INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS NETWORKS At its most elementary level, a network consists of two computers connected to each other by a cable

so that they can share data. All networking, no matter how sophisticated, stems from that simple system. The idea of two computers getting connected by a cable was a major achievement in communication that is a computer network can be simply defined as an inter connection of computers with the view of sharing resources and for communication purpose. A network enables distributed computers and users to communication and share resources. REASONS FOR NETWORKING 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sharing of hardware (cpu, printers, scanners, etc) and software resources. For control purposes. For communication purpose .i.e. sending and receiving messages along the network. Sharing of information \ Cost reduction

TYPES OF NETWORKS There are two approaches namely:1. Geographical coverage approach. 2. Resource distribution approach. GEOGRAPHICAL COVERAGE APPROACH This approach classifies networks depending on their geographical extend. Three types of networks can be indentified under this approach: Local Area Networks Wide area networks Metropolitan area networks

LOCAL AREA NETWORK They are used to inter connect devices that are relatively in close proximity (limited geographical area). Such a network might be a single floor of a building or with one small company. LANS are restricted in size in that they only spar a limited geographical areas of radius <= 10 km. They are high speed networks characterized by minimum errors, high security and they are cheap to set up.

WIDE AREA NETWORK These are necessary and inter connect LANS across geographical distances. They are able and spar buildings, states, countries and even continental boundaries. WANS are characterized by high number of errors, low security due to external connections, costly to install and low transmission speed. WANs inter connect LANs with a device called a ROUTER. This enables each LANS to offer its user access to resources stored on other inter connected LANS.Without compromising its own identity. In other words, a router inter connects LANS without condensing them in to just one big LANS. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK These are more closely related to WANS than LANS because they are used to interconnect limited geographical areas. They remain relatively obsecure and they are really used. RESOURCES DISTRIBUTION APPROACH This describes the manner in which attached resources can be accessed. Resources can be clients servers, files, data etc. that reside on a client or a server. These resources can be accessed in one of the two ways. Peer-To peer network Client/ server networks

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS This supports unstructured access to networks attached to resources. Each device in a peer to peer network can be clients and a server simultaneously while all devices in the network are capable of accessing data, software and other networks resources. BENEFITS They are easy to implement and operate. They are not expensive.- they lack expensive sophist dedicated servers that require special administrative care and climate condition Can be established with familiar old systems such as windows They are more fault tolerant due to the absence of hierarchical dependence.

LIMITATIONS OF PEER TO PEER SECURITY Lack of central repository of resources compromises the security of this type of network. ADMINISRATION This is spread to the users and it creates: Co-ordinated and highly in consistence back ups of data and software. Decentralized responsibility enforcing file naming and storage location. PERFORMANCE

Machine are not meant for multi-user purpose thus anytime a remote client longs on, performance goes down. Resources are only available when a particular machine is on otherwise there is number access whatsoever. SCALABILITY More peer s make the network unmanageable. CLIENT/ SERVER NETWORK In this network, frequently shared resources are consolidated in a separate group of computers known as servers. These do not have primary users rather they are multi-users machines that regulate the sharing of their resources across a base of clients. This way, clients are relieved off the burden of functioning as servers to other clients. BENEFITS OF A CLIENT SECURITY- This is managed centrally to peer to peer networks. ADMISTRATIVE TASKS- Tasks like backups can be done consistently and reliable. Each client only needs to keep up with the requests generated by its primary and only user but not for other clients. Since all processing is off-loaded to the server, (more processing power and memory) thus client computers can better satisfy their own requests for centralized resources much more effectively. Users are spared the effort required to learn which resources are stored in a network. Scalability does not compromise the performance of a network.

LIMITATIONS Cost limitation to implement and operate: - Hardware and software cost especially for the server is usually high. Operation cost- trained personnel are necessary for administrative work. Risk server failure which can virtually affect the entire network. TYPES OF SERVERS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. FILE SERVERS: - This is a central storage for files. PRINT SERVER: - Used for sharing printers among LAN users. Application server: - this is a central storage for application software. Mail servers: - manage electronic messaging between network users. Fax servers- They manage fax traffic in and out of the network users. Communication servers-they handle data flow and email messages between servers on network and other networks.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY The term network topology refers to the arrangements or physical layout of computers, cables and other components on the network. It can also refer to the basic design of a network. A network topology affects its capabilities choosing one topology over another can impact on the :Type of equipment the network needs. The capabilities of the equipment. Networks growth. The way a network is managed. STANDARD TOPOLOGIES All network design stems from 3 basic topologies: Bus topology Star topology Ring topology

If computers are connected in a row along a single cable, the topology is referred to as a bus. If the computers are connected to a cable segment that branch out from a single point or hub the topology is called a star.
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If the computers are connected to a cable that forms a loop the topology is called a ring. 1. BUS TOPOPLOGY|LINEAR BUS. This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers. It consists of a single cable called a trunk (segment backbone) that connects all of the computers in a network in a single line.

