventing the fabric from fraying. All have high elasticity, they do not unravel easily, and a trimming knife on the machine ensures a neat edge prior to sewing. These stitches are often called overedge, overcast, overlock, serge, or merrow.

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Overedge machines must have three stitch forming devices, a needle to carry the thread through the fabric, a looper or spreader to carry the thread from the needle to the edge of material on the bottom, and a looper or spreader to carry thread up and over the edge of the material on the top. The various stitch types uses various combinations of these three devices. The odd numbered stitch types 501, 503, 505, and 521 are known as break open stitches because they act similar to the spiral back of a notebook. The fabric is held tight together but not secure along the inner edge of the stitching, which allows the stitch to break open. These stitches are best used for edge finishes and hem. They are characterised by a loose thread on the bottom that is pulled to the edge of the fabric where it interloops the looper thread. This creates a purl stitch or interlooping of thread that wraps and protects the edge of the fabric. The even numbered stitch types in this class 502, 504, 512, and 514 have a much tighter needle thread that holds the two layers of fabric together at the actual seam line. These stitches do not grin through or become exposed between the layers of fabric. These stitches have a much smoother appearance and are more durable. 1. Serging and Edge stitches Types 503, 504, or 505 are over-edge stitch types that are used for serging. Serging is the process of finishing a single ply of fabric to prevent ravelling. This is often one of the first processes in sewing a garment if another edge finish will not be given later in production. Serging gives a more finished appearance on the inside of a garment. Stitch types 502 and 503 are formed by two threads, a needle and looper thread. The 502 type is a tight stitch that is used primarily for seaming the outer edge of bags, while 503 is used for blind hemming and serging. Type 503 is used mainly for hems in T-shirts and other kit garments and serging seams of dress slacks because the two thread construction is less likely to press through the garment. Stitch type 504 and 505 are three thread overedge stitches that are formed with one needle thread and two looper threads. They require more thread in the formation, but they also have more stretch. Type 504 is highly extensible but secure stitch that makes an excellent seam for knit garments, such as seams of cut and sewn sweaters. It is the most common of 500 class. 2. Mock safety stitches Stitch types 512 and 514 are sometimes called mock safety stitches. They are four thread overedge stitches that are formed with two needle threads and two looper threads. Type 514 is stronger and more elastic than 512, but both may be used for seaming knits and wovens. However, 514 makes a wider seam and may be desirable for some knit garments. 3. The safety stitches 515, 516, and 519 are a combination of an overedge stitch and a 401 chain stitch. This type is called a safety stitch because the chain UNDP Page 49 of 149

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stitch that closes the seam is backed by a row of another tight overedge stitches. Both rows of stitches are formed at the same time. This type of seaming is widely used by manufacturers of shirts, jackets, blouses, and jeans. 6. Class 600 covering chain stitches The cover stitch or 600 class, often called a flat lock or a flat seam stitch, is an advanced version of the 400 class and is used primarily on knits and lingerie. Machines producing the 600 class are extremely fast and efficient, operating at 9000 rpms. The stitch is formed by two or more needle loops passing through the material, interlooping on the underside and interlocking on the upper side. A spreader or cover thread finger carries the cover thread across the surface of the fabric between the needles. These stitches, referred to as top and bottom cover stitches, are commonly used to cover both sides of the seam with thread. Threads must be chained off and be crossed by another seam. This stitch class uses a lot of thread but provides excellent top and bottom cover and flat seams. Stitches in this class are most complex of all and may have up to nine threads in total including four needle threads. 1. Stitch type 602 & 605 Cover stitches 602 & 605 are very strong and elastic stitches used extensively by manufacturers of knit garments to cover raw edges and prevent ravelling. They may be used for attaching flat knit or ribbed knit collars. When the upper spreader thread is removed from these stitches they become 406 and 407 types, respectively. Class 602 is a 4 thread stitch with 2 needle threads, 1 looper thread, and 1 top covering thread. Class 605 is similar stitch but with 3 needle threads, 1 looper thread, and 1 top covering thread. 2. Stitch type 607 The flat seaming stitch, 607, trims and seams simultaneously. It is used to produce the flat, butted seams on infant panties, mens briefs, and other knitted garments. It is a 9 thread stitch with 4 needle threads, 4 looper threads, and 1 top covering thread.

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Discussion 6 THREAD CONSUMPTION

90 Minutes

It is possible to estimate the quantity of thread which will be consumed in manufacturing a certain style of garment, either by measuring the seam lengths sewn in each stitch type and calculating the total amount from published ratios of thread usage, or by unpicking and measuring the thread used in the sample garment. The latter is more accurate because it allows for fabric thickness and stitch density. Approximate net thread consumption ratios for typical seams sewn in one or two plies of fabric are given below:

Stitch type

Thread usage, in cm, per cm of seam 2.5 4.0 5.5 14.0 18.0 20.0 32.0

301 lock stitch 101 chain stitch 401 2-thread chain stitch 504 3-thread overedge stitch 512 4-thread overedge (401. 504) safety stitch 606 flatlock

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Day 7
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 7 (Sewing Machinery)

Machine parts and their functions Feeding Mechanisms

240 Minutes

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Discussion 7

240 Minutes

SEWING MACHINE
Sewing machine parts
Some of the machine parts play an important role in stitch formation. The following is a list of such parts along with their functions.

Machine
Presser Foot

Functions

Presses the material being sewn against the feed dog and the throat plate. Facilitates feeding. Throat Plate Provides opening for the needle and the feed dog. Provides a smooth surface for feeding of the fabric. Feed dog Moves the material forward by one stitch length after each stitch has been drawn. Take up Draws the needle thread from the bobbin. Releases the required length of thread for making stitch. Tightens the stitch. Thread guide Keeps the thread in its proper course. Check spring Even outs the tension fluctuations. Tension discs Ensures correct tension for looping. Also ensures that thread does not get entangled on its passage to form the stitch. Needle bar Holds the needle in vertical position and moves it up and down for stitch formation. Rotary hook Catches the needle thread loop and lays it around the under thread spool. Stitch Used to regulate the stitch length. Back tack Reverse the movement of feed dog and enables stitch formation in the reverse direction.

Sewing machine feeding mechanism

To achieve the objectives of good appearance and performance in seams, correct and even stitch length is essential, along with fabric joins which are either smooth and unobtrusive or evenly eased or gathered, according to the requirements of fit and style. In the construction of seams and the formation of stitches that hold them together, these requirements are achieved by means of a mechanism that feeds the fabric past the needle. There are various types of feeding mechanisms that can be used for different requirements of seaming. UNDP Page 54 of 149

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1. Drop Feed The simplest and the commonest sewing machine feed system is known as the drop feed. The three sewing machine parts which constitutes the feed mechanism are the presser foot, the throat plate or needle plate, and the feed dog.

Presser foot

Throat plate

Feed dog

The throat plate is the most passive of the three parts and its function is to provide a smooth, flat surface over which the fabric passes as successive stitches are formed. It has one or two slots in it which match the sections of the feed dog and it has a hole through which the needle passes as it goes up and down. The purpose of the feed dog is to move the fabric along by a predetermined amount between successive stitches. The amount of fabric movement, and thus the stitch length, is controlled by means of a stitch length regulator. The feed dog consists of a toothed surface which rises through the openings in the throat plate, engages the under surface of the fabric, moves that fabric along towards the back of machine, and drops away again below the throat plate before commencing the whole cycle again. A the feed dog drops below the throat plate, this plate supports the fabric so that it loses contact with the feed dog and is not carried back with it. In a normal SNLS machine, the feed dog rows are situated both to the right and left of the needle hole to ensure that the fabric is fed in a straight line. In an over edge machine, the feed dog is mainly to the left of the needle drop point, because it trims and sews the fabric to the right of the needle and because there is a chaining off finger on the throat plate over which the stitch is formed. Here the fabric tends to be guided to the left. The teeth on the surface of the feed dog are slanted towards the direction of the feeding. Coarser or finer feed dogs can be used depending on the type of fabric being stitched. Rubber coated feed dogs are available to prevent marking on some sheer fabrics which may occur during stitching. The presser foot is required to hold the fabric down firmly against the throat plate, thus preventing the fabric rising and falling with the needle. At the same time, it holds the fabric against the teeth of the feed dog as it rises up to transport the UNDP Page 55 of 149

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fabric. Minimum pressure should be used consistent with correct feeding of the particular fabric being used. Differential Bottom Feed Differential bottom feed is the name given to a feed dog which consists of two sections, one behind the other. The movement of each section is similar to the movement of whole feed dog in the drop feed dog but the stroke or movement of each part can be adjusted separately or differentially. In the situation where differential feed pucker is a problem, correct adjustment of this feed system to create slight stretch on the bottom ply will overcome the tendency of the feed dog to take in that ply while the presser foot retards the top ply. The adjustment in this case consists of setting the stroke of rear section the feed dog so that it is longer than the stroke of the front section. It is also possible to deliberately gather the lower ply into the top ply by setting the front section of the feed dog to a longer stroke than the rear section.

Differential feed is available on chainstitch, overedge and safety stitch machines as well as on lockstitch machines. Variable Top Feed A variable top feed provides a positive control of the top ply of the fabric in a way which allows for adjustments so that the fabric plies will either be fed through exactly together or, if required, the top ply will be gathered onto the bottom ply. The general adjustment of this system is that the presser foot is in two sections, one holding the fabric in position while the needle forms the stitch and the other having teeth on the lower side and moving or walking in such a way that the top ply is taken along positively while the needle is out of the material. When a variable top feed is combined with a drop feed, there is the opportunity to speed up the movement of the top ply to achieve shift free sewing, or by further adjustment to the top feed mechanism, to introduce a deliberate amount of ease or gather to the top ply. 2. Needle Feed

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Needle feed is the name given to the feed system in which the needle itself moves forwards and backward. Used on its own it tends to produce elongated needle holes in the fabric and to avoid this it is normally combined with a drop feed and given the name compound feed. The needle enters the fabric, moves back with it as it is moved along by the feed dog to form one stitch and then rises up and forward again to begin the next stitch. Thus the needle is in he fabric while feeding is taking place and the plies of fabric are held together. In this, the exact synchronisation of the movement of the needle and the drop feed is required. This kind of feeding mechanism is used particularly in bulky sewing situations such as when quilting through fabric and wadding. 3. Unison Feed Unison feed is a further combination of feeding mechanisms, which provides needle feed in addition to positive top and bottom feeding. 4. Puller Feed A puller feed is a way of providing positive control of all the plies of fabric as they leave another feeding mechanism such as drop feed. Two rollers exert a pulling motion on the fabric immediately behind the presser foot or a short distance behind it. Both rollers may be driven or the top roller only may be driven while the lower one idles. Puller feed is particularly useful in multi-needle stitching of parts such as waistbands and it may be set slightly faster than the main machine drop feed to overcome any tendency of the seam to twist.

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Day 8
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 8 Functions of Sewing (Sewing Sewing Needles) Needles Needle parts and Functions Needle types Needle sizes

240 Minutes

Discussion 8
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240 Minutes SEWING MACHINE NEEDLES

Functions of sewing Needles
The functions of a sewing machine needle in general are: (a) to produce a hole in the material for the thread to pass through and to do so without causing any damage to the material; (b) tip carry the needle thread through the material and there form a loop which can be picked up by the hook on the bobbin case in a lock stitch machine or by the looper or other mechanism in other machines; (c) to pass the needle thread through the loop formed by the looper mechanism on machines other than lockstitch.

Parts and their functions

The basic diagram of the parts of a sewing machine needle is as follows: Shank

Long groove

eye

point

Blade

Short groove

Scarf

The shank is the upper part of the needle which locates within the needle bar. It may be cylindrical or have a flat side, according to how it is secured into the machine. It is the support of the needle and is usually larger than the rest of the needle for reasons of strength. The shoulder is the section intermediate between the shank and the blade, the latter forming the longest part of the needle down to the eye. The blade is subject to the greatest amount of friction from the material through which the needle passes. The long groove in the blade provides a protective channel in which the thread is drawn down through the material during stitch formation. The short groove is on the side of the needle which is towards the hook or looper and is a groove which extends a little above and below the eye. It assists in the formation of the loop in the needle thread. The eye of the needle is the hole extending through the blade from the long groove on one side to the short groove on the other. The scarf or the clearance cut is a recess across the whole face of the needle just above the eye. Its purpose is to UNDP Page 59 of 149

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enable a closer setting of the hook or looper to the needle. This ensures that the loop of the needle thread will be more readily entered by the point of the hook or looper. The point of the needle is shaped to provide the best penetration of each type of material according to its nature and the appearance that has to be produced. The tip is the extreme end of the point which combines with the point in defining the penetration performance.

