Multiobjective PID control for a linear brushless DC motor: an evolutionary approach

C.-L. Lin and H.-Y Jan

Abstract: A robust output tracking control design for a linear brushless DC motor with modelling uncertainties is presented. Frequency-domain design specifications directly related to the mixed sensitivity function and control energy consumption are imposed to ensure stability and performance robustness. A generalised two-parameter PID control framework is developed via an evolution algorithm, whch searches the available solutions over a certain specified domain. The proposed design paradigm is intuitive and practical in the sense that it offers an effective way to implement simple but robust solutions covering a wide range of plant perturbation and, in addition, provides excellent tracking performance without resorting to excessive control. Experimental and numerical studies have been presented to confirm the proposed control design.

Introduction

The direct drive design of mechanical applications based on linear brushless DC motors (LBDCM) plays an important role in meeting the demands of hgher accuracy at high speed [I]. It is not equipped with auxiliary mechanisms such as gears or ball screws. In practical motor control designs, uncertainties of the plant comprise payload variations, friction and external disturbances. Recently, many modem control methodologies, such as nonlinear control [2], optimal control [3], variable structure control [4] and adaptive control [5] have been widely proposed for different types of motors for dealing with these uncertainties. However, these approaches are either theoretically complex or difficult to implement practically. Although the implementation of simple PlD controllers has been largely successful, PD controllers do not generally account for the wide variety of plant changes that may exist in motor control systems. Over the past decades H , control theories have been well developed and widely applied to discussing the problems of control system design, such as model matching, disturbance rejection and robust control [6]. Despite their complexity, H , controllers have gained popularity because of their performance and robustness. The problem of H , control design has been effectively solved in [7] by using a genetic design algorithm, in [8] by using a neural network and in [9] by using fuzzy logic theory. In [lo], traditional methods for the design of PID controllers are related to robust H , control. For linear motor control, a wire-driven system with a linear DC motor is developed using an H A controller [Ill, and a tracking control scheme with a guaranteed H , tracking performance is presented in [ 121. This research considers a means of controlling the dynamics of a brushless drive system. In practice, modelling 0IEE, 2002
IEE Proceedings online no. 20020487

doi: 10.1049/ip-epa:20020487 Publication date: 13th September 2002. Paper first received 28th January 2002 The authors are with the Institute of Automatic Control Engineering, Feng Chia University, Taichung, Taiwan 40724, R.O.C.
IEE Proc.-Elecir. Power AppL. Vol. 149, No. 6, November 2002

uncertainties arise due to friction force, the precision of experimental equipment, motor physics variations and payload variations. With these uncertainties, performance degradation occurs when conventional control laws are applied without robust compensation. The design approach differs in the number of traditional PlD controls and advanced H , controls. A generalised two-parameter PlD control scheme is first applied to represent the proportional, integral and derivative operations of a PID controller. Mixed time and frequency domain specifications are simultaneously considered; traditional methods for designing PID controllers are related to robust H , control, and they strengthen robustness of the controller. Finding control gains that minimise or maximise a designated cost function, in a time domain subject to multiple constraints specified by frequency domain specifications, is a complex, constrained optimisation problem. The problem is so complicated that it cannot be solved analytically or numerically. Fortunately, recent applications in evolution algorithms (EAs) [13] provide a way of resolving the problem. Methods of EAs, such as evolutionary programming and evolution strategies [14, 151, have often been used to address optimisation problems. Considering many points in the search space, an EA has a reduced chance of converging to the local optimum, and would be more likely to converge to the global optimum. EAs have recently been applied to determining the optimal value of parameters in a three-phase induction motor [16], and to designing an on-line PID control scheme for nonlinear dynamic systems [17], as well as to solving some mixed integer nonlinear programming problems [IS]. Here, a modified EA is used as a computing mechanism to solve the complicated, constrained optimisation problem resulting from the linear motor positioning control where the structure encodes some sort of automation. It offers a simple and elegant way of bridging the H , control methods and the practical PID control designs. The effect of dynamic changes due to different payloads on the system performance is experimentally investigated. Transient responses of the presented control design are also compared with those obtained from the genetic algorithm and with the traditional controller tuning rule to show its effectiveness.
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Two-parameter PID control scheme