COMMUNICATION ON THE BUS. Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular computer and putting that data on the cable in form of electronic signals. Sending the signal Network data in form of electronic signals is send to all of the computers on the network. However, the information is accepted only by the computer whose address and coded in the original signal/message. Only one computer at a time can send a message. Since only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, network performance is affected by the number of computers attached to the bus. The more computers on a bus, the more computers there will be waiting to put data on the bus, and the slower the network. However, the amount the network slows down is not only related to the number of computers on the network. It depends on numerous factors: .. The bus topology is a passive topology. Computers on a bus only listen for data being send on the network. They are not responsible for moving data from one computer to next. If one computer fails that is it does not affect the rest of the network. In an active topology, computers regenerate signals and move data across the network. SIGNAL BOUNCE Since the data is send and the entire network, it will travel from one end of the cable to the other. If the signal were allowed to continue uninterrupted, it would keep bouncing back and forth
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Hardware capabilities of computer on the network. The number of times computer on a network transmit data. Types of application being run on the network. Types of cables used on the network. Distance between the computers on the network.

around the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals that is the signals must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the proper destination address. THE TERMINATOR It stop the signal from bouncing, a component called the terminator is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free signal. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other coups can send date. 2. STAR TOPOLOGY In this topology computer are connected to a centralized component called a hub .Signals are transmitted from the transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all the computers on the network. This topology offers centralized resources and management. However because each computer is connected to a central point, this topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also if the central point fails the entire network goes down. If one computer is the cable that connects to the hub fails. In a star topology the failed computer will not be able to received or send network data. The rest of the network continues to function normally. 3. RING TOPOLOGY The ring topology connects computer on a single circle of cable. There are no terminated ends. The signals travels in a round the loop in one direction and pass through each computer. Unlike the passive bus topology, each computers acts as a repeater to boost the signal and send it onto the next computers. Because the signal passes through each computer the failure of one computer can impact the entire network. 4. MESH TOPOLOGY This is the simplest logical topology in terms of data flow and most complete in terms of physical design. In this topology, every device is connected to every other device. Its not commonly found in LANS due to cabling complexity. Because of its design, its very expensive to install and maintain. However, it has an advantage of its high fault tolerance. 5. HYBRID TOPOLOGY Larger, more complex networks can combine different physical topologies such as starbus topology and a star-ring topology. TRANSMISSION MEDIA (NETWORK CABLING) Important terms. 1. Shielding (iron box cable)
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This refers to the woven/stranded metal mesh that surrounds some type of cabling. It protects transmitted data from absorbing stray electronic signals referred to as noise. 2. Cross-talk. This refers to signals over-flow from adjacent cables. 3. Attenuation. This is decrease in strength of a signal as it travels along a transmission media. This is due to impedance (resistance offered by the cable) 4. Distortion. Unwanted modification of the signal on transit.

PRIMARY CABLE TYPES. 1. The vast major of networks today are connected by some sort of wire or cabling which acts as the network transmission media carrying signals between computers. There is a variety of cables that can meet varying needs & sizes of network from small to large. There are three major groups of cabling that connects majority of the network; a). coaxial cable - Thinnet coaxial. - Thicknet coaxial. b). Twisted pair cable. - Shielded twisted pair. (S.T.P) - Unshielded twisted pair. (U.T.P) c). Fibre optic cable.

a) COAXIAL CABLE. At one time the coaxial cable was one of the most used networking cables. This is because it was inexpensive; it was light, flexible and easy to work with. It was so popular that it became a safe easily supported installation. In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a single core with an outer conductor that acts as a shield. The signal is transmitted in the inner core. The inner core and the outer shield are separated by an insulator either plastic or mica. The cable is then enclosed in a p.v.c. (polyvinyl chloride) to protect it and give it some strength.

TYPES OF COAXIAL CABLE. They are two types of coaxial cable; 1. Thin (thinnet) 2. Thick (thicknet) 1. THINNET This is a coaxial cable about 0.25 thick. Networks that use thinnet have the cable connected directly to a computer network adapter cable. 2. THCKNET -This is relatively rigid coaxial cable about 0.5 in diameter. -Its copper core is thicker than thinnet core. -The copper core the further the cable can carry signals. -It can thus be used to connect several smaller thinnet based network.