Types of Needles
For use in a particular machine, needle must conform to the machine manufacturers specification as regards shank diameter, length from butt to eye and total length. Some types of needles used for different machines are given below in the table: Sr. no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Machine Needle used

Single Needle Lock Stitch Double Needle Lock Stitch Single Needle Chain Stitch (class 401) Over Lock Feed of Arm Bartack Button Stitch Flat lock, Button Hole

DB x 1 DP x 5 DB x 5 DC x 1, DC x 27 UV 128 GAS DP x 5 TQ x 1, TQ x 7 TV x 1

Needle Sizes
Needles are available in a wide range of sizes and the choice of size is determined by the fabric and thread combination that is to be sewn. Correct size is essential to good sewing performance but as fabrics tend to become finer and in many cases, more densely constructed, the demand is for needles and threads that can be used satisfactorily in smaller sizes. If the needle is too small for the thread, the thread will neither pass freely through the eye nor fit properly into the long groove and will suffer from excessive abrasion as a result. If the needle is too large for the thread there will be poor control of the loop formation that may cause slipped stitches. There will also be holes in the fabric which are too big for the stitches and give an unattractive seam appearance. Different needle manufacturers use their own nomenclature to describe needle sizes but the two most common ones are metric and singer sizing system. The metric size or Nm of a needle is related to the diameter at a point at the middle of the blade. This measurement in millimetres, multiplied by 100 gives the metric number. Typical UNDP Page 60 of 149

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metric needle sizes are shown in the given below table along with the equivalent sizes in the singer system and typical thread sizes given in the ticket number system. Thread sizes in synthetic ticket number 8 16 30 50 75 120 180 320 Needle sizes in metric system 180 140 120 110 90 80 70 60 Needle sizes in Singer system 24 22 19 18 14 12 10 8

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Day 9
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 9 ( Finishing and Pressing)

The Purpose of Finishing and Pressing The Pressing equipments and methods

240 minutes

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Discussion 9 PRESSING
Purpose

240 Minutes

The ultimate purpose of pressing and finishing would be to make the garment look presentable to the customer. The following could be taken as the specific purposes of pressing:1. To smooth away unwanted creases and crush marks - In garment manufacture, creases and crushing occur in garments as a result of operator handling and these are particularly bad where garments are handled between operations in bundle, whether tied up tightly or piled on trolleys or in boxes. 2. To make creases where the design of garment requires them - Creases are obvious design features in trousers, skirts (where a series of creases is often referred to as pleating) etc. Creases are less obvious but still require pressing when they are hems and cuff edges, front edges, top edges of waistbands, pocket flaps and patch pocket edges as well as pressed open seam, which from a pressing point of view are two creases sewn together. 3. To mould the garment to the contour of the body - This refers to the enhancement of shape of a garment already largely determined by seams and darts. It is mainly effected in wool or wool-rich fabrics in the types of garment referred to as tailored. This sort of moulding involves stretching and shrinking of fabric. After moulding it is not possible to unpick the seams and return garment parts to their former flat state. The areas where this moulding takes place are around the ends of darts, collars, shoulders, armholes and sleeve heads, and sometimes trouser legs. Thus the chest and waist of a tailored jacket created by pattern seams and darts can be accentuated by pressing on shaped presses. 4. To prepare garments for further sewing - The term under pressing is used for pressing operations on partly constructed garments, or pressing operations within the sewing line. The stages at which a garment is underdressed will depend on many factors. It normally takes place when several sewing operations have been completed. An obvious example would be a jacket and its lining before assembly, after which pressing of separate sections would no longer be possible. Under pressing also makes further sewing easy to do, or easier to do to a high quality standard. It may be possible to topstitch a collar which has not been pressed, but it is likely to be more quickly and accurately sewn if it has. 5. To refinish the fabric after manufacturing the garment To make the garment look presentable and to enhance its appearance. UNDP Page 63 of 149

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To summarise, pressing makes the final presentation of the garment, ready for sale. The means of pressing are heat, moisture,(usually as steam) and pressure, singly or in combination. These means deform or reform fibres, yarns, and fabrics in order to achieve the effect intended by the designer. Equally important, after the application of heat and moisture, is the application of vacuum, which sucks ambient air through the garment as it lies on the buck (the lower part of the press) or pressing table. This rapidly dries out residual moisture from the garment and ensures that the set imparted by the press is retained.

Pressing equipment and methods

Various types of pressing equipment are used widely in garment industry. Some of the most common ones are: 1. Electric Irons This is the traditional form of Iron. It is generally used for domestic purposes. It has a heating element provided inside the metal casting, which heats the iron and pressing is done through the smooth surface of the iron. This kind of press is seldom used for bulk production. 2. Electric Steam Irons This is the most common type of iron used nowadays. The iron is heated by an electric element, controlled by a thermostat, and supplied with steam, either from the factories main steam supply, or from a small boiler adjacent to the pressing unit. The steam function of the iron is activated by the touch of a button, when a powerful jet of dry steam is produced. 3. Steam Irons These are used where higher pressing quality is desired. The pressing is done by a powerful jet of steam without any electrical heating element. The consumption of steam is more but this kind of pressing eliminates chance of any shine marks on the fabric which may come during pressing. 4. Pressing Tables There is a range of pressing tables available for ironing. In a situation where a variety of parts and shapes of garments has to be pressed, a simple pressing table similar to a domestic ironing board is used. Modern tables have a supply of vacuum to hold the garment in position and dry and set it after ironing. The flat table can be fitted with swivel arms, which present bucks of varied shapes to allow the laying of sleeves, shoulders and collars without distortion or the danger of creasing. Each of these has a vacuum facility. Alternatively, the basic table may consist of a very large flat area, or a smaller curved surface, each with additional sections to be swung into positions if required. A blowing function is also available on some of these pressing surfaces which gives a billowing surface on which to press. This enables some difficult materials, such as thin, hard rainwear fabrics, to be pressed with less risk of seam impressions showing.

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5. Carousel Press Here a pair of bucks rotates between the operator and either a single or double head, depending on whether the bucks are identical or an opposite pair for pressing the left and right of a garment part. The operator loads the garment onto one buck which is then moved away to be aligned under the head, often behind a screen that keeps steam away from the operator. While the machine carries out the controlled pressing cycle, the operator loads the other buck. This enables the operator to achieve a much higher output because the handling time of the operation takes place during the pressing cycle, leading to higher machine utilisation. 6. Trouser Pressing Trouser pressing is usually carried out in 2 operations, in addition to the under press of the seam: Legging on a flat press which sets and creases the legs, and topping in a series of lays around the top of the trouser on a contoured press. 7. Creasing Machines Creasing machines fold over and press the edges of clothing components such as pockets or cuffs to prepare them for easier sewing. In particular, a patch pocket which has already had the top hem sewn, is pressed ready for the operator to sew it to the garment with no handling of the seam turnings. The operator positions the component over an appropriately shaped die and blades manipulate the fabric to form the creases around it and exert pressure during the pressing cycle. 8. Steam Air Finishers This equipment is often referred to as a puffer or a form finisher. It consists of a frame carrying a steam distribution system, compressed air distribution system and a pressing form which is a bag in the approximate shape of the garment to be pressed. There are controls for steam and air release, and timers controlling the steam and air cycles. The equipment aims to reduce the positioning and repositioning in pressing operation by pressing the whole garment at the same time, though finishing is a better term in this situation since very little pressure is applied to the garment. This equipment can remove accidental creases and refinish the fabric, but will not form creases or mould the garment. The operator pulls the garment on to the form from above, and the form is then expanded to its full size and shape as steam is blown through it from the outside.

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Day 10
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 10 (Quality)

The concept of customer Executives job related to quality DHU AQL

240 minutes

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Discussion 10 QUALITY
To ensure quality we need to do a number of things:

240 Minutes

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Recognise who the customer is Build processes that anticipate and prevent defects Make a plan to achieve the desired quality level Set up ways to measure our progress Work as a team to achieve the goal

Lets understand the concept of customer better:

A customer is the entity receiving a service or product from our work. This entity can be the next process in line, it can be the boss, and it can be a fellow worker. Lets illustrate this with an example of a short production line:

Receiving

Cutting

Sewing

Inspect

Finishing

Cuttings customer is Sewing, Sewings is Inspect, and receiving customer is cutting. If there is a quality problem in cutting this will translate into problems in Sewing, Inspect, and Finishing. A very true American slogan is that most systems behave the following way: Garbage in Garbage Out. In other words you need to have good quality materials coming in to have good quality goods at the end. If you apply this to every process in the system you get the foundation of TQC: Every process is a system in itself where incoming quality will determine outgoing quality. Good quality needs to come out of every process in order for every process to produce good quality. Quality needs to be built into every process of the system to ensure results at the end. We could waste our resources in trying to guarantee quality by inspecting finished goods and eliminating those that seem to de defective. In the factory we are not going to do this. We will spend our energy preventing the defects and guaranteeing quality at every step of the process through effective planning and controls. How do we define prevention? Well Websters dictionary defines it appropriately by stating that to prevent is to act in anticipation of an eventto keep from happening; make impossible by prior action. We will succeed with well planned action. UNDP Page 67 of 149

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A good plan requires:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

A clearly defined objective Goals or expected results The activities needed to achieve the desired results Defined roles and responsibilities for the activities Dates for the begin and completion of each activity An analysis of potential problems

Measurements are a vital part of any quality improvement program. Anything that is not measure does not improve. We need to establish these standard measures and measure the progress periodically Teamwork is also an essential element for the success of the program. Remember Not ONE of us is better than ALL of us. The whole effort needs to have a direction that a team leader will provide.

The Executive's Job Related to Quality

There are two separate areas of dealing with quality that an Executive becomes involved in: Preventing repairs Working with operators to prevent repairs (correct at the source). Handling repairs Getting repairs corrected and work back into the production flow. Which one is the most important? Which one is the most effective way to control quality? Which one should be the Executive's primary aim? Which one takes up the majority of your time? Answer honestly.

How to Control Quality

1. Have the proper approach toward operators Approach operator with defective garment Ask operator kindly to stop her work and pay you attention Explain defect found and ask if she understands why garment is defective Make sure operator understands why it is defective Page 69 of 149

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Try to find out why the defect was created or why it was not detected at the workstation Restate the companys commitment to quality Ask operator to inspect the current bundle for more defective parts and then repair all parts that are out of tolerance including the one found by the inspector. This should be done immediately Stay and observe sewing method Make sure method is being followed

2. Train operators to sew with good quality from the beginning 3. Know quality specifications and tolerances 4. Be sure you understand what constitutes good and poor quality. 5. Be consistent in your decisions toward quality. 6. Comment on both good and bad quality. We all have a tendency to be silent during good times and vocal during the bad. 7. Be sure to check each operator's work daily. The amount of defects found should govern the amount of inspections performed. Vary inspection times and inspection sequence. Check into middle of bundle. Do not always look at only the top garments. 8. Use a checklist - do not rely on memory of specs. 9. Do not rely on inspectors to tell you the quality level of your operators. You find out yourself. 10. Never give the impression that you think work is OK but inspector will not pass it. If you do have this problem, resolve it with plant manager away from operators.

DHU - Defects per Hundred Units

KSAs widely accepted measuring unit for quality at every stage of the process is the DHU Discussion Previously people talked about percentage defects Why is that not so useful?

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When we start putting in defects at several operations we soon find that a complete sewn product (or sub-assembly) can actually have many defects Thats why it is more accurate to talk about Defects per Hundred Units Discussion Say we have a Collar section producing 5 Defects per Hundred Pieces (5 DHU), a Cuff section producing 3 DHU and Fronts, Backs and Sleeves together producing 7 DHU How many defects will be in 100 completed garments? A DHU can be used as a universal measure of quality

AQL - Acceptable Quality Level

The AQL system defines a minimum acceptable number of defects that can be shipped in an order

Definition

Usually this is set at AQL = 4.0 Increasingly customers are specifying AQL = 2.5 or 1.5 It will only get harder The AQL level does not reflect the actual standard of product quality The AQL level puts an upper limit on the number of defects in a sample, given the customers specification for the product Discussion What AQL level is applied to your factory?

How often does a shipment fail and why?

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Day 11
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 11 At Fabric Stage (Quality control Procedures) In Cutting In Sewing In Finishing In Packing Introduction Procedure for doing Quality drill

195 Minutes

Discussion 12 (Quality Drill)

45 Minutes

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Discussion 11 QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES

Quality procedures during fabric inspection

195 Minutes

Quality first products require quality piece goods. Even the most manufacturing methods cannot compensate for defective materials. fabric inspection fabric inspection will ensure the quality by following system of fabric checking to ensure the maximum efficiency in operations. Important things to be considered in Stores:

outstanding During the the 4 point subsequent

Always store the fabric in clean. Moisture free environment. The fabric should be checked as soon as possible after it is in-house.