Consider a closed-loop control system consisting of a LBDCM control scheme shown in Fig. 1 where P(s) is the

Fig. 1 Generalised PID control scheme

uncertain plant model, C(s) is the controller, H(s) is the ? sensor model, d ( t ) E 9 is the reference input, u(t) E Emis the control command, y ( t ) E ?JY is the plant output, and e ( t ) = d ( t ) - y ( t ) is the tracking error. Modelling inaccuracy is due to uncertain effects or modelling errors. Let the uncertain dynamical system model P(s) be described by:

P ( s ) = P, (s) [ 1 d P ( s ) ] where dP(s) denotes the modelling error satisfying:

(1)

where Kp = uKI ifiKz, Kl = PKl, KO = aK2, with K,, KI and KO being, respectively, the proportional, integral and derivative control gain matrixes. For type 0 systems, there would exist a steady-state error if they are controlled by a PD controller for considering the improvement of transient response. The steady-state error is inversely proportional to Kp. The error, however, can be corrected by integration of the error (Le. the controller becomes a PI type controller). But, a PI controller will have a slow rise time if the K p chosen is small, and a large overshoot if the K p or Kr chosen are large. To design the generalized PID controller, one can choose the combination of K I and K2 appropriately to simultaneously take care of both the transient response and the steady-state error. Now we need to investigate the stabilisation issue of the closed-loop system. The situations of SISO and MIMO plants are considered separately below. First, let the nominal plant model be factorised as Pn(s)= Dp' ( s ) N p ( s ) ,with the stable rational function matrices Np(s) and Dds) constituting left-coprime factorisation of Pf7(s); controller C(s) and sensor dynamics H(s) be the factonsed as C ( s ) H ( s )= N,(s)D;' (s) with the stable rational function matrices N,(s) and Dc(s) constituting right-coprime factorisation of C(s)H(s). Similarly, H(s) is factorised as H ( s ) = Nh(s)D;l(s).

d P ( s ) = &s)Ws), ~~&j41z<1, Vco (2) where W,(s) is a stable rational function matrix used to envelop all unmodelled uncertainties, and I I . I l 2 denotes the maximum singular value. It is usually desirable in practice to design a controller that possesses the fine characteristics of the PID controller by using only the error and the change rate of error as its inputs for simplifying the design work. To attain t h s aim, we simply connect a PD type controller and a PI type controller together in parallel, i.e.
u =a(Kle

2.1 SISO case Let K, = k, E E, i = 1,2. The characteristic equation for the nominal closed-loop system shown in Fig. 1 is given by:
4 s ) =Dp(s)Dh(s)

+ k2(as + B)Nh(S)Np(S) 0 =

+ kl (a +;

Nh(S)Np(S)

(6)

+ Kze) + p

=(aK1

+ pK2)e

J' +

(Kle

+ Kze)dt
+ ctK2k
(3)

The root contours technique can now be plotted by allowing both kland k2 to vary. First, let k2 = 0 and plot the root locus with respect to k l . Then plot the root locus for the following characteristic equation for several selected kl:

pK1

where K1 and K2 are scaling matrices corresponding to e and e, respectively:

J'

1 +k2

(as
Dh(S)Dp(S)

+ BIN ( S ) N , ( S )

edt

+ kl ( a + $ ) " q s )

=o

Based on the family of loci, one can observe the effect of k l and k2 on the characteristic roots. Now suppose that sZo denotes the controller parameter space such that: Ro where
E

(kl,k21Re3,,(kl,k2)<0, Vi}

(7)

A,) Vi7 are the roots of the characteristic equation

I :

. . : I

A ( s ) = 0. Other restrictions on k l and k2 due to necessary

considerations on hardware implementation for the controller can also be imposed. This gives rise to the admissible parameter space: R
G

{kl.k2Ik, 5 k, 5 E,, k, E Qo, i

1,2}

Lkil ki2 ... k:,n . where a denotes the weight on the PD type controller and fi denotes that on the PI type controller. The larger the ratio a/p, the more the emphasis is on the derivative control and the less the emphasis on the integrative control, and vice versa. The complete closed-loop system is shown in Fig. 1. It follows that the control law is characterised by:

