Process selection, Improvement and control

Machining processes
Machining processes can be divided into two categories
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Conventional Machining methods. Non-Conventional Machining methods.

Conventional Machining methods:

Conventional machining, one of the most important material removal methods, is a collection of material-working processes in which power-driven machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and drill presses, are used with a sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. Machining is a part of the manufacture of almost all metal products, and it is common for other materials, such as wood and plastic, to be machined. Much of modern day machining is controlled by computers using computer numerical control (CNC) machining. Conventional machining has many disadvantages like tool wear which are not present in Non conventional machining.

Non-Conventional Machining methods:

Non conventional Machining is a recent development in machining techniques but the cost is much higher than that of conventional machining. It is based on unconventional machining techniques using Laser beam, Electron beam, and Electric arc. Unconventional machining does not require the direct contact of tool and work-piece which decrease tool wear and increase tool life.

Machining process selection criterion

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Design configuration Quality Economics

Design configuration
Machining process selection depends on the desired work -piece design whether it is simple or complex, symmetric or asymmetric.

Quality
Quality of desired surface finish and tolerance grade affect the selection of the machining process.

Economics
Selecting the machining process depends on whether the manufacturer aims to maximize productivity or to minimize cost.

Process Improvement
Monitoring and improvement of cutting states
In modern machining systems, the monitoring of cutting states, including tool condition monitoring, is regarded as a key technology for achieving reliable and improved machining processes, free from fatal damage and trouble.The monitoring of cutting states may be classified into direct and indirect methods. Indirect monitoring, the width of flank wear, crater depth, chipped edge shape, displacements of tool or work piece, etc, are measured in-process or out-ofprocess. In-process monitoring that does not require the machining process to be stopped is preferable to out -o process monitoring, other things being equal. However, chips being produced and cutting fluid are obstacles to measurement; the space available for measurement is limited; and direct measurement sensors may disturb the process. The continuing development of ingenious measurement methods is indispensable for reliable monitoring, for example the in process and direct monitoring of wo rn or chipped end mill edges by laser-based tool image reconstruction, in the presence of cutting fluid. Indirect monitoring, which interprets signals related to a particular cutting state, can be free from the obstacles and space limitations of direct monitoring. Instead of ingenious measurement methods, process modeling plays a significant role. In this section, indirect monitoring which is closely related to process models and its application to the improvement of cutting states are described althoug h the treatment is not comprehensive.

Process Control
Process selection, improvement and control deals with the planning and control of machining processes. Planning and control systems are composed of several modules, such as modules for process modeling, optimization and prediction; for selection of tools and cutting conditions; for tool path generation; for machine tool operation; for monitoring and recognition; for diagnosis and evaluation; for learning and tuning. Data and knowledge -based modules support a systems operation. There is overlap between the functions of some of these modules. In the interests of efficient construction and operation, some of the modules may be combined and some may be neglected in any particular system.

The quantitative modeling of machining processes, based on machining theory, with the prediction or simulation that this enables, greatly assists planning and control. The tasks and tools of optimization depend on whether there is a single goal or whether there are conflicting goals (and in that case how clear are their priorities); and whether the process is completely or only partly modeled (how clear is the understanding). An example that approaches single goal optimization of a well understood system is optimization of speed, feed and depth of cut to minimize cost (or maximize productivity) once a cutting tool has been selected and part accuracy and finish have been specified. Even in this case, all aspects of the process may not be completely modeled, or some of the coefficients of the model may be only vaguely known. Consequently, the skills of practical machinists are needed. Optimization becomes more complicated if it includes selection of the tool (tool holder and cutting edge), as well as operation variables. The tool affects process constraints and, at the tool selection level, constraints and goals can overlap and be in conflict (a surface finish design requirement may be thought of both as a constraint and a goal, in conflict with cost reduction). As a result of this complexity, tool selection in machine shops currently depends more on experience than models.

Process Models
Models of machining processes are essential for prediction, control and optimization. Especially important are models for cutting force, cutting temperature, tool wear, tool breakage and chatter. these models are either physically-based or empirical and feature-based models constructed by regression or artificial intelligence methods. A model should be chosen appropriate for the purpose for which it is to be used; and modified if necessary. The more detailed (nearer -to-production) the purpose and the quicker the response required of the system, the more likely it is that an empirical model will be the appropriate one; but a physical model ma y guide the form of the empirical model and its limits of applicability. Priorities of process models: Cutting force models are considered first, because of their general importance, both influencing tool breakage, tool wear and dimensional accuracy, as well as determining cutting power and torque. For the purposes of control, force models applied to turning tend to be simpler than those applied to milling. However, accuracy control in milling processes, such as end milling, is very important technologic ally. Types of Process Models: 1-Cutting Force Models 2-Cutting Temperature Models 3-Tool Wear Models 4-Tool Fracture Models 5-Chatter Vibration Models

1- Cutting Force Models aCutting force models in Turning

Tool paths in turning are simpler than in mi lling; and this leads to smaller force variations during a turning than during a milling process. bCutting force models in End Milling

The end milling process is complex compared with turning, both because of its more complicated machine tool linear moti ons and its repeated intermittent engagement and disengagement of rotating cutting edges.