COAXIAL CABLE CONNECTION HARDWARE. Both thinnet and thicknet use connection components known as British Naval connectors (B.N.C.), to make the connection between the cable and the computers. There are important components in the BNC family including; a) The BNC cable connector; this is either soldered or crimped to the end of the cable. b) The BNC-T cable; this joins the network interface card in the computer to the network cable. c) The BNC barrel connector; this connector is used to join to lengths of thinnet cable to make one longer length. d) The BNC terminator; it closes each end of a bus cable to absorb stray signals. Without BNC terminator a bus network will not function.

COAXIAL CABLE CONSIDERATIONS Use coaxial if you need:a) A transmission medium which will transmit voice, data and video.

b) Want to transmit data longer distances than less expensive cabling can transmit. c) A familiar technology that offers reasonable data security. TWISTED PAIR CABLE In its simplest form, twisted pair consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted around each other. These are two types of twisted pair cable: Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) Shielded twisted pair (STP)

A number of twisted pair wires are often grouped together and enclosed in a protective sheath t for a cable. The actual number of pairs in cable varies. The twisting cancels out electrical noise from adjacent pairs and from other sources such as motors, relays and transformers. The throughput (reliability/ performance) of twisted pair cable s can be improved by:a) Increasing the number of twists. b) Applying a protective layer c) Increasing the length of the twisted pair cable. UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR UTP comes in five categories:1) Category 1 This refers to the traditional UTP transfer telephone cable which can carry voice but not data. 2) Category 2 This supports data transmission up to four mbps (megabits per second) and consists of four twisted pairs. 3) Category 3 This supports data transmission up to 100mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs with 3 twists per foot. 4) Category 4 This supports data transmission up to 16 mps. It consists of 4 twisted pairs. 5) Category 5 This supports data transmission up to 100 mbps. It consists of 4 twisted pairs of copper wires. SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (STP)

STP uses woven copper braided jacket which is a higher quality, more protective jacket than UTP has. STP also uses a fail wrap between and around the wire pairs, and the internal twisting of the pairs. This gives STP excellence shielding to protect the transmitted data from outside interferences.

TWISTED PAIR CONNECTION HARDWARE Twisted pair uses RJ45 telephone connectors to connect to a computer. This is similar to RJ 11 telephone connecters. Although they look a like at first glance, there crucial differences between them. The RJ45 is slightly larger and will not fit into the RJ 11telephone jack. The RJ 45 house eight (8) cable connection while RJ 11 house 4 cable connections. TWISTED PAIR CONSIDERATION Use twisted pair:If your LAN is under budget constraints. When you want a relatively easy installation where computers connection are simple. Do not use twisted pair:Unless you are absolutely sure of data integrity transmitted over great distances at high speed.

FIBRE OPTICS CABLE In this cable optical fibres carry digital data in form of modulated pulses of light. This is a relatively safe way to send data because no electrical impulses are carried over the fibre optic cable. This means that the fibre optic cable cannot be trapped and data storing which is possible with any copper based cable caring data in form of electronic signals. Fiber optic cable is that is good for:High speed High capacity data because of lack of attenuation of purity of the signal. FIBRE OPTIC COMPOSITION It consists of a surrounded by a concentric layer of glass known as cladding. The fiber is sometimes made of plastic which is easier to store but cannot carry light pulses as far the
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glass. Each glass strand only passes signal in one direction, so the cable, consists of two strands in separate jackets. One strand transmits and one receives. a reinforcing layer of plastic surrounds each glass strands in separate jackets. One strand transmits and one receives. A reinforcing layer of plastic surrounds each glass strand while Kevlar fiber provides strength. Use fiber optics if you need to transmit data at very high speed over long distances in a very secure media. Do not use fiber optic if:You are under tight budget You do not have the expertise to properly install and connect devices to it.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS (NIC) (NETWORK ADAPTER CARDS) NICS acts as the physical interface or connection between the computer and the network cable. the cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer and server on the network. After the card has been installed, the network cable is attached to the cards port to make the actual physical connection and the rest of the network. The role of NIC is:1. Properly format data (prepare) so that it can be accepted in the network. 2. Placing data onto the network. 3. Accepting transmitted data that is addressed to it. NIC is common in LANs and its a circuit board installed in a computer and occupies the input/output slot on its motherboard. The network is then cabled to the port provided by this board. NIC INSTALLING, configuring and troubleshooting The successful operation of the NIC card requires that two things be done correctly: The adapter card must be firmly steed in a slot on the PCs motherboard. The proper drivers must be installed and configured to match the networks architecture.

Sometimes, network cards just stop functioning due to age, environmental agents, quality or amount of continued use. Often however, if may fail to work due to configuration errors or compatibility problems with the PC or its operating system. Thus one can investigate on:1. Lights of the back. they are usually two: Link light (red) - shows that the card has established connectivity with the network.
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Transmission light (green) - which blinks as the card receives /transmits information across the network. (No light, No connection) 2. Check the dates of the existing network drivers installed- could be there are new drivers that will help resolve the problem.