The Four Point System The four point system is widely accepted in the textile and garment trade because it is easy to understand and implement. This system also lays down standards that have proven to be acceptable in the garment trade and it is recommended by most companies for checking fabric. Fabric meterage to inspect At least 10% of the meterage to be inspected For a shipment/ order of up to 200 meters It is recommended that for a shipment of upto 200 meters, inspection should be carried out for100% piece goods A shipment above 200 meters- Inspection should be done for at least 200 meters or 10% whichever is greater. Selection of Rolls At least one roll of each colour/shade/lot (even if it exceeds 10% of the total meterage) should be selected. In case more than one roll per colour is to be checked, then select the number in proportion to the no. of total rolls per colour received.

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Defect Classification The four point system classifies defects as shown in the following table: Length of Defect, either length or width Penalty Points 3 Inches or less 1 Point Over 3, but not over 6 inches 2 Points Over 6, but not over 9 inches 3 Points Over 9 inches 4 Points Holes and openings 1 inch or less 2 points Over 1 inch 4 Points A maximum of 4 points is charged to one linear meter. Defects less than 1 from the selvedge of the fabric will not be counted. Only major defects are considered. Major Defect- A defect that, if conspicuous on the finished product, would cause the item to be a second. Minor Defect A defect that would not cause the product to be termed a second either because of severity or location. When inspecting piece goods prior to cutting, it is necessary to rate questionable defects as major, since the Inspector will not know where the defect may occur on the item. No penalty points are recorded for minor defects. Major Defects are classified as follows: Major woven fabric defects such as slubs, holes, missing yarn, conspicuous yarn variation, end out, soiled yarn, and wrong yarn. Major knitted fabric defects are mixed yarn, yarn variation, runner, needle line, barre, slub, hole, and press off. Major dye or printing defects are print out, dye spots, machine stop, colour smear or shading.

Acceptance Point Count This method of acceptance uses a projection of total defects based on the number of defects found in an inspection of a sample. For example: The points are calculated on a 100 square meter basis. To calculate the average points/100 square meters for the shipment: Total points counted for all rolls inspected X 39 X 100 Total meters inspected X Cuttable width (inches)

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Upto 40 points per 100 square meters are the acceptable defect rate. Bowing and Skewing Check for skewed, bowed and biased fabric. For this purpose check the bowing and skewing at every 10 meters. The bowing and skewing are calculated as follows: Bow: A bow is an uneven deviation of a weft from a line drawn perpendicular to the selvedge of the fabric. A bow may have different forms: Single Bow%= Dip of the Bow (Maximum deviation from perpendicular line) X 100 Width of the fabric Double Bow%= Dip of the Bow (Maximum deviation from perpendicular line) X 100 Width of the fabric Skew: Skew is a straight-line deviation of a weft from a line drawn perpendicular to the selvedge of the fabric. Skew%= Dip of the Skew (Maximum deviation from perpendicular line) X 100 Width of the fabric If the average Bowing or Skewing for a roll is more than 2-3%, reject the roll.

Other considerations for rejection: Any noticeable shading within the roll Off shade fabric Hand feel not to standard Critical defects running for more than 2 meters All major defects running for more than 2 meters in the fabric should be cut out Pattern repeat not to standard or unacceptable variations Appearance not to standard or objectionable

QUALITY PROCEDURES IN THE CUTTING AREA During the cutting process the quality to be ensured by having a Spreading Inspection, a Cutting Inspection, and a Final Audit. During Spreading the following is checked: The side of the spread should be aligned +/- 1/8 The base marker should be aligned parallel to the length of the table

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The splice points should be identified on the base marker before spreading All splices should be marked with paper that is at least yd longer than the overlapped fabric The overlap of fabric at a splice point should exceed at least 2 on either side of the parts in the splice The fabric laid should extend 1 - 1.5 outside of the marker The fabric laid should never be less than the markers width. The fabric width should be at least 1 to 2 inches wider than the marker. The spread fabric should be relaxed, not stretched, and wrinkle-free before cutting. No defective fabric should be laid unless there has been an official authorization.

Quality procedure in Cutting

During Cutting the following is checked: The marker lines should be followed. You can go out of the line by 1/8 max but never cut into the part. In other words, you should always be able to see the marker lines. All notches should be located correctly with a depth of +/- 1/16 The markers should be attached to the stack of parts with approved staples or pins When cutting care should be taken not to shift the stack of parts to a side or to cut with the blade at an angle.

In bundling and shade marking care should be taken to ensure that the numbering is correct. In other words, no skipped numbers. The bundled parts should be grouped correctly: 3b fronts with 3b backs with 3b yokes, and so on. For the final audit process, the quality inspector will determine how many bundles to check from every size according to the AQL chart. Each of these bundles will undergo the following inspection: All parts from the same shade number should not have shade differences. All parts have the proper shape according to the marker All parts must have all notches in the correct location and with the appropriate depth.

Quality procedures in the sewing area In-Line inspection During the production of garments the operators finished work is audited in an inline inspection. A quality inspector moves from one operator to another at random UNDP Page 76 of 149

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inspecting a predetermined number of parts from a finished bundle.

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In-process inspector: If the in-line inspector finds a defect in a part he is inspecting he should: Take defective part/parts out of the bundle Take part to the operators immediate supervisor Give the part to the supervisor to examine while inspector explains the defect found. Decide with the supervisor whether it is actually a defective part and if defective the supervisor should return the part to the operator. Go back to the operator and mark the bundle as rejected with a red card or cloth and fill in the appropriate paperwork for the inspection and mark the workstation with the quality banner to signal that follow-up bundles have not been cleared. Continue to the next operator selected randomly from the list of operators and perform the inspection based on the approved sampling plan. If an operator has a bundle rejected then all bundles coming from that operator are going to be checked by the quality inspector until three consecutive bundles are free of defects. At this point the red quality banner will be removed. Followup bundles are inspected in the same fashion (audit not 100% inspection) The quality banner helps the inspector remember to inspect the follow-up bundles from that operator and also helps the supervisor identify what operators are having quality problems. Make sure that the element of surprise exists when doing an inspection. Inspections should always be performed at random and should never follow patterns. Following a predetermined path in the line can hint operators you are going to inspect their work next. Inspect operators at random. Make sure that only the defined number of units are inspected. No more, no less. The units inspected should always be taken randomly from the bundle to ensure that the sample taken is representative from the bundle. Taking samples only from the top of the bundle is not correct and can give skewed results. The frequency at which the inspections are taken is vital. Spend only the necessary time inspecting a bundle so you can have a larger number of inspections daily. Section supervisor: The supervisor is responsible that the operators in his/her section perform adequately in their jobs. If a quality inspector approaches the supervisor with a defective unit he or she should: Greet the inspector do not ignore him/her. Inspect the part according to the quality specifications If it is defective let the inspector know you understand it is a defective part and you are going to address the part with the operator. UNDP Page 78 of 149

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 As soon as possible take the part to the operator and approach the situation appropriately: Approach operator with defective garment Ask operator kindly to stop her work and pay you attention Explain defect found and ask if she understands why garment is defective Make sure operator understands why it is defective Try to find out why the defect was created or why it was not detected at the workstation Restate the companys commitment to quality Ask operator to inspect the current bundle for more defective parts and then repair all parts that are out of tolerance including the one found by the inspector. This should be done immediately. Stay and observe sewing method Make sure method is being followed If necessary review the operators card with the operator to see if this was an isolated occasion or if it is a recurring problem. Try to motivate the operator to continue working with good quality. The supervisor leaves the operator repairing the defects. The supervisor should return after some time to make sure all work has been inspected and the defects repaired. Before the bundles continue to the next operation the supervisor should be sure that there are no defects in them. All bundles coming from that operator are going to be checked by the quality inspector until three consecutive bundles are free of defects. If there are defects in the bundles following a rejection, you could say the supervisor is not doing a good job of ensuring quality in that operation.

100% end line inspection At the end of a section there will be an inspection made to all parts exiting the section. The inspections should be effective in identifying all defects in a garment. To ensure all seams and quality characteristics are inspected in a short period of time a defined inspection method should be followed. The inspection operators should have their forms filled out correctly. A good source of information to determine the quality performance of the section is the point of 100% inspection. The section supervisor should check the quality level at the point of 100% inspection periodically. From the 100% inspection forms the supervisor should analyse what are the 2 operators/operations with the highest defect frequency. For these UNDP Page 79 of 149

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operators/operations the supervisor should identify the type of defects found most often, the cause (machine/method), and the frequency at which the type of defects happen. With this information the supervisor should address the problems, correct the possible causes and make plans to prevent them. The inspection form is totalled 4 times a day so a supervisor can actually see the results of what he or she has done to stop defects. Final Audit A final audit should be performed on packed items. When the boxes are ready to be shipped a certain number of units should be inspected. Using the MIL-STD-105D or AQL determine how many garments need to be inspected. Randomly select a number of boxes from the lot that contain the determined amount of units to be inspected. For example, if there are 75 boxes of 10 garments each and I need to inspect 80 units I would open one box and inspect 5 garments, another box and inspect 7 garments, another and inspect all 10 garments, and so on until I have inspected a total of 80 garments. After entering all the information into the Final Audit form, the final inspector should determine if the lot was accepted or not. Any rejected lots should be addressed promptly to minimise the chance of having a late order.

Quality procedures in the finishing area

100% INSPECTION During the finishing process an inspection is required to be made of all garments. The inspections should be effective in identifying all defects and size variations in a garment. To ensure that all seams and quality characteristics are inspected in a short period of time a defined inspection method should be followed. If the checker finds any defect in the garment he/she should make a note of the same in the form and put the indicative clip on the garment before returning the garment to the pickup rail. This way the helper can take the garment to the desired operator to get the defect amended. The inspection operators should have their forms filled out correctly. A good source of information to determine the quality performance is the point of 100% inspection.

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From the 100% inspection forms the supervisor should analyze what are the most frequently occurring defects and should take the corrective action to prevent the occurrence of these defects in future. The inspection form is totalled 4 times a day so a supervisor can actually see the results of what he or she has done to stop defects.

Quality procedures in the packing area

FINAL AUDIT A final audit should be performed on packed items. When the boxes are ready to be shipped a certain number of units should be inspected. Using the AQL chart determine how many garments need to be inspected. Randomly select a number of boxes from the lot that contain the determined amount of units to be inspected. For example, if there are 75 boxes of 10 garments each and I need to inspect 80 units I would open one box and inspect 5 garments, another box and inspect 7 garments, another and inspect all 10 garments, and so on until I have inspected a total of 80 garments. After entering all the information into the Final Audit form, the final inspector should determine if the lot was accepted or not. Any rejected lots should be addressed promptly to minimize the chance of having a late order.

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Discussion 12 QUALITY DRILLS

45 minutes

The production supervisor is responsible of the operators work so it is of utmost importance that he or she has control over the quality level at which the operators produce. To prevent repairs and to ensure good quality there is a useful tool called Quality Drill. It is very effective in making operators quality conscious. During this exercise you confirm to the operator the commitment to good quality that the company has made and motivate him/her to produce with quality.

Procedure for Quality Drill

Ask the operator to stop what he is doing and stand up. Give the marking tape to mark defects Ask the operator to inspect, based on the Quality Specification, the bundle in which he is working on, the bundle he has already finished, and the bundle he is going to work on next. This way the operator has the chance to see if the work he is doing is of good quality and also make sure that the work he is receiving from the previous operation is not defective. Ask the operator to mark any part that is out of tolerance with the tape Ask the operator to do it while standing up and when he or she is finished he should signal the supervisor that he is ready to have the results evaluated. The supervisor makes sure that the instructions have been understood and then leaves to continue with the regular activities. When the operator has signalled that he is finished, the supervisor returns The supervisor then proceeds to inspect at random a number of parts of any bundle. If he is to find a defective part he should separate it and ask the operator why the part was not identified. If there are no defective parts found by the supervisor he turns to the operator and asks the operator to show him the defective parts he found. If the operator has found no defects then the supervisor should select a part and ask the operator to explain why this part is of acceptable quality. The operator should be able to explain why based on the points described in the quality specification. If defective parts have been identified then the operator should explain why they are defective based on the points described in the quality specification. If the supervisor notices that the operator is not very clear of what the requirements for his operation are or how to find out if these requirements have been met or not, then the quality specification sheet should be reviewed point by point. If the supervisor notices that the operator overlooks the defects then the supervisor should review with him the importance of doing a job properly every time. UNDP Page 83 of 149

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The contact that a supervisor and the operator have during the Quality Drill is very valuable. During this time the commitment of everyone to guarantee a job well done is strengthened. At this time the operator should be encouraged to learn what the requirements for his operator are and he is complimented if he know them wholeheartedly and works to achieve them every time. This exercise should be performed on standard time and at least once a day. If you are having quality problems with an operator you should increase the frequency of the exercise even to one exercise an hour. It is necessary that the trainer and the supervisor explain the importance of the Quality Drill to the operators stressing that its sole purpose is to help them improve their quality. The initial resistance by the operators is normal, but as soon as positive results from the exercise are seen, the operators will take the initiative to do the exercise themselves.