2- Cutting Temperature Models Cutting temperature is a controlling factor of tool wear at high cutting speeds. Thermal shock and thermal cracking due to high temper atures and high temperature gradients cause tool breakage. Thermal stresses and deformation also influence the dimensional accuracy and surface integrity of machined surfaces.

3-Tool Wear Models A wear model for estimating tool life and when to replace a tool is essential for economic assessment of a cutting operation. Taylors equation is an indirect form of tool wear model often used for economic optimization to either minimize cost or maximize productivity

4-Tool Fracture Models Tool breakage is fatal to machining and difficult to plan against in production because of the strong statistically random nature of its occur -possibly the work- piece may also be damaged and must be changed.

5-Chatter vibration models It is possible for periodic force variatio ns in the cutting process to interact with the dynamic stiffness characteristics of the machine tool (including the tool holder and work piece) to create vibrations during processing that are known as chatter. Chatter leads to poor surface finish, dimensio nal errors in the machined part and also accelerates tool failure. Although chatter can occur in all machining processes (because no machine tool is infinitely stiff), it is a particular problem in operations requiring large length -to-diameter ratio tool holders (for example in boring deep holes or end milling deep slots and small radius corners in deep pockets) or when machining thin -walled components. It can then be hard to continue the operation because of chatter vibration. The purpose of chatter vibration modelling is to support chatter avoidance strategies. One aspect is to design chatter-resistant machine tool elements. After that has been done, the purpose is then to advise on what feeds, speeds and depths of cut to avoid.

Monitoring procedures There are three activities in monitoring cutting states, sensing, processing and recognition. Guidance on what signals to sense is obtained, if possible, from process model. If a physical model is incomplete or weak, so that there is uncertainty as to what should be measured, more reliable monitoring is achieved by selecting redundant signals. The monitoring of cutting states based on multiple signals with more than one sensor is called sensor fusion or sensor integration.

Recognition of cutting states 1-Pattern recognition by the threshold method When the value of a particular cutting state increases or decreases monotonously with a feature of the processed signal, the normal and abnormal statuses can easily be classified by a threshold set at a particu lar signal level. The value of the threshold may be determined either from experimental results or by prediction based on a process model. 2-Pattern recognition with linear discriminant functions 3-Pattern recognition with artificial neural networks

Model-based quantitative monitoring If an output of process monitoring is a quantitative value of a current cutting state, and if a process model exists that gives an expected value of that state, a comparison of the two may be used to predict future process be haviour and to improve it. Two examples are given in this section, the first about prediction, the second about improvement, to illustrate the direction of modern monitoring strategies.

Model-based systems for simulation and control of machining process es As larger and larger applications, taking more time, or more and more complex components, requiring more operations, are considered, the need for more rational planning and operation becomes greater. A total or global optimization is needed, in contrast to optimizing the production of a single

feature. Optimization in such conditions needs machining times, machining accuracy, tool life, etc, to be known over a wide range of cutting conditions. If the machining process is monitored, for example based on cutting force, the expected change in force with cutter path must also be known over a long machining time. Once the time scale reaches hours, force measurement and its total storage in a memory become unrealistic. For these reasons, cutting process simulation based on rational models, namely model -based simulation, is expected to have a significant role in the design and control of machining processes and to give solutions to rather complicated processes.

Summary A huge number of experiments have been carried out and many theoretical approaches have been developed to support machining technologies. Nevertheless, it is often felt that the available experimental and theoretical data are insufficient for determining the machining conditions for a particular work piece and operation. These days, partly because of a decrease in the number of experts and partly because of the demands of unmanned and highly flexible machining systems, machine tool systems are expected to have at least a little intelligence to assist decision making. For this purpose, expert systems for determining initial cutting conditions and cutting state monitoring technologies are increasingly being implemented. Up to now, monitoring technologies in particular have been intensively studied for maintaining trouble -free machining. Nowadays, they are regarded as indispensable in the development of intelligent machining systems. However, machining systems have not yet been equipped with effective functions for diagnosing and settling machining troub les and revising cutting conditions by themselves. To develop such a system, prediction, control, design and monitoring of cutting processes should be integrated by sharing the same information on cutting states. A model-based system, with advanced process models, provides a way of enabling that integration. This integration will help the further development of autonomous and distributed machining systems with increased intelligence and flexibility. The theory of machining can contribute greatly to this.