NETWORK SOFTWARE (NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM) With the growth in the networking, there has been the need by the users to access the information and share it among the other users. At this end, a number of software venders have developed what I would call network operating system, first to bring about the sharing this needs of additional services for both end users and on network operating systems that is provides a platform on which networks operates. ROLE OF A NETWORK O/S a) A network o/s ties together all of the computers and peripherals in the network. b) It co-ordinates the functions of all computers and peripherals in network. c) It provides security for and access to data and peripherals in a network. There are two major components of network software:i. The network software thats installed on clients. ii. The network software that installed on the servers.

EXAMPLES OF NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM Novell Netware-novel- early 1980s. Vines (virtual network software) - banyan system. inc-1980-extinct UNIX -1980s / Linux (Unix like o/s ) Windows o/s (NT, 2000, up, 2003 server)- Microsoft inc.

MODEMS This is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate over a telephone line. A modem at the sending, end convert the computer digital signal into Analog signal and transmit the analog signals onto the telephone line. A modem at the receiving end coverts the incoming analog signal back to the digital signal for receiving computer. In other words-A sending modem

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modulates digital signal into Analog signal and the receiving modem demodulates analog signal back to the digital signals. MODEM HARDWARE Modems are known as data communication equipments (DCE) and share the following characterists:i. ii. A serial (RS-232) communication interface. An RJ 11 telephone line interface (A four wire telephone plug) modems are available as both internal and external modem. The internal modem is stored in an expansion slot just likely any other circuit board. An external modem is a small box thats connected to the computer serial (RS-232) cable running from the computer serial port to the modems computer cable connection. The modem uses a cable with an RJ-11 connector to connect to the wall.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS Protocols are rules and procedures for communicating e.g. diplomat from one country adhere to protocol to guide them in interacting with diplomats from other countries. The use of communication rules apply in the same way in a computer environment. When several computers are networked, the rules and technical procedures governing their communication and interaction are called protocols. NB a. There are many protocols which lack protocols allows basic communication, they have different purposes and accomplish difference tasks. Each protocol has its own advantages and restrictions. b. Some protocols work at the various OSI layers (open system interconnection). The OSI layer at which a protocol works describes its function. c. Several protocols may work together in what is known as protocol stack/suite (groups of protocols working together. Just as the network incorporates functions in every layer of the OSI model, different protocols also work together at different levels in a single protocol stack. The levels in the protocol stack mark or correspond to the layer of the OSI model. Taken together, the protocol describes the entire stacks functions and capabilities.

HOW PROTOCOLS WORK The entire technical operation of transmitting data over the network has to be broken down into discrete systematic steps at each step certain actions take place which cannot take place at any other step. Each step has its own rules and procedures, or protocols. The steps must be
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carried out in a consistent order so that its the same way on every computer in the network. In the sending computer, these steps must be carried out from top to down. In the receiving machine, these steps must be carried out from the bottom up. THE SENDING COMPUTER At the sending computers the protocol:Breaks the data into smaller sections called packets that the protocol can handle. Protocols add addressing all to the packets so the destination computer on the network will know that data belongs to it. Prepares the data for actual transmission through the network adapter card and out onto the network cable.

THE RECEIVING COMPUTER At the receiving computer protocols carry out the same series of steps in reverse order. At the receiving end. a. b. c. d. e. NB Both the sending and the receiving computer need to perform each step the same way so that data will look the same when received as it did when it was send. Takes the data packets off the cable. Brings the data packets into the computer through the network adopter card. It strips the data packets off all the transmitting all added by the sending. Copies the data from the packet to a buffer (temperature storage) for reassembly. It passes the reassembled data to the application in a usable form.

PROTOCALS IN LAYERDED ARCHITECTURE OSI SUITE OSI LAYERS Application layer FUNCTION Initiate / Accept a request

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Presentation layer

Add formatting, display, and encrypting all the packets. Add traffic flow all to determine when the packet gets sent. Add error handling information Add sequencing and addressing all to the packets Adds error checking all and prepares data for going onto the physical medium Packet is sent a bit stream

Session layer

Transport layer Network layer

Data link layer

Physical layer

In a network, several protocols have to work together to ensure that data is: Prepared Transferred Received Acted upon The work of various protocols must be coordinated so that there are no conflicts or incomplete operations. The answer to this coordination effort is called Layering.