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Day 12
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 13 (Apparel Engineering)

Introduction Definition Scope of Apparel engineering Functions of apparel engineer Fundamental Parts Method study 7 step procedure. Method Engineering

120 Minutes

Discussion 14 (Apparel Engineering Work Study)

120 Minutes

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Discussion 13

120 Minutes

APPAREL ENGINEERING
Introduction
The term "engineer" is one of the most misunderstood and misused, in the apparel industry. To many operators, and perhaps to some supervisors, the engineer is automatically the bad guy That fellow who sets all the quotas too high". To many managers, the engineer is That young squirt who tries to tell me how to run my plant like it says in his textbook". Many people hear the word engineer and think of someone who drives trains. Other people say "Yeah, I know what an engineer is....he's a fellow that builds roads and bridges!" The truth is that engineers and engineering mean many things to many people. In our discussion on engineering, we want to talk about the branch of engineering known as Industrial Engineering and, more specifically, Industrial Engineering as it relates to the apparel industry. Before we do this, however, let's see if we can define some basic terms and concepts that will make our discussion more meaningful. Engineering is difficult to boil down into a simple definition, but for our purpose here let's use the following: Engineering - a science by which the properties of matter and the sources of energy in nature are made useful to man. This is still quite a mouthful, but there are several key words in the definition that can help us - one is Sciences. This means that there is common knowledge in engineering that there are certain rules that always hold true. The properties of matter and sources of energy" cover just about everything we know of, so let's just refer to this as things. Make useful to man" gives us a purpose for engineering. So now we can say engineering is making things useful to man. Now let's go one step farther and define Industrial Engineering. Let's define Industrial Engineering this way:

Definition
Industrial Engineering is the engineering approach applied to all factors, including the human factor, involved in the production and distribution of products and services. UNDP Page 86 of 149

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As we will soon see, reference to the human factor is very important to Industrial Engineering in the apparel industry. Industrial Engineering differs from other forms of engineering because it involves specifically the functions of production and distribution. Now that we have arrived at a definition of Industrial Engineering, let's talk about what things are done by an Industrial Engineer. Let's refer to these as the scope of this job. 1. Study, measure, and improve the way individuals perform their jobs. 2. Design and install a better system of coordinating the jobs assigned to individuals into a group effort. 3. Specify, predict, and evaluate results obtained. From this we can, perhaps, oversimplify things for the purpose of understanding Now let's go one step farther and define Industrial Engineering. Everybody will agree that a simple definition of Industrial Engineering is: - A logical way to find out: The best way to do something The time required to do it The way to measure results From this we can now say that Apparel Engineering is simple Industrial Engineering applied specifically to the apparel industry. Going back to our simple definition, we can say that Apparel Engineering is finding the best way to do something, the time required to do it, and the way to measure results.

The scope of apparel engineering

These two steps of finding the best way to do a job and then timing to find out how long it takes are referred to as Motion Study and Time Study. Engineers are taught to do the Motion Study first, as any time study data on incorrect motions is not of much value. Many people assume that the only reason that an engineer does a Motion and Time Study analysis is to set quotas and piece rates. But suppose our operators were not going to be paid by a piece rate (suppose everyone was to be paid a set amount per hour). Why is it useful to do a Motion and Time Study? Some uses of time study information 1. 2. Quotas and piece rates Costing: By knowing how long it takes to perform a job, the total time and cost for manufacturing a product can be determined. Determine sales price. Page 87 of 149

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3. Manpower Planning: By knowing how many units one person can produce it can be determined how many people are needed to produce a given volume. 4. Machine Requirements: The number of machines required can be determined by knowing the output from one machine. 5. Production Planning: Time study enables us to measure the capacity of a plant to produce. Decision as to how much volume to load into a plant can be made. These are only a few of the common uses of Motion and Time Study. As we can now see, the information obtained is useful far beyond just setting quotas and piece rates. As we have already mentioned, Motion and Time Study is the most common function associated with an apparel engineer. But what are some of his other duties? Let's list some of the other things we might find an apparel engineer doing: 1. Plant Layout The location of machines and equipment to provide the best work flow. Production Flow System Determine the best way to move work from job to job (individual pieces, tied bundles, on trucks, etc.) Machines and Attachments What machines are the best for a given job? What attachments simplify the job? Pay Systems Deciding the best way to pay people for their work effort. (Straight time, piecework, split incentive, group incentive, straight time bonus, etc.). Operator Performance Responsibility for operators achieving expected performance levels. Operator Training Responsibility for program of training new employees. Production Control System Design system of measuring and controlling production flow through plant. Cutting Room Engineering jobs in cutting room for incentive plan. Also might include program to increase material utilisation. Page 88 of 149

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

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9.

Quality Control Design program to measure and control quality of workmanship in plant.

10. Distribution Engineer warehouse and shipping facilities. 11. Payroll System Design payroll procedure to handle pay system and generate necessary cost reports. 12. Others Plant safety, maintenance, supplies. We can see now that the engineering function in an apparel plant is likely to cover much more than just timing operators and setting piece rates. But the question comes up - Why is engineering necessary?" What good does it accomplish?"

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Discussion 14 WORK STUDY

Fundamental Parts

120 Minutes

Industrial Engineering, which is often substituted by the term Work Study has 2 fundamental parts

Work Study

First

Then

Method Study Simplify the task (or eliminate it) Engineer the operation Reduce the inherent work content taking account of the skill required to perform the task set

Work Measurement Measure the work content in the task How long should it take a trained and motivated standard operator to perform the task

Productivity Gain

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In this course we will cover Method Study first and then Work measurement - First how to and then the How long.

The Method Study 7 step procedure

1 The work to be studied

Select

Define

Objectives

Record

Relevant information and data

Examine

Relevant information and data

Develop

The improved method

Install

The improved method

Maintain

The improved method

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Methods Engineering
This topic involves methods engineering at the individual workplace. It is important to note that methods engineering is greatly influenced by the basic sewing room design. The use of a transporter for example can sometimes limit workplace refinement. For this reason, it is necessary to plan methods and sewing room design simultaneously so that the correct trade-offs between effective individual operation methods and the realities of the business objectives are chosen. Machinery selection must, of course, be related to methods engineering. Also, methods standardisation is an absolute requirement for accurate work measurement which will be discussed in the next section. For purposes of this discussion we shall assume the sewing room design is correct and that we have selected the best machine for each individual operation in the sewing room. Fundamental Questions and Techniques Before considering specific methods for a job, a series of fundamental questions should be asked about the operation. Some fundamental questions about sewing operations could be: Is this operation necessary? Should this operation or portions of the operation be combined with another operation? Is the operation performed in the correct sequence? What sewing machine attachments or work-aids are needed? Will the operation yield satisfactory levels of quality? What type of training curve will the job yield? What material usage factors are affected by the job? What principles related to the usage of the human body should be taken into account? What considerations on space and indirect labour requirement (helper) apply? Once these fundamental questions have been resolved, detailed methods engineering can begin. In this regard, there are several basic industrial engineering tools which are often helpful.

a.

Process Charting

For methods analysis, charting techniques are available. Multiple activity charts (Gang Process) are used where a crew of operators work on the same operation or assembly line. Man-machine charts are used to analyse the operators activity in relation to the machine. Micro-motion studies and charting on a Micro-Motion Study Simo Chart is another approach. For the typical sewing operation, the use of a simple left hand - right hand chart describing the motions of each hand and the time value is often adequate. In short, it is usually helpful to make a detailed UNDP Page 93 of 149

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examination of the existing motion path utilised and process charting forces one to do this.

b. Principles of Motion Economy

Once we have formally analysed the basic motions involved, it is possible to apply the laws of Motion Economy. These rules have been researched extensively by Professor Ralph M. Barnes of the University of California. Since approximately 80% of typical operation time in sewing involves handling to and from the machine, it is critical that the basic motions used are sound. An application of principles 1 and 3 would be the pick up of a pocket and facing one with each hand simultaneously. c.

General Classification of Hand Motions

One important principle of motion economy relates to the classification of hand motions. These are categorised as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Finger motions. Motions involving Motions involving Motions involving Motions involving

fingers and wrist. fingers, wrist and forearm. fingers, wrist, forearm and upper arm. fingers, wrist, forearm, upper arm and shoulder.

The law states the lowest classification is usually preferred since it requires the least amount of time and effort, and produces less fatigue. An example of the use of this principle involves picking up of a front from overhead shelf. This effectively reduces motion class to (3) versus class (5).

d. Precision
Another technique is to reduce precision in the required finger motions by use of such devices as edge guides and label dispensers as well as sewing tolerances of the stitch line.

e.

Kinesthetic Sense

A final fundamental technique involves Kinesthetic Sense. it is generally true that a person can reach to a location on his body much more effectively than to some inanimate object away from his body. An example is touching the end of your nose versus the tip of your tie. Because of this, it is often helpful to position garment parts in the operators lap for pick-up or dispose. Another example would be a shoulder pick-up.

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Day 13
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 15 (Apparel Engineering - Motion Economy)

Principles of Motion economy Principles of Motion Economy related to Human Body Principles of Motion Economy related to workplace Principles of Motion Economy related to tools and equipments

240 Minutes

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Discussion 15 MOTION ECONOMY

Principles

240 Minutes

The effectiveness of a motion pattern is determined by The Principles of Motion Economy The most important of these are :

Use of the Human Body The Workplace Design of Tools and Equipment

Finally, remember the big picture. All methods improvements have a cost, but some cost far more than others Think of methods improvements as Big Methods Or Little methods

Its free!!!!!

The highest productivity is achieved when we: Reduce the Number of motions Reduce the distances moved Reduce precision Reduce eye-shifts Simplify grasps Toss dispose rather than place dispose Make the best use of both hands encourage rhythm Promote natural posture and movement UNDP Page 96 of 149

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Principles of motion economy as related to the use of the human body

These rules are the most important in sewing room as handling to and from the machine comprise 80% of sewing room work. 1. The two hands should begin as well as complete their motions at the same time. 2. The two hands should not be idle at the same time except during the rest periods. 3. Motions of the arms should be made in opposite and symmetrical directions and should be made simultaneously; examples: a. Pick up pocket and facing, one with each hand, simultaneously. b. Pick up side tabs and elastic and place elastic on tabs. 4. Hand motions should be confined to the lowest classification with which it is possible to perform the work satisfactorily. This means use of motions requiring only fingers and wrist if a motion of the forearm and shoulder can be avoided; example: a. Position parts to be picked up as near to the operator as possible. Use raised boxes for storage of parts if this will help to get the work nearer. 5. Momentum should be employed to assist the worker wherever possible and it should be reduced to a minimum if it must be overcome by muscular effort. 6. Smooth, continuous motions of the hands are preferable to zigzag motions or straight-fine motions involving sudden and sharp changes in direction; example: a. The use of an automatic chain-cutting presser foot and a gravity disposal in sewing on a facing to a pocket enables the disposal to be made with the same motion of the hand as guides it through the needle. 7. Built up movements are faster, easier and more accurate than restricted or "controlled" movement. 8. Rhythm is essential to the smooth and automatic performance of an operation and the work should be arranged to permit an easy and natural rhythm wherever possible; example: a. Using a presser foot knife and a rear disposal rail on a side seaming or serging operation enables the operator to pull back the chain over the knife and throw the end of the trouser leg over the rail in a smooth motion Page 97 of 149

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Principles of motion economy as related to the workplace

following a long sewing seam. The use of clamps for holding one end of long pieces when working on the other end provides the same sort of conditions.

1. There should be always be a definite and fixed place for all tools, eqipments and materials. 2. Tools, materials and controls should be located close in and directly in front of the operator. Boxes for parts as in the elastic and tabs example, label holders on the machine head and turning attachments between machine head and the operator on the edge of the table are examples. Tables to the left of the needle are often best cut away to allow trucks to be moved as near as possible to the needle. 3. Gravity feed bins and containers should be used to deliver material close to the point of use. 4. "Drop deliveries" should be used wherever possible; example: a. Gravity feed bins for pieces such as hooks and eyes, zipper slides, buttons, etc. 5. Materials and tools should be located to permit the best sequence of motions, for example: a. Right angled layout of tandem presses with disposal rail between them and pick-up opposite the disposal with room for operator to turn and move in a straight line between the two.

6. Provision should be made for adequate conditions for seeing. Good illumination is the first requirement for satisfactory visual perception. This is a specialist subject on its own but good fluorescent general lighting and needle lights are commonly accepted practice in sewing rooms. 7. The height of the workplace and the chair should be arranged so that alternate sitting and standing at work is easily possible. This is not generally possible on sewing operations but inspection tables and other manual operations can be set at the correct height (1" to 3" below elbow for alternate sitting and standing). 8. A chair of the type and height to permit good posture should be provided for every operator; example:- All seats should be adjustable to suit different heights.

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Principles of motion economy as related to the design of tools and equipments

1. The hands should be relieved of all work that can be done more advantageously by a jig, a fixture, or a foot operated device; example: a. b. c. d. Foot pedal operated clamps on stackers Foot operated controls on a needle positioner. Knee operated needle positioner. Foot pedal operated pocket turning attachment which pushes a blade into the comer of the pocket. 2. Two or more tools should be combined wherever possible; example: a. Attachments already mentioned which perform two operations at once.

3. Tools and materials should be pre-positioned whenever possible; example: a. Suspension of hand iron over buck.

4. Where each finger performs some specific movement, such as in typewriting, the load should be distributed in accordance with the capacities of the fingers; example: a. The forefinger is the strongest and finger controls such as steam controls on irons and solenoid actuators are best positioned so that they are in fact operated by the forefinger.

5.

Handles such as used on cranks and large screwdrivers should be designed to permit as much of the surface of the hand to come into contact with the handle as possible. This principle is of minor importance in sewing room work. Levers, crossbars and hand wheels should be located in such a position that the operator can manipulate them with the least change in body position and with the greatest mechanical advantage. Ibis principle applies particularly to the design of machines and one can think of many controls which do not obey this rule, such as reverse levers. Incidentally, there are now available foot and elbow operated reverse levers which show that the principle is in fact being applied as machine design improves.

6.

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Day 14
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 16 (Apparel Engineering Engineering Method Improvements)

Introduction Big methods Little Methods Benefits of Method Improvement. Good Sewing Methods checklist Sewing Room Method Improvement approaches

240 Minutes

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Discussion 16 ENGINEERING METHODS IMPROVEMENT

Introduction

240 Minutes

There are two separate areas of sewing methods that can be considered in any program of methods improvement for lack of better terms they are called big methods and little methods. Big Methods are the machines, attachments, work aids, table alterations, etc. that can improve an operation. This type of methods improvement is normally associated with the engineering function. Little Methods are the ways the operator handles work, the way she controls the machine while sewing, the way she disposes, etc. This is everyone's responsibility and especially the supervisor's responsibility. Both big methods and little methods are important. In some cases new machinery can double the previous output of units, but on the other hand, the operator's handling and positioning of work is gauged to represent about 80 percent of most sewing operations. So what are called little methods are actually a kg part of the job cycle. In summary, both methods are important and both must be constantly attended to In order to insure maximum productivity from each job. A. Big methods A great amount of detail is not necessary here, but it will be beneficial to mention some of the trends in sewing equipment and methods.

1. Automatic Machines
Buttonholers Buttonsewers Pocket Setters (Shirts) Contour Seamers Profile Stitching (Cuffs, Collars) Automatic Hemming Label Sewers These machines require less skilled operators as the machines do the most difficult UNDP Page 101 of 149

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part and the person becomes a machine loader. 2. Loading Devices On some sewing operations it is now possible to use devices that can pick up a single ply of material from a stack and load in into a machine (such as a label sewer). These are mostly applicable on operations using virgin bundles (fresh from cutting).

3. Stacking Devices
There are many types of automatic stackers now in use (both commercial and shop made) that can clear sewn work from the machine and stack neatly for the next operation.

4. Faster Machines
Machines that run efficiently at much greater speeds than before.

5. Folders
Folders that remove the need for the operator to manually fold. These can be hinged to swing in and out when needed.

6. Thread Cutters
Chain cutters, undertrimmers, choppers, vacuum cutters, etc.

7. Work Aids
Bins and chutes that carry work away from machine, shelves and trays for positioning of work.

8. Needle Positioners
Eliminate need to operate hand wheel. Can stop up or down.

9. Construction changes in Garment

Eliminate operations, simplify operations, etc.

10. Combine separate operations into one

Reduce extra handling and bundle time examples: Set and close collars on shirts, tack on and tack down loops on pants. These are all examples of Big Methods improvements and will normally result in quota changes on the Jobs affected. UNDP Page 102 of 149

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B. Little methods Little methods can be defined as the things the operator does after the big method has been established. This means the way she handles her work (the pick up, positioning, repositioning while sewing, and disposal) and the way she controls her machine while sewing (the speed she uses, the number of stops, etc.). Little methods can be broken down into several areas: 1. The Basics Correct table height Correct chair height Operator's posture at machine Both feet on treadle

2. The Principles of Motion Economy There are a series of formal principles relating to the most economical ways to perform various motions of the human body. Here is a condensed version that is applicable to sewing jobs: Motions Motions Motions Motions Motions should should should should should be be be be be simultaneous symmetrical natural rhythmical habitual

3. Specifics of Sewing Jobs Some of the more common things to specifically look for in sewing operations and operators are: Things to Change Operator Operator Operator Operator Operator Operator Operator Operator idle during machine time on automatic sewing operation unconsciously pit pats garment when disposing unconsciously inspects each garment after sewing stops while sewing more than absolutely essential rides knee lift pedal picks up, disposes, and picks up again re-grasps or shifts from hand to hand straightens out material that won't be sewn

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Things to Encourage Operator locates parts as close as possible to needle Operator folds anything that needs folding while moving to machine Operator uses simultaneous motions These little methods may not affect the job quotas but they are the type of things that can make or break an operator in trying to reach quota. C. Benefits of methods improvement There are some very tangible benefits to be realised from methods improvements: Both big and little Piece rate Savings - Big Methods Operator Earnings - Little Methods Production Increases - Big and Little Methods Reduce Operator Fatigue - Big and Little Methods

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Good sewing methods checklist - description of motion

Was Each Item Checked Before Study Yes No I GET (A) Does disposal of previous operation leave parts in best position for get. (B) Locate parts as close to needle as possible. (C) Easiest grasp of parts from an original bundle. 1. Pinch 2. Peel 3. Rub (D) Get part without looking (E) Grasp with hold that will serve for prepare for needle or load folder. (F) Get parts during sewing period. II PREPARE FOR NEEDLE OR INSERT IN FOLDER (A) Assemble parts or fold directly in front of needle. (Not re-position). (B) Insert part in folder with a single push III. SEW (A) Retain original alignment of parts while sewing. (B) Resume sewing after start without pause (Full Speed) (C) Quick turns while sewing. (D) Continuous and full speed sewing (E) Turn needle up using power pedal. (F) Push finished part ahead while sewing IV. DISPOSE (A) Dispose by throwing (B) Dispose without looking (C) Can auto cutter and stacker be used V. MOTIONS (Use simplest motion classification where possible) (A) Finger only (B) Finger and wrist only (C) Finger, wrist, and lower arm only (D) Finger, wrist, lower arm, and shoulder. (E) Body Finger, wrist, lower arm, shoulder and body only. (F) Are the Laws of Motion and their corollaries being enforced.

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Sewing Room Methods Improvement Approaches

Some specific methods improvement approaches in the sewing room are:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Table cut-offs or extensions. Raising of machine. Special work aids (air jets, ticket holders, etc.). Chutes between selected operations (mobile carts). Special pick-up shelves or boxes. Table cut-outs. Close location of parts to needle. Disposal configuration and next operation. Pick up and position without re-grasping.

10. Folding or matching of parts en route to machine. 11. Both hands involved in simultaneous motions. 12. Threads broken during sewing or other elements. 13. Use of foot or knee operated devices. 14. Clamping of work for waterfall dispose.

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Day 15
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 17 Introduction 240 Minutes (Apparel Engineering Time study) Important concepts Quota Piece Rate Elements & Break Points Rating Allowances Conditions of Time study Making time study Predetermined Time Systems

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Discussion 17 TIME STUDY

Introduction

240 Minutes

As you recall in our first session on apparel engineering, we discussed some of the many activities that a typical engineer might become involved in. We said that one of his major fields of activity in our industry is the establishment of quotas and piece rates by means of Time study. Here we will cover this area of the engineer's work in depth and discuss what he does, how he does it, and how he uses the results of this study in setting quotas and piece rates. The purpose of this session is not to teach you how to set quotas, but to give you an understanding and an appreciation of this important engineering function.

Important Concepts
There are some important concepts that need to be discussed before discussing Time Study. We shall hereby, discuss them one by one. 1. Quota When we talk about a job having a quota of 450 pieces (or 371/2 dozen), what do we mean? Of what significance is 450 pieces? Who do we expect to do this many? The quota on a job is the amount of work an operator needs to do to make base rate. If we have a base rate of Rs 56 a day and the quota is 400 pieces, then any operator who produces 400 pieces in eight hours will be paid Rs 56. A quota is normally expressed as the amount of production necessary to make base rate in eight hours. If the operator works less than eight hours, obviously she would not have to produce as many to make base rate. If, for example, she only works four hours during the day then she would only have to do 4/8 of 400 (or 200 pieces) to make Rs 7 per hour. If she works ten hours in a day, however, she would have to do 10/8 of 400 (or 480 pieces) to make base rate. From these examples, you can see that by dividing the quota by eight we can determine the amount required per hour to make base rate. 400 pieces per 8 hours = 50 pieces per hour To make base rate, the operator must average 50 pieces for each hour worked. Now, which operator do we expect to do 400 pieces in a day? The slowest operator? UNDP Page 108 of 149

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or the fastest? The most common concept of quotas in our industry is that the quota is set to enable the average operator to make base rate. Not the super skilled operator and not the substandard operator, but the average person. The main purpose for having quotas and piece rates is to enable each person to earn money according to his or her own level of ability. The operator with more ability will earn more than those with less ability. Is this fair? Of course it is. Just about everyone expects to be paid more than other people if they know they are better than these others. The problem is to find some common benchmark to measure against. This is where the job quota comes in. Since most people are average in ability, then average performance on a job becomes our benchmark for measurement. So a quota is set for the average person and anyone who is above average will do more than the quota and anyone below average will do less. 2. Piece rates A piece rate is the rupee value of work produced by the operator. The piece rate is what we use to determine operator earnings. In our example, we said that the base rate on the job was Rs 7 per hour or Rs 56 per eight hours, and the quota was 400 pieces. This means that 400 pieces earns the operator Rs 56 in eight hours. From this we can calculate: Rs 56/400 = Rs 0.14 per piece The operators on the Job earn 14 paise for each piece they produce. This is what we call their piece rate - the rate per piece produced. It is fairly common to express piece rates in terms of rate per 100 pieces. This has grown to make payroll calculations easier. In our example the rate per 100 would be Rs 14. 3. Elements & break points Definition: Elements are the small components into which an operation is divided for time study purposes. They are selected for convenience of observation, measurement and analysis. A break point marks the end of one element and the beginning of the next. The total of all the elements in an operation represents the operation cycle. The cycle time is the time from one point on one garment to the same point on the next garment. Operation are divided into elements for the following reasons: 1. It permits comparison of the same piece of work in different cycles of the operation.

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2. Operators may work at different speeds at different parts of the work cycle. Division into elements enables these to be graded accordingly. This point is particularly significant where some of the elements are wholly machine controlled, while in others the operator is the controlling factor. 3. Standard elements, occurring on more than one job, can be identified and used to build up a time for another job.

Elements should be: 1. Clearly & fully described on the study sheet (except where they are widely recognised). The break point should be defined if there is any risk of doubt. 2. Select break points so that they can be easily recognised look for distinctive motion and listen for distinctive sounds. 3. Select with a clear distinction between machine & manual work. 4. Not too short to make timing difficult, not too long to permit operators rating to vary, and your attention to wander!

4. Rating The concept of Rating (known in the US as grading) is fundamental in time study. The ability to rate effectively distinguishes a qualified time study practitioner from a novice. Rating is the process used by the industrial engineer to: compare the actual performance of the operator with his/her mental concept of normal performance. The rating is the numerical value used to denote the rate of working.