PROTOCOL STACKS A protocol stack is a combination of protocols. Each layer specifies a different protocol for handling a function or sub-system of the communication processor. Each layer has its own set of rules. STANDARD STACKS (SUITES) The computer industry has designated several stacks as standard protocol models. The most important ones include: The ISO / OSI protocol suite. The IBM system network Architecture ( SNA)
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The Digital Decnet Novel Network AppleTalk Internet protocol suite (TCP / IP)

Protocols exist at each level of these stacks doing the job specified at that level, however, the communication tasks networks need to perform are assigned to protocols working as one of the three protocol types. These protocol types map roughly to the OSI model. They are: Application layer Presentation layer Session layer Transport layer Network layer Data link layer Physical layer 1) APPLICATION PROTOCALS Application protocols work at the upper layers of the OSI model. They provide application to application interaction and data exchange. Most popular Application protocols include: FTAM ( File Transfer Access and Management ) OSI file access protocol SMTP ( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ) An internet protocol for transferring email FTP ( File Transfer Protocol ) An internet protocol for transferring files Telnet An internet protocol for logging onto remote host and processing data locally

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AppleTalk and AppleShare This is Apples protocol suite AFP ( AppleTalk File Protocol ) Apples protocol for remote file access DAP ( Data Access Protocol ) Its a Decnet file access protocol 2) TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS These provide for communication sessions between computers and ensure that data is able to move reliably between computers. Popular Transport Protocols include: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) This is a TCP / IP protocol for guaranteed delivery of sequenced data. SPX (Sequential Packet Exchange) This is part of Novells IPX / SPX protocol suite for quarantined delivery of sequenced data. NW Link This is the Microsoft implementation of the INX / SPX protocol NETBEUI (Network BIOS) Basic I/O system) Extended user Interface) This establishes communication between computers (NETBIOS) and provides underlying data and transport services. ATP (AppleTalk Transaction Protocol) This is the Apples communication session and Data Transport Protocols.

3) NETWORK PROTOCOLS These provide link services. These handle addressing and routing all error checking and transmission request. Network protocols also define rules for communicating in a particular network environment. Popular Network Protocols include: IP (Internet Protocol)
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This is the TCP /IP protocol for the packet forwarding and routing. IPX (Internet Packet Exchange) This is part of the IPX/SPX suite for packet forwarding and routing. NW Link This is the Microsoft implementation of the IPX/SPX protocol. NETBEUI This is a transport protocol that provides data transport services for NETBIOS Sessions and Applications. DDP (Datagram Delivery Protocol) (AppleTalk Protocol) This is an AppleTalk Data Transport Protocol.

COMMON PROTOCOLS Some of the most commonly protocols include: a) TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) This is an industry standard suite of protocols providing communication in a heterogeneous environment (Contains variety of different computer systems). In addition TCP/IP provides routable, enterprise networking protocol and access to world wide internet and its resources. It has become the standard protocol used for interoperability (Ability to work together) among many different types of computers. This interoperability is one of the primary advantages of the TCP/IP. Almost all networks support TCP/IP as a protocol hence it is commonly known as an Inter-networking Protocol. Because of its popularity, TCP/IP has become the default standard for networking. Other protocols written specifically for the TCP/IP suite include: a) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) Used for sending email. b) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Used for exchanging files among computers running TCP/IP. c) SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

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Used for network management. b) NETBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface) This is a small, fast, and efficient transport layer protocol that is supplied with all Microsoft network products. Advantages: Small stack size High speed of data transfer on the network medium Its compatibility with all Microsoft based networks

However, it does not support routing and it is limited to Microsoft based networks. c) IPX/SPX and NW Link This is a protocol stack that is used in Novell networks. It is relatively a small and fast protocol and supports routing. Microsoft provides NW Link as its version of IPX/SPX which is a transport protocol that is routable. d) AppleTalk Protocol AppleTalk is a part of Apple proprietary designed to enable Apple Macintosh computers to share files and printers in a network environment. e) OSI Protocol Suite This is a complete protocol stack. Each protocol maps directly to a single layer of the OSI model. The OSI protocol suite include routing and Transport protocols, Session layer, Presentation layer, and several Application layer protocols designed to provide full networking functionality including file access, printing, and terminal emulations. f) DECNET ( Digital Equipment Corporation Proprietary Protocol Stack/Suite) This is a set of hardware and software that implement the digital network architecture (DNA). It defines communication networks over Local Area Network and Wide Area Network that use private or public data transmission facilities. It is a routable protocol. ROUTING PROTOCOLS

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Used to exchange information about reachability and traffic delays, allowing each router to construct a next-hop routing table for paths through the internet. Relatively, simple routing protocols are used between autonomous systems within a layer internet and more complex routing protocols are used within each autonomous system. E.g. RIP (Routing Information Protocol) Suitable for smaller internet. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First Protocol) This is a transport protocol CONNECTION LESS PROTOCOL This is a protocol for exchanging data in an unplanned fashion and without prior coordination e.g. datagram (i.e. UDP) IP works at the network layer and handles the following functions and the methods it uses are as follows: For addressing; IOP uses the logical network address. For switching purposes; it uses the dynamic method. For route selection; it uses the dynamic method. For communication serves; IP provides error control. CONNECTION ORIENTED TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS These are transport protocols that use acknowledgments and responses to establish a virtual connection between sending and receiving stations e.g. Tep