Definitions:

In order to rate there must be a defined level of performance to compare with, an average level. Time study professionals apply the concept of a Standard Operator Definitions: A Standard Operator is Fully trained and motivated to perform a defined task (having a defined method) and is, by definition average in terms of his or her work-pace. Standard Performance is UNDP Page 110 of 149

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Achieved by a standard operator, as long as working conditions are correct. 5. Allowances: Allowances are added to the 100% time determined by a time study to give a Standard Time which will provide the average operator to earn a satisfactory wage, provided there is no abnormal incidence of delays and she applies herself to her work. These are also used while estimating an operators capacity. Three categories are recognised: 1. Machine delay 2. Personal and fatigue 3. Incentive Machine delay Delays due to machine stoppage including thread changes, bobbin changes, cleaning and oiling of machine, first 15 minutes of machine delay, thread breaks, needle breaks, minor adjustments or changes in folders, attachments, minor delays caused by attachment etc. The machine delay factor is applied to the total of cyclic elements when the work is largely machining, although not applied to wholly manipulative work such as clipping or turning parts. This has the effect of giving a delay allowance on the manipulative elements within a machine cycle such as pick up garment. On the average, this does not present any problem since the percentages have been worked out from experience. However, a job with an unusually high or low percentage of pure work in the cycle would merit a discretionary adjustment to the factor, and the engineer is expected to be alert for these. Personal and fatigue Some aspects of normal required personal time can be quantified, but fatigue itself cannot be measured. It is also impossible to separate personal and fatigue time because of their inter-relation with one another. This allowance came into being through guesswork and trial based on general use. History and experience have proven these allowances to be reasonably correct for a great many varying situations. Personal and fatigue allowance covers break periods, personal needs such as water, rest rooms, minor conversations etc. It should be noted that the machine delay factor is applied to 100% time, and the personal and fatigue time (with the incentive factor added) is applied to this to give the SAM. General comments: 1. Use of your time: UNDP Page 111 of 149

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 Follow-up is not simple clocking of cycles. This does nobody any good. Follow-up time is valuable. While timing a 2.0 SM operation use the time between the breakpoints to: Look closely at the method Encourage the operator Time the elements of the job 2. How to get effective studies Capacity studies record single cycles without Bundle handling Thread breaks Bobbin & colour changes Interruption When you conduct a study on a long cycle operation (say more than one basic minute), you can lose a complete cycle, because of one thread break. You can save and use much of this time if you have broken the job to suitable elements, then thread breaks would affect only one of the elements. You would still have the remaining cycles which can be used. 3. Other follow-up tools In any situations requiring follow-up support you will need to identify and choose the best approach. The tools described for follow up (capacity study, diagnostic and follow-up study) are not the only ones you can use. Be creative in your follow-up. E.g., use graphs to plot cycle times and actual performance against target. Record the times for the particular elements of a job plot them to show improvements; record single cycle one at a time and plot them; use visual aids to the full, and always explain the results to the operator.

Conditions of time study

The most common technique used by an apparel engineer to set a quota is a time study. But you should not do this until you have studied the motions involved. The first step should be to study the job to be sure it is being done correctly that the operator is using the right method. It is the engineer's job to select the correct method and see to it that this method is used. In addition to establishing the correct method, the engineer should be certain that the work conditions under which he makes his study are the conditions that will exist in the long run. Examples of this are how the bundles of work are brought to the operator, the condition of the machi87ne at time of study, the size of garments he is studying, and the attachments and work aids at the machine. Just as the quota is set for the average operator it must also be set for the average (or standard) work conditions. UNDP Page 112 of 149

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If a quota is to be valid and useful, the engineer must be sure that the conditions under which he makes his study are valid. This sometimes takes several weeks of preparation before the time studies can be made.

Making the time study

Let's assume that the engineer has done all the necessary preparatory work and is now ready to begin his studies. How does he get started? Obviously, he has to time someone doing the job, but who does he time? Does he time the fastest operator sewing on the smallest size? Does he time the slowest operator on the largest size? Well, actually it does not matter who he times It does not matter because the quota will be set on the average operator. You might ask, Doesn't this mean he would have to time the average operator?" The answer to that question is No. The engineer does not have to time only average operators to set a quota for the average operator. The reason he does not is because engineers use a system to measuring performance known as grading. If you will remember when you were in school, everyone's performance was measured with a grade. The normal grades were A, B. C, D, and F. Do you remember what was considered average? In most grading systems, a C was average. A grade of B was above average and an A was superior. Likewise a D was below average and an F was very bad. The engineer has a grading system similar to this except he uses numbers instead of letters. The engineer's average grade is 100 percent. This is comparable to a letter grade of C. when the engineer grades an operator at 100 percent, he is saying she is working at the average pace. This means the pace an average operator can maintain over a full eight hour workday. If the engineer feels the operator is above average, he will grade her over 100 percent. If he feels she is below average he will grade her less than 100 percent. Let's look at an example of how operators might be graded. Engineer's Performance Grade Letter Grade/Rating Below Average Average Above Average D D+ C B B+ 90% 95% 100% 105% 110%

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Superior

A A+

115% 120%

As you can see, the engineer can time any operator and by grading compare performance to the average (100%) operator. But having made this comparison, how does the engineer use grading to set quotas? Let's try a simple example to see if we can figure out how to use the engineer's grade. Suppose we time an operator doing a job and find out it takes her 1/2 minute to do it. At the same time, suppose we have graded her 200 percent. How long does it take the average or 100 percent operator to do this same job? The fact that our operator is graded 200 percent tells us she is doing the job twice as fast as the average (100 percent) operator. Since this operator is doing it twice a fast as the average operator and it is taking 1/2 minute, we know that the average operator would take one minute to do the job. We can calculate this by multiplying 0.5 minutes X 200 percent = 1.0 minute Suppose we time another operator and find she is taking 2.0 minutes to do this same job. Suppose, also while watching her work, we decide her grade is 50 percent. This grade tells us she is taking twice as long as the average operator, so again we can relate this to the time it should take the average person. 2.0 minutes X 50 percent = 1.0 minutes From these examples, you can see that the grade factor is multiplied by the time taken to do the job, the result is the time it takes the average or 100 percent operator to do the job. This, then, is the first thing the engineer does when he uses time study to set a quota he times and grades operators to find out how long it should take the average operator to do a Job. When the engineer times an operator, he will usually watch her do the job a number of times (10 to 20 or more) and he grades her as he watches. The grade is not based on the time it takes to do the job, but rather the engineer's evaluation of the operator's ability.

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It is only after the timing is completed and the grading is done that the two are related. The grade that the engineer gives the operator is dependent of the time it takes to do the job.

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Basis of Grade An engineers grade is based on Two things: Skill and effort. All of you would have seen operators who are very skilled but put less than full effort into their work. And you have also seen operators who work like mad but do not really have the skill that others do. In grading the operator, the engineer is looking at each of these factors and giving an overall evaluation. Units of time an engineer uses The engineer's stop watch is broken down in 100's of a minute Instead of seconds. Instead of the minute being broken into 60 parts, it is broken into 100. On the engineer's watch, 25 hundredths (0.25) is 1/4 of a minute. This of course, is equal to 15 seconds. Likewise, 50 hundredths is 1/2 of a minute or 30 seconds. A hundredth of a minute is a finer breakdown of a minute than is a second. It takes for example 10 hundredths to equal six seconds. This breakdown allows the engineer to be a little more accurate in his timing and also makes his calculations easier. Since all times are expressed in minutes and decimals of a minute, he does not have to keep converting from seconds to minutes and vice versa. An example of this is if it took an operator one minute and 20 seconds to do one unit and we wanted to know how many she could do in one hour. You cannot divide one minute and 20 seconds directly into 60 minutes. You must first convert 20 seconds into 1/3 of a minute (20/60 = 1/3 = .333) and then divided 1.33 minutes into 60. The engineer's watch gives him the 1.33 minutes directly instead of 1 minute and 20 seconds. But both represent the same amount of time.

Predetermined Time Systems

Time study is the most common form of quota setting used in our industry. However, there are other ways that are used to set quotas with which we want to acquaint you. These other ways are known as Predetermined Time Systems. A Predetermined Time System means that the fundamental motions of the human body have been broken down and standard times established for each motion. UNDP Page 116 of 149

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In using a Predetermined Time System to set a quota, the engineer sets up the method to be used based on these fundamental motions and refers to a chart to select the standard time for each motion. The best know of these systems is called MTM (Methods Time Measurement). Some other similar systems are BMT (Basic Motion Time Study) and MTA (Motion Time Analysis). The basic concept behind all Predetermined Time Systems is "within practical limits, the times required by all expert workers to perform true fundamental motions are constant". There is still much debate as to which way (Time Study or Predetermined Time) is the more accurate.

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Day 16
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 17..(cont.) (Apparel Engineering Time study) Discussion 18 (Apparel Engineering Capacity Study)

Time study Procedure Notes on Time study What is Capacity study Making Capacity study Measuring Capacity Potential Performance Development

90 Minutes

150 Minutes

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Discussion 17(Cont.)
Time study Procedure

90 Minutes

KSA has adopted the following procedure for calculating SAM which forms the basis of time study.

Notes on time study

Be cordial and polite, but do not talk unnecessarily to the operator. Do not stand in front of the operator. Stand in a less discomforting position, such as off to the side or in the back. Never sit down during a time study!

Always calculate the time study results immediately after the date gathering.

Step 1

Activi
technop

Controversy over rating arises from a misunderstanding of what is being rated. An operators output can vary only if: 1. She varies her pace of work. 2. Varies her method. Method includes the motion pattern, no. of motions and inter-motional delays.

Obser

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When studying, the observer notes the speed at which the operator performs, and compares this mentally with the concept of the standard pace at which an operator would work if motivated to apply herself and is free from fatigue (100% operator). The engineer should: 1. Have a mental concept of the 100% operator. 2. Recognise deviation from the 100% pace and be able to put a relative value onto it.

Do not confuse smooth, fluid motion with slow motion. Dont mistake rhythmic intensity for fast productive motion. Machine paced operations or elements should be graded 105% to 115%, depending on the effectiveness of the operator in utilising the machine cycle to do their job properly. Before starting a study the engineer must ensure that he understands the correct motion for the operation, and then checks that the operator is using them. The study should not be taken if the motion pattern is incorrect unless the engineer is prepared to compensate for the incorrect motion in his elemental rating or else assures himself/herself that the discrepancy is insignificant. Have the quality supervisor or in-line sampler check the bundle. This ensures that the time standard is not established on an unsatisfactory quality standard. Non-representative element times are circled. They may arise because: 1. Inclusion of work not identified by the element (such as changing bobbin) 2. Faulty operation of some sort. 3. Missing an element time. Allowances are added to the 100% time determined by the time study to give a Standard allowed time which will permit the average operator to earn a satisfactory wage, provided there are no abnormal delays and she applies herself to her work. Machine delay includes the following: Thread changes Bobbin changes (on lockstitch) Cleaning & oiling machine Thread breaks caused by operator, machine & thread Needle breaks Minor adjustments or changes in folders and attachments. First 15 minutes of machine delay Page 120 of 149

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The machine delay factor is applied to the total cycle time. This has the effect of giving a delay allowance on the manipulative elements within a machine cycle such as pick up garment. On the average this does not present a problem since the percentage has been developed from actual experience. Personal & fatigue allowance covers: Break periods Personal needs such as water, rest rooms etc. Minor conversations Factors for loss of pace due to getting tired.

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Discussion 18 CAPACITY STUDIES

What is a capacity study?

150 Minutes

When we make a capacity study on an operator, we are measuring the performance she should attain if she continues to work at the same pace and use the same method as observed during the study. This means that at the end of the study we can say that operator has the capacity to be a 120 percent performer" or whatever performance level the study indicates. What exactly do we mean by capacity? Well, it means the same as capability. It means that the operator is capable of achieving the performance measured by the study. Can any of you think of reasons why it would be valuable to know what performance levels your operators were capable of achieving? Here are some reasons why most supervisors find it useful to know the production capabilities of their operators: 1. Check Quotas There is often quite a difference between what an operator says she can do and what she can actually do. This is especially true when new quotas are involved. A capacity check can measure what performance the operator is capable of achieving and this can be compared to the quota to test its fairness 2. Motivate Operators One of the main duties of a supervisor is to motivate her operators to perform at the highest level possible. In many cases, however, operators perform at less than their capabilities simply because they do not realise what their full capabilities are or do not realise what it would mean to them to perform at this level. A capacity study is a means of showing an operator that she is capable of more than she realises. It shows her with facts. 3. Measure Section Production Capability By measuring individual operator capacities, supervisors can determine the overall capacity of their sections. The section is simply the sum of the individuals. This is useful to a supervisor in setting production and performance goals for her UNDP Page 123 of 149

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section. It can give the supervisor and her operators common goals to work toward.

Making a Capacity Study

1. Use of Stopwatch 2. How to Time Cycles 3. How to Average Cycles

After you have timed an operator enough times to be sure what you have observed is representative of her performance, you will want to calculate the average cycle time for your capacity study. This is done by simply adding your cycle readings and dividing by the number of cycles timed. Now that you have learned to time, record, and calculate the average cycle time, the rest of the study is simply arithmetic. But before we go into that, we want to give you some actual practice in timing and calculating average cycles.