In this mode, it is possible to send a group of bits at the same time but the amount varies from device to device. However, the longer the parallel link, the worst the degradation of the electronic signals from the nodes furthest away. His is the most common networking and data communication systems. Parallel communications are limited to peripherals directly connected to the system and communication between systems that are physically close to each other. Synchronous and Asynchronous Communication Synchronous means that communications between two nodes are closely watched by each other. All actions resulting in data transmission and general link conditions are closely synchronized between two nodes. If data is to be transmitted or received, the nodes are aware of it at most immediately and exchange based on ordered data rates. Asynchronous communication means that the nodes dont necessarily know when data is communicating to them nor how long the data message will be. A good example is a terminal on a system. The system does not know when the system user will walk up to the terminal and start typing so it has to be ready all the time.

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TRANSMISSION MODES There are three modes of data transmission namely: 1. Simplex 2. Half duplex 3. Full duplex

1. SIMPLEX This is a simple method of communication as it sounds. In simplex communication, there is only one way of communication eg A TV transmission. The main transmitter sends out the signal (broad costs) but does not expect a reply as the receiving units cannot issue a reply back into the transmitter.

2. HALF DUPLEX In this mode, both the units communicate over the same medium but only one unit can send data a time. When one is in the send mode, the other unit is in receiving mode.

3. FULL DUPLEX In this mode, both the ends can send and receive a message at the same time e.g. Two people talking at the same time and they are actually communicating achieves full duplex.

FUNCTIONS OF PACKETS IN DATA COMMUNICATION

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Data tends to exist as rather large files, however, networks cannot operate if computer put large amount of data on the cable at one time.

WHY? Large amount of data send as one large unit up the network and makes timely interactions and communication impossible because the computer is flooding the cable with data. Network reformat large chunks of data into smaller packets so that incase there is an error in transmission, only a small section of data could be affected, so only a small amount of data must be resent making it relatively easy to recover from errors.

In order for many users to transmit data quickly and easily across the network, data must be broken into small manageable chunks called packets or frames. Packets are basic units of network communication with data divided into packets. Individual transmission is speeded up so that every computer on the network will have more opportunities to transmit and receive data. At the target (Receiving computer), packets are collected and reassembled in the proper order to form the original data. When network O/S at the sending computer breaks the data into packets, it adds specific control to each frame. This makes it possible to: Send the original deassembled data in small chunks. Reassemble the data in the proper order at its destination. Check the data for errors after it has been reassembled.

PACKET STRUCTURE Packets may contain several types of data including: 1. Information i.e. Messages or files 2. Certain types of computer control data and command such as service request.

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3. Session control codes such as error correction that indicates need for a retransmission. PACKET COMPONENT All packets have certain components in common. This includes: 1. A source address _ identifying the sending computer. 2. Data that is intended for transmission. 3. Destinations address _ identifying the recipient. 4. Instructions that tell the network components how to pass the data along. 5. Information that tell the receiving computer how to connect the packet to other packets in order to reassemble the complete data package. 6. Error checking roe all to ensure that data arrives intact. The components are grouped in three sections:

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b) Hub This is a connectivity component that provides a common connection among the computers in a star configured network. During communication between the connected computers, a hub makes available the data message to all the ports and only the port connected to the destination computer takes up the message. Types of Hubs There are two types of Hubs, namely: Passive Hub This just provides common connectivity ie it simply organizes wiring and does not require electric power.

Active/ Repeating Hub

Require electric power and are able to regenerate and retransmit network data.

c) Switches A switch is an efficient kind of hub that sends packets of data only to the port that is connected to the packet recipient rather than sending the packets to all the ports like a simple hub does. It creates a temperature dedicated path for data messages between the communicating nodes. This is what is called Circuit Switching. d) Bridge Unlike a repeater which passes all data between cable segments, a bridge links cable systems while passing only certain specified traffic between them. The bridge functions as a filter separating traffic that can be isolated on either side of a LAN and only allows data to pass through which ought to be seen on the other side.

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e) Routers These are devices to inter connect two or more separate network. Each LAN can be set without the knowledge of the other and maintained and operated OS separate entities. Thus the primary use of a router is to connect the LAN with the networks beyond the LANS domain. Routers are intelligent devices. They can be programmed to allow data from particular users or data of a particular nature to pass or not to pass through. Thus, they act as an effective Firewall around LAN installation providing isolations for administrative purposes. They are two types of Routers: Static Routers This require an administrator to manually set up and configure the routing table and to specify each route. Dynamic Routers This do automatic discovery of routes and therefore they have a minimal amount of setup and configuration. They are more sophisticated in that they examine information from other routers and make packet by packet decision about how to send data across the network. f) Gateways These are devices used to connect two dissimilar networks. Thus translation between two networks takes place, making the gateway a slower and more expensive device than other interconnecting relay devices. Gateway programs often do change the format of the message to make it conform to the application program at the receiving end. They are used to provide interface between IPX based LANS and the IP protocols of the internet .

g) Brouter

These are capable of working as both router and bridges. They examine the packet type and route those packets when they recognize the internal protocol, otherwise they act as bridges. Hence, a brouter routes whenever it can and bridges whenever it cannot route.

NETWORK STANDARD
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These are rules of specification that vendors follow when manufacturing their equipment. The standards guide each activity to the successful completion. There are two primary set of standards used in network communication namely;

OSI Model(Open System Interconnection) IEEE Project 802 Model(Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) The OSI Model was developed by the International Standard Organitation (ISO) in the 1970s to standard data communication. The OSI Model consisting of seven layers describe what happens when a terminal talks to a computer or when a computer talks to another. This model was designed to facilitate creating a system in which equipment from different vendors can communicate. The IEE Project 802 Model was developed by the institute of Electrical and Electronic engineers in 1980s. It is a set of standards describing the cabling topology, electrical topology, and access-scheme of network product.

1. OSI MODEL This model has a layered architecture which divides network communication into seven layers:

Application Presentation Session Transport Network DataLink

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PhysicalLayer

LAYER 1/ PHYSICAL LAYER This is responsible for the actual transmission of bit streams across a physical circuit. It allows signals such as electrical, optical and radio signals to be exchanged among the communication machines. The physical layer typically consists of hardware permanently installed in communication devices. It also addresses the cables connectors, modems, NICs, repeaters etc all used to permit machines to physically communicate. The physical layer has no mechanism for determining the number of bit it transmits or receives. It is solely concerned with the physical characteristics of electrical and optical signaling techniques.

LAYER 2/ DATA LINK LAYER This is responsible for providing end to end integrity/ validity of data being transmitted. On the transmit side, it is responsible for packing instructions and data into packets (A structure that ensures that data can be successfully send across a LAN to its destination). The frame must contain a mechanism to verify integrity of its contents upon delivery (Error checking mechanism). For guaranteed delivery, then: The originating node must receive an acknowledgement for each frame received intact by the destination node. The destination node, prior to acknowledging receipt of a frame, must verify the integrity of that frames content. Since anything can happen to frames transits, then the data link layer is responsible for detecting and correcting such errors. Devices found at the data link layer are: Bridges NIC LAYER 3/ NETWORK LAYER This is responsible for establishing a route to be used between the originating and the destination computer. This layers lacks any native transmission, error detection/ correction mechanism and consequently. It is forced to rely upon end to end reliable transmission service of the data link
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layer. This is used to establish communication with the computer system that lie beyond the LAN segment. It does so coz it has its own routing, addressing architecture which is separate and distinct from layer two machine addressing. Thus, the use of network layer is optional for its only required if computer systems reside on a different segment separately by a router.

LAYER 4/ TRANSPORT LAYER This provides a similar service to the data link layer but it is capable of providing this service beyond a LAN. It can detect packets that are discarded by routers and automatically generate a retransmission request. This layer is also responsible for requesting packets that may have arrived out of order. It is capable of identifying the original sequence of packets and must put them back into that sequence before passing their contents to the session layer.

LAYER 5/ SESSION LAYER This is responsible for the management of flow of communication during a connection between two computer systems. It handles password recognition or verification, log on and log off procedures, network monitoring and system usage. To accomplish the data flow management task, the session layer defines three types of dialogs namely: 1. Two way simultaneous interaction where both systems can send and receive data concurrently (Full duplex) 2. Two way alternate interaction where systems take turns in sending and receiving data (Half duplex) 3. One way interaction where one system sends and receives the other one only receives (Simplex) LAYER 6/ PRESENTATION LAYER The 5 layer below this layer are all concerned with the orderly movement of strings of bits from one system to another. It is the lowest layer interested in the meaning of those beats and deals with the preservation of all contents of the data packets transmitted over the network. It is simply responsible for transmission of data from the internal machine format of one processor into that of another one.

APPLICATION LAYER

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This is the top most layer but despite its name, this layer doe not include user application, instead it provides an interface between those application and the network services i.e. It is concerned with all interchange between two application processes.