How to measure capacity

While discussing capacity studies we said that after timing the operator over enough cycles to be sure we have a representative measure of her performance, we add up all our cycle readings and find the average cycle time. This average cycle time should measure only the operator's ability to perform her job. It is a measure of the skill she has developed. Because we only want to measure her skill and ability in our average cycle time, we want to exclude anything that is not representative of how well she is able to perform. This means that anything that occurs as you watch and time the operator that is not a measure of her skill and ability should not be included in the study. Does anyone know what kind of things might happen that would not be a measure of the operator's performance ability? What about thread breaks? Doesn't the best operator you have run into thread breaks? How about bobbin changes? Or thread changes? These things are going to occur regardless of the operator's ability therefore, they are not considered to be a measure of how she is able to perform her job. When this type delay does occur, it will cause the operator to take longer on that particular cycle than she normally does. In making a capacity study, we would circle such a cycle when it occurs and not use it to calculate our average cycle. UNDP Page 124 of 149

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Potential
Now we are ready to work from the average cycle time to the operator's capable level of performance. In doing this we need to consider several things that will affect her opportunity to use her ability to perform as the day progresses. Let's list these things: 1. The time spent handling bundles. 2. The time spent for normal machine delay (thread breaks, bobbin changes, thread changes, etc.). 3. The time spent on breaks and personal time. The potential performance is a measure used to determine her capability based on the operators average time taken during the capacity study. Compare the average time taken to the single cycle for the operation at 100%. You can get this value from the SAM value by taking out the tolerances.

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Performance Development
First The Method

Then

Quality

Only then

Timings

In a sewing factory, there is always a need to develop the skills and the stamina of the operators. There is a logical way in which this can be done. We develop skills first and then stamina, but the two cannot be separated. We can consider skill to be sound & correct methods. Once we have the method correct, we can start an effective follow-up. 1. Methods Review methods used and ensure correct motion pattern is in use.

2. Capacity Study (or single cycle check)

Is there a difference between potential performance (capacity) and actual performance (achieved).The gap is called is called a Capacity Gap.

What is the reason for the capacity gap? 3. Diagnostic bundle study (or Production Study) Bundle handling? Machine problems? Cutting quality? Repairs (sewing quality)? Personal time? Others

4. Bundle by bundle follow-up (or hourly checks)

Is there a stamina problem? Can we develop performance gradually day by day?

The next part of follow-up motivation, depends mainly on your own approach, but a basic requirement is that the operator realises that you are there to help her.

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Day 17
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 19 (Balancing)

Introduction Reasons for Balancing Balancing Tools Balancing Matrix Work In Process Managing Work In Process Introduction Garment Costs Contributors to exceeding costs Minimizing Wastage

150 Minutes

Discussion 20 (Cost Control)

90 Minutes

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Discussion 19 BALANCING
Introduction

150 Minutes

Balancing is a subject that relates to every decision taken on the production floor. It is a very important topic that we will cover in detail. What is a balanced production system? It is a system where you meet the production expectations and you can find the same amount of work in process in every operation at any point in the day. To be able to achieve this is extremely difficult. If we choose to have balanced inventories at the end of every day it will prove to be a reasonably difficult challenge. How do you keep all operations producing at the same rate? Well this is very difficult since operators skills vary. We are able to balance using Utility operators that fill holes in production. We also try to keep operators at the expected level of production or higher if possible. How do we start balancing the production line? Well we can start by determining how many operators for each operation are needed for a determined level of production. After this we need to determine how much WIP we need to anticipate production problems. KSA recommends a 30 minute inventory level for each operation. A good range would be from 20 min to 30 min inventory level. Any variation outside this range should be avoided. A variation of this magnitude signifies an unbalanced line and should be looked into immediately.

Reasons for Balancing

We balance the production line for a number of reasons. Some of these reasons are: Keeping inventory costs low results in higher net income Keeping normal inventory levels lets the operator work all day long giving him/her the opportunity to earn more money by increasing his/her efficiency Keeping the line balanced lets the supervisors improve other areas because they can use their time better Balanced production keeps prices low which turns into repeat sales Balanced production means better production planning. It is very important that all supervisors put balancing the line in their daily plans every day. UNDP Page 129 of 149

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There are 3 rules for balancing:

1) Have at least hour of WIP for each operation 2) Solve problems before they become any larger 3) Meet production goals by keeping every operator working at their maximum
capacity

Balancing Tools
There are a number of tools that can be used for balancing. These are applied according to the plants needs. The most basic ones are Production Sheets, the Daily production report, the inventory levels by operation and the Production Boards. Items to take into account when making balancing decisions: 1) You should meet production goals a) Using Regular operators b) Using utility operators c) Using temporary transfers 2) Work flow must be constant through all operations 3) Avoid Overtime 4) Determine Human Resource needs a) operators required at 100% b) Capacity of actual operators c) Actual operators equivalent to need in (A) d) New operators to train e) Utility operators f) Cross training 5) Balance the Human Resources 6) Know how much work is needed for each operation 7) Check absences daily 8) Assign Utility operators based on absences 9) Update Daily Production report every two hours 10) Make balancing decisions every two hours and check them to the production manager

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The Balancing Matrix

When The operation can produce more than the goal but right now you have accumulated inventory in front of the operation. You need to Keep the operators where they are but remove some of them when the inventory level is back to normal. If there is only one operator then have him reduces the inventory to a normal level and meets his/her quota then put him to work on another operation.

The operation can regularly produce Remove resources and place them in more than the goal and the inventory is other operations at a normal level now. The operation can regularly produce more than the goal and the inventory is currently below its normal level. The operation has the required capacity but inventory is high at this point Move some resources from the current operation to a previous one.

Make sure that the operators are working at full capacity and transfer some resources to this operation temporarily Do nothing. This is your ideal situation. Keep the operators working at full capacity and the inventory at a normal level.

The operation regularly meets the quota set by production and the inventory is at a normal level

The operation has required production (Something is causing the limited supply but at this point inventory is at a lower to this operation.) You should transfer than normal level resources to the previous operation but examine it to find out what is causing the imbalance. The operation has low production and the inventory is high (This is a bad but not unusual situation) Transfer resources to this operation and make sure operators are at full capacity doing bundle by bundle followup. Transfer resources to this operation & make sure the operators are at full capacity doing bundle by bundle follow-

The operation has low production but the inventory is at a normal level

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LOW

up. The operation has low production but the WIP is lower than normal (Something is causing the limited supply to this operation.) Investigate the previous operation but transfer resources to this one so that the next operation is not affected

OUT PUT HIGH LOW

The Balancing Matrix

WIP

Transfer OUT after WIP is normal

Transfer IN temporarily

Transfer IN + BBB Follow-up

Transfer OUT now

No Change

Transfer IN + BBB Follow-up

Transfer OUT to previous operation Transfer IN + Temporarily + previous Study previous Study previous operation operation
operation

Transfer OUT to

LOW

Work In Process (WIP)

What is WIP? WIP is made up of all garments and their parts that are not completely finished. For example a bundle of shirts that has everything attached but has no bottom hem.

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We can measure WIP in Units or in units of time. For example, if we know that an operation X takes 0.5 minutes per unit to process and we have 5 bundles of 12 units each then we have 30 minutes of WIP for that operation (5 X 12 X 0.5). In some factories you can find some operations that have days of inventory waiting to be processed! This is unacceptable for many reasons. Why should we keep WIP under control? There are two cost areas that can be reduced if WIP is controlled: Investment in inventory Inventory is money invested in raw materials. When we dont move the goods through the plant quickly we are affecting cash flow directly. Ability to reduce the production cycle By having low inventory between operations, garments usually have less waiting time and go through the production cycle in less time. Large inventory levels between operations keeps goods waiting longer to be processed. This increases the overall throughput time. Low throughput time permits better co-ordination between sales and production. It also permits a quicker turnaround on which improves cash flow. Low cycle times give manufacturers the ability to handle multiple styles. Clients are looking for manufacturers that can meet production schedules, that can handle multiple styles, and since they want to invest as little as possible in inventory, manufacturers that can handle low inventories. Only factories that work with low WIP will be able to sell their services.

Managing WIP
1) Production planning This requires planning from marketing and sales to determine what will sell and what needs to be produced and when. This provides the basis to determine how many operators and machines will be needed. 2) Trims control Trims are buttons, zippers, labels, thread, elastics, and so on. A cut should enter the production line only when someone has verified that all the trims needed are available. An updated inventory of trims should be kept. A missing label could halt a 12,000 unit cut. Holding the 12,000 units in inventory is not acceptable and could lead to other problems. 3) Production Build-up Careful consideration should be given to loading the production lines. If you feed into the line more product that can be processed you will overload the line with UNDP Page 133 of 149

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work that will just sit stagnant. 4) Balancing Even if you load the line based on its capacity, you might find the inventory accumulating due to an unbalanced production. Absenteeism and turnover can greatly affect the lines balance. A change in style and bad cutting are two other factors that can put a line off-balance. To keep a line balanced you need information on the inventory levels. To help regain balance in an unbalanced situation you can use Utility operators, operator transfers and overtime. 5) Cut Flow Control In order to keep control over WIP and to keep the cycle times low you need to have cuts go as close as FIFO as possible. For this reason strict control must be placed on the tracking of cuts as they flow through the production floor.

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Discussion 20 COST CONTROL

Introduction

90 Minutes

Our Costs are increasing everyday while the FOB values are decreasing, thus causing excessive pressure on our margins. The following diagram shows the 2 kinds of pressure that affect the performance of the company most. The costs, quality and service requirements from the buyer is increasing all the time creating an upward pressure on Costs, while the FOB value & margins and Order Quantities are shrinking fast creating a downward pressure on the Costs.

U P W A R D P R E S S U R E S

Costs

Quality Requirement s FOB Value & Margins Service Requirements Order Quantities

D O W N W A R D P R E S S U R E S

Lead times

It is reduction in costs and hence improvement in margins, that can keep the manufacturer ahead in this competitive world.

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Garment Costs
Let us take a look at the costing for a garment. Element Fabric Trims & Accessories CMP Others Total Cost of Garment % of Total Cost 60-70% 5-10% 15-30% 5% 100%

Total Cost of Garment + Quota Cost* + Mark up = FOB

Main contributors to exceeding costs

There are two main areas that contribute to more than the expected cost of manufacturing. First, Costs related to personnel and second Costs due to inefficient material utilisation. Costs Related to Personnel 1. Operator performance Not using the best method Switching operators Equipment problems Excessive conversation Unnecessary absences from work Deliberate loafing 2. Production flow Inadequate supply of work leading to the operators slowing down Drops in production because of absenteeism or other reasons Necessary supplies, equipment and information is not ready on time Switch operators if and when required to maintain balance. Identify the bottleneck operation. Ensure that there is always feeding for this operation. A minute lost on the bottleneck operation is a minute lost on the entire line.

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All re-cuts and repairs should be made promptly, so that "cuts" will be completed on schedule and "boxing" will not be delayed because of incomplete assortments. Absenteeism and labour turnover also affect the flow of work. Anticipate "quits" as early as possible, so that someone else can be trained for the job before the quit occurs. Interview each operator who voluntarily quits; in order to obtain first-hand information on the reason. 3. Quality Producing bad quality costs money. It reduces the operator's performance. The supervisor should schedule time so that each operator's work gets checked, after having given special attention to the workers who are inclined to produce poor quality. When changes are made in materials, be especially watchful that folds, feeds, stitches etc. are proper with the new material. Sometimes the condition of equipment is a cause of poor quality.

Costs Due to Inefficient Material Utilisation Material wastage is perhaps the most significant contributor to the overall costs. The excess cost due to wastage can result from various sources Fabric wastage Wastage of power, oil, needles etc. Accessories such as labels, buttons, threads etc. When stitching must be ripped out, a part may be torn or cut unnecessarily

Fabric waste is the most significant contributor to the excess costs due to waste of materials. Analysis of the cost sheets of the companies show that the highest cost element is fabric cost. Hence the first step to cost reduction is to reduce the cost of the highest cost incurring element i.e. fabric. Fabric Cost represents 40-50% of the FOB Value and 60-70% of the total cost of the garment. Hence a 5% saving in fabric consumption represents the equivalent of 3 to 3.5 % saving in total cost. How much of the fabric is wasted? Typical wastage in mens and boys garments ranges from 10% - 24%. Womens garments will generally be higher than these levels for similar garments. Plaids and other matched fabrics can increase these levels substantially in some end products. Where does this waste appear? It appears as fallout in the cutting room in the form of:

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Marker waste that which is contained within the boundaries of the marker itself. Spreading losses that which comes from the ends of the marker, including any unused remnants outside of the lay, and internal laps. Width loss that which comes from the boundaries of the marker on the front and back sides.

Thus waste in apparel products is relatively high when viewed in proportion to total usage. While much of it is inherent in the nature of the product and the manufacturing methods employed, a significant portion may be recoverable. Causes of Low Fabric Utilisation 1. Fabric problems Non Availability of optimum widths due to technical reasons Width Variation between lots and within lots Shade variation between rolls and within rolls Non optimal roll length Problems like Bowing, Damages etc.