2. THE PROJECT 802 MODEL In the late1970s, when LANs first began to emerge as potential tools, the IEEE realized there was need to define certain LAN standards. To accomplish this task, the IEEE launched what came to be known as project 802 named after the year and the month it began (1980 February). Project 802 defined network standards for the physical components of a network (NIC and cabling) which are accounted form in the physical and data link layer of the OSI Model. The 802 specifications defined the way the NIC accesses and transfers data over physical media. This includes connecting, maintaining and disconnecting network devices.

IEE 802 CATEGORIES The LAN standards 802 committees defined fall into 12 categories; this can be identified by their 802 numbers as follows: a) 802.1 This specified standards for internetworking between WANs and MANs. b) 802.2 This defined the data link layer standard for telecommunication and all exchange between systems. It also divided the layer into two sub layers (Logical link control and Media Access Control layer)

c) 802.3 This established a standard for LANs that feature CSMA/ CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection) A.K.A Standard Ethernet Access Methodology. d) 802.4

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Divide a physical layer standard for bus topology LAN with a Token passing media access method. e) 802.5 Establish standard for token ring media access method (Token Ring LAN) f) 802.6 It Establishes standards for MANs. g) 802.7 Sets standards for broadband technical advisory group. h) 802.8 Sets standards for fibre optic technical advisory group. i) 802.9 Sets standards for integrated voice / data networks. j) 802.10 Sets standards for network security. k) 802.11 Sets standards for wireless networks. l) 802.12 Sets standards for demand priority access LANs.

FUNCTION OF ACCESS METHODS The set of rules defining how a computer puts data onto the cable and how it takes data from the cable is called an Access Method.

TRAFFIC CONTROL ON THE CABLE Multiple computers must share access to the cable. However, if two computers were to put data onto the cable at the same time, the data packets from one computer will collide with data packets from the other one and both sets of data packets will be destroyed. If data is to be
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sending over the network from one user to another or accessed from a server, there must be some way for the data: To access the cable without running into another data. To be accessed by the receiving computer with reasonable assurance that it has not been destroyed in a data collision during transmission. Access methods need to be consistent in the way they handle data. If different computers used different access methods, the network would fail because some methods would dominate the cable. Access methods prevent simultaneous access to the cable by assuring that only one computer at a time can put data on the network cable. Access methods keep the sending and the receiving of network data an orderly process.

MAJOR ACCESS METHODS There are three major ways of preventing simultaneous access of the cable: 1) Carrier Sense Multiple Access Method. With Collision Detection (CSMA/ CD) With Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) 2) Token Passing Method. 3) Demand Priority Method. CSMA/ CD With this method, each computer in the network including client and server check the cable for network traffic. A computer senses if the cable is free, there is no traffic on the cable, and then the computer can send data. If there is data on the cable, no other computer may transmit until the data has reached its destination and the cable is free again. CSMA/ CD therefore make some sense or listen to the cable (Carrier sense). There are usually many computers on the network accepting to transmit data (Multiple Access) while at the same time listening to see if any collisions occur that will make them wait before retransmitting (Collision detection) The collision detection capability is the parameter that imposes a distance limitation to CSMA/ CD. Dye to attenuation, the CD mechanism is not effective beyond 2500m. Segments cannot sense signal beyond that distance, therefore may not be aware that the computer at the far end of
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the large network is transmitting. If more than one computer transmits data on the network, a data collision will take place that will corrupt the data. CMSA/ CD is also known as Contention Method because computers on the network contend/ compete for opportunity to send data.

CSMA/ CA In this method, each computer signals is intended to transmit before it actually transmits data. In this way, computers sense when a collision may occur and may avoid transmission collision. However, broadcasting the intend to transmit data increases the amount of traffic on the cable and slows down network performance. Since CSMA/CA is a slower access method, its less popular than CSMA/ CD.

TOKEN PASSING METHOD A token is a predefined formation of bits that enable computers to place data onto the cable. In token passing, a special type of a packet called a token circulates around a cable ring from computer to computer. When any computer on the ring wants to send data across the network, it must wait for a free token. When a free token is detected, the computer may take control of it. The computer can now transmit data. While the token is in use by one computer, other computers cannot transmit data because only one computer at a time can use the token. There is no connection, no collision and no time spend while waiting for computer to resend token due to network traffic on the cable. This method is also called Deterministic Access Method.

DEMAND PRIORITY MEDIA ACCESS METHOD

Demandpriorityisroundrobinarbitrationmethodinwhichacentralrepeaterregularlypolls(checks) portsconnectedtoit.Thepollingisperformedinaportorderandisconductedtoidentifyportsthat havetransmissionrequests.Afterneedtotransmitisestablished,therepeaterdetermineswhetherthe priorityishighornormal.Theseprioritiesaredesignedtoservicetimesensitiverequestsbeforeserving normalrequest.

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