2. Merchandising and production planning decisions, which limit optimisation of Marker length Size assortments Cutting heights Pattern fits

Minimising wastage
1. Production and pre-production The marking and spreading operations, in fact do play a key role in the level of fabric waste. However much of the inherent level of material waste is predetermined by factors which precede these operations. Significant savings can result by standardising suppliers. The provision of right quality of fabric minimises the requirement for ordering excess fabric. 2. Styling Styling or design in determining what to make, the construction or how to make it, the patterns themselves, and the finished dimensions of the garment. 3. Purchasing UNDP Page 139 of 149

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Purchasing or procurement in selecting and specifying fabrics; their widths, lengths, quality in terms of physical properties (shade, damages, plaid repeats) and mechanical properties (strength, wear, stretch), delivery dates and subsequent inventory levels. Taking the above requirement into consideration, significant savings can be brought about. 4. Production Planning The production planning function determining when to cut, how much to cut, in what style, size, and colour variations, and allowing what deviations in quantities. 5. Cut Planning The cut planning function translating the what to cut from production planning into how to mark and cut grouping of sizes in marker sections, determining the height of these sections, selecting and assigning fabrics to cuts based on piece goods widths, lengths, shades and availability. Cut planning variables include:

Fabric consumption Fabric width Size combinations Piece lengths Fabric damages Fabric costs Piece goods availability and location Labour cost Manufacturing capacity Product mix Combination limits (models and piece goods) Shop practices Quality rules Delivery commitments and Production schedule Customer priority (fixed and variable) Trim requirements
6. Cutting process At this stage wastes can be minimised by the accuracy of the work. Options like CAM are highly effective but very expensive as well. A good tool at this stage is follow up. A constant watch on the utilisation figures and personnel performance through integrated software can improve long term utilisation. How then can we recover that portion of the fabric waste, which is preventable, in view of the different areas of the firm, which share responsibility? This waste can be recovered by a comprehensive analysis of the factors, which influence UNDP Page 140 of 149

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fabric waste, implementation of improvements based on total costs and savings (labour and material), customer service, and the implementation of a control system to maintain these results.

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7. Pattern Engineering Apparel products are constructed from irregular shapes. At the same time, these irregular shapes are joined together to form the various dimensions of the garment. Therefore, it is possible to change the shape of the individual pieces without changing the finished dimensions of the garment. This is what pattern engineering is all about. Let us consider the front and back of a dress shirt pattern, which is marked along the edge. The waste in the armhole of the front is preventable by a seam shift adding to the width of the front and deducting this same amount from the back. This can result in fitting a cuff into the previously unusable area. Note that the finished garment dimensions are unaffected by this change. Marking rules and matching requirements also have an effect on the level of marking waste. 8. Size Combinations A major influence on the level of marking waste is the number of sizes in the marker and the distribution of these sizes. The determination of which sizes should be marked together is a cut planning function. In order to plan economically, it is necessary to be able to predict the impacts of decisions made. Thus, techniques must be developed to predetermine marking waste for various pattern sets, marking rules, widths and fabrics. The more sizes in a marker, the better utilization is unfortunately true to an extent. Marker sectioning has a profound effect on labour costs for marking and cutting. These factors, coupled with spread loss considerations, prohibit the use of all long markers.

9. Piece goods quality Lengths, damages and accountability should be monitored, for feedback to the purchasing function. Width and shade to be segregated before issuing to the cutting department. Each lot to be accompanied with a Piece goods inspection report. Only cuttable fabric to be issued to the cutting section. In the unavoidable circumstance of issuing seconds fabric to the cutting room, defect trend to be highlighted, such that the same can be avoided and cut.

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Day 18
The topics that would be covered in todays session are as follows:

Discussion 21 (Human Relations)

Team Building Problem solving Ishikawa Analysis Brainstorming Idea mapping How do Human Relations benefit the Company Preventing Turnover

240 Minutes

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Discussion 21 HUMAN RELATIONS

Team Building
What is a team? What is the difference between a group and a team? Group A collection of people who share a common need to achieve a common goal Everyone strives to attain a common goal by chipping in whatever they can contribute Generally do not have an appointed leader Why do people work in teams? People form teams for a number of reasons:

240 Minutes

Team A group of people who work together to achieve common goals Everyone has well-defined smaller tasks which lead to the fulfilment of the goal Generally have an appointed/elected leader

Distributing the workload: Sometimes the task is too big for an individual to handle in the time allotted. Particularly if the task is divisible, it can be parcelled out to team members who can then work in parallel on each part. However, this statement is only true if the subtasks are independent. In case of interdependent tasks, the team must work together in a co-ordinated fashion. Reinforcing Individual Capabilities: Sometimes the requirements of the tasks are so complex that a mix of skills is required to accomplish it. Different team members are specialised in different skills; thus the team is more than the sum of it's parts-the team can do things that the individuals working singly cannot. One Man Approach Team Approach Development of one person that too Development of team as a whole because of limited, as for certain modules he/she cross-functional areas, enhanced personal has to learn from scratch. development in areas of specialisation plus learning cross-functional areas. Task takes more time due to the Due to an integrated approach, task takes limited physical/mental capacity of one lesser time to accomplish, giving more time person. to innovate. The ship sinks if this one man falters Safety back-ups in case one person falters. Mediocre quality work due to lack of Better quality of work due to members specialisation in all areas, Jack of all contributing specialisation in all areas. trades UNDP Page 144 of 149

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 Creating Participation and Involvement: Sometimes the work assigned to a team could be done by a single individual-and maybe even effectively-but it is important to allow different people to have a voice in what is accomplished.

Problem Solving
The leader should be a good problem solver both in dealing with his needs as well as the group needs. We will explore how a leader can solve both. An effective way to start dealing with problems is to divide and conquer. Many techniques are available for doing this. One very common in industrial environments is the Ishikawa analysis that some people refer to as a fishbone diagram. In this analysis a problem is broken down into its most probable causes. To do this you select some categories that are usually MACHINE, METHOD, MANPOWER, and MATERIALS. You proceed to list under each category all the possible causes in that category. For example, the problem at hand is: too many defects in the collars section of the line. There could be many reasons why. Some of the reasons related to Machine could be: machine is leaving skipped stitches, machines presser foot is too tight and leaves stains on the fabric, the tension of the stitches is too tight/loose and so on. Causes related to Method could be that the operators are not handling the parts correctly, or the inspection of parts is not being done properly by QC, or that the operator is overlooking a key area of the operation. Causes related to Manpower are the operators dont have the proper training, the supervisor doesnt have the ability to determine good from bad quality, or that the operator is just careless about her work. Causes related to materials could be that the thread cannot handle the stress the part is put to in washing, the fabric has construction flaws that are difficult to control in stitching, or that the material changes shape with every handling it gets.

METHOD
incorrect handling of parts Improper QC inspection

MACHINE
skipped stitches

presser foot is too tight

operator is overlooking a key area

Thread tension is too tight/loose

Improper operator training supervisor doesnt have the ability to determine good from bad quality operator is being careless

thread cannot handle the stress fabric has construction flaws material changes shape

Defects in Collars

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MATERIALS

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After doing this the analysis should continue to explore each cause like it was a problem by itself. You could continue to do fishbone diagrams with each. The strategy is to break up the main problem into smaller problems that can be tackled and eliminated. Another tool to Divide and conquer problems is the Pareto chart. Many uses for this principle are found especially in the records found in the Q.C. procedures. This principle holds that 20% of the causes provoke 80% of the problem occurrences. The way we can use this is to segregate the causes of the problem and count the number of their occurrences. It is an easy tool to implement and provides good insight in the strategy to take to solve the problem. The following is an example based on the previous problem: Once the causes were segregated in the fishbone diagram, the MACHINE section was given to the engineer to study. The engineer went to the floor and studied the defects made in the operation. The following was the Pareto analysis she made:

PROBLEMOCCURENCESSkipped stitchesTension too tight/loosePresser foot too tight

When looking at this you can see that skipped stitches are occurring far more often than the other two causes. If you are to use your resources wisely, you would work on eliminating this cause before the other two because this would provide the biggest impact. You can see that Skipped stitches have more than twice the frequency of the other two. Once you have selected what to attack, in other words when you have defined the real problem your next step is to generate alternatives. At this stage, a Brainstorming or a Rain of Ideas session should be employed. During this session, the goal is to generate the highest number of alternatives that could provide a solution for the problem. Not necessarily will all alternatives be explored in more detail. The ideas in this session should be as innovative as possible. Some ideas might sound foolish, out of the question, or even impossible and unrelated, but from a foolish and unrelated idea a very sound and innovative option could stem off. A useful tool for brainstorming called Idea Mapping. In this technique the goal is to shoot then aim. You should get the group to spill as many ideas as possible without censoring any of UNDP Page 146 of 149

No WIP control

Absenteeism /Tornover Gaps

Idea Mapping
ot sn ith MT rking ly w te wo qua rs e ad rato e op

No Timeclock or Clerk

Different Skill Levels

Line not balanced

OffSTD Times not recorded

MTs not recording OFFtimes

on ecti Dir er re h Mo Hig ti ons d an ecta p ex

ed ad erlo Ov th rs wi rato e op

Low Inventory when changing styles

No Continuous Feeding Changes in Fabric/Style Qlty Problems in Cutting New Skill for Matchin g checks Only Quality Goals

MTs not working adequately with operators

More Direction and Higher expectations

ChangeOver from cutting sources

Overloaded with operators

Method is not constant

Specs not well defined for Cutting

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them and then group them in spider-web-like diagram. By grouping ideas you start to generate patterns that might cause someone to give more ideas that stem off from the previous ones. You might find the group censors each other & evaluates the ideas while they are being generated. The moderator for the session should make sure none of the ideas get evaluated. The next session will deal with evaluating the ideas. For now its the quantity not the quality of the ideas that matter. The next step in problem solving is the evaluation process. In this stage the ideas generated before get reduced to a few which could be implemented. It is useful in this stage to evaluate the ideas in as simple as a manner as possible. Many opinions might arise during a meeting to evaluate ideas. To avoid long discussions you can restrict the examination process to a simple Advantages, Disadvantages, and Interesting Points. All ideas are considered by assigning each the advantage(s) the disadvantage(s) (if any) and the interesting points about the implementation of the idea. After this is done, the group decides on the few that seem superior. Once the alternative is chosen we go into the implementation stage. 3 key things are important in the implementation process. These key questions are: Who? is going to do What? (task) and When? will it be done. All these questions should be answered on a table that summarises the plan for implementation in the following way: Task Inventory machines of Duration SNLS 4 hours Start Date Thursday Friday End Date Friday Friday Responsible Mahmood Waseem

Check maintenance records 4 hours for each machine in collars section Order parts from supplier 1 hour Replace parts for machines 16 hours older than 2 years

Thursday Monday

Friday Wednesda y

Azhar Abdul

This way everyone is clear what is their role in the implementation process and know what is the deadline for the completion of every task. Keeping control of tasks this way can keep the implementation stage on time. Some time after the implementation of the alternative you should be able to see the results so another stage in this problem solving process is necessary. In this stage you gather information in a similar way to the one you did initially to determine what alternative to go for. Using some kind of Pareto analysis you measure the frequency of the occurrence. This can be compared to your initial study. If the alternative has had an impact you should be able to see it at this point. After this evaluation you can consider going for another alternative if this one didnt provide a solution, or if it UNDP Page 147 of 149

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did provide the expected results then you can restart the problem solving process with another problem in mind. To summarise, the steps in the Problem solving process are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Define the problem Generate alternatives Evaluate alternatives Select an alternative Implement alternative Evaluate the results

How Human Relations Benefits the company?

Turnover and absenteeism are a recurring difficulty in the apparel industry. It is our job as leaders to prevent the loss of the labour force. Labour turnover has continued to increase with the years. 50 years ago hardly anyone would consider moving from one company to another. Currently, the trends show an individual will most likely not stay with the same employer through his career life. What are the costs of labour turnover applied to apparel? Costs of training of new personnel Costs of termination Cost of production capacity loss Cost of advertising for the job Cost of selection and hiring Labour loss is a very costly issue for apparel firms. There are 2 types of turnover: Preventable and Not-Preventable For the Not-preventable type of turnover, you cant do much. These are cases where an operator leaves because of a change in residence, a death in the family, a personal injury, and so on.

Preventing turnover
To prevent turnover we must do the following: Adequate selection and placement Testing should select only the candidates that have the required skills for the job Interviews should serve as an additional screen for applicants Watch for Turnover Indicators such as; Page 148 of 149

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Workers who dont own a house Worker younger than 25 People with children under 4 years of age People that are overly educated for the position People that have had many jobs in a short period of time Good induction program Effective Training program Keep a permanent watch over signs of turnover such as absenteeism Make the workforce feel empowered challenged and accepted by the company

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