'1

2.2 MIMO case

For the MIMO case, the nominal characteristicequation is:
A ( s ) = det(D,(s)D,(s) N,(s)N,(s)) 0 = The stabilising parameter space is characterised by:

(8)

520 z {K1,K21Re/Zl(K1,K2)<0,Vi} (9) where Ai denotes the root of the characteristic equation described by (8). The restricted, admissible controller parameter space can be denoted by:

(5)
398

& 5 kfi 5 &fi, Kl ;

520,

1 = 1,2

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It is usually difficult to characterise an admissible parameter space precisely for a MIMO system based on the conventional stability criteria. However, using the operation concept of random selection, we can characterise an almost stable parameter space. This will be discussed in Section 4.
3

Mixed time/frequency domain specifications

3. I Frequency domain specification H , control theory is a kind of loop-shaping method of the closed-loop system so that the Ha-norm is minimised under the unknown disturbances and plant uncertainties [19]. The principal criterion of the current problem is to simultaneously consider the robust stability and disturbance rejection performance, which are merged into a balanced performance criterion and a control constraint as follows:

domain specifications. Thus, our control parameter design is aimed at optimising a time domain objective function, while the H , specifications (10) were used to constrain the admissible parameter space. The objective function we consider in the current control design is to directly reflect the global controller performance, whch specifies the rise time, maximum overshoot and steady-state error of all output channels responding to step input signals:

i= 1

where the scalar pi, satisfying pi = 1, is used to weight the relative importance of the ith output channel compared to other output channels. The fitness function corresponding to the ith output channel is defined by:
fi=~,(1-A4~o)"'+&2(1-~,.)'7~+~j(l-E~s)n31

cbl

where PV,(s), W,(s) and W,.(s) are the weighting matrices specified by the designers; 1 IA Go)I = supwI IA Go)12, I 1 with A(s) being a stable rational function matrix; S(s), T(s) and R(s),defined as follows, are the sensitivity function, complementary sensitivity function and control transfer function for the nominal closed-loop system, respectively:
S(s) = [I +P,,(s)C(s)H(s)]-'

i = ],...,a

(11)

~ ( s= P , , ( ~ ) C ( S ) H ( S ) [~I n ( s ) ~ ( s ) ~ ( s ) l - l (12) )

where satisfying F~ = I , are the scalars included to weight the relative importance of three transient response indices, and AdiolT,, ES, E [0, 1 are, respectively, the nor1 malised maximum overshoot, rise time and steady-state error. The global objective of the fitness function is to simultaneously consider maximisation of the fitness functions fi for each channel whle searching for appropriate control parameters.
4

xi'=,

(15)

R(s) = C ( s ) [ I P*(s)C(s)H(s)]-' (13) Solving for the mixed sensitivity problem described by constraint (i) obtains the controller satisfying the normed inequality. We need W,(s)works not to excite the resonant frequency and to obtain a good robustness for the parameter mismatch and W,(s) to possess a sufficiently high gain in low frequencies to gain a disturbance suppression property. Constraint (ii) is included to avoid motor saturation at high frequencies. The mixed H , optimisation problem is treated from a suboptimal perspective since we only use a PID controller to meet the performance requirement without resorting to a high-order dynamic controller.

EA-based PID parameter design

EAs are the stochastic optimisation algorithms that were

originally motivated by the mechanisms of natural evolution in the natural systems [13-1.51. Evolution strategies (ES) are search procedures that mimic the natural evolution of the species in natural systems. They work directly with the real representation of the parameter set, searching from an initial population (a set of points). Like genetic algorithms (GAS) [14], they only require data based on the objective function and constraints, and not on derivatives or other auxiliary knowledge. However, the transition rules are deterministic, and the constraints are handled with the nonfeasible individual eliminated. The basic element processed by an EA is a vector formed by all k , ~ u and k2,ij. Each vector represents a point in the search space. The vector is evaluated to obtain the objective function value of an individual point. A set of w individuals denoted by S, called population, is expressed as follows:

3.2

Weighting function matrices

Suppose that the bandwidth of the nominal closed-loop system is required to be at oc, ideal weighting matrix an W,(s> thus be designed to have a high equivalent gain at can , high frequencies with the corner frequency closing to 0. Weighting matrix W,(s) is designed to eliminate the steady-state tracking error. To make the steady-state error equal to zero with respect to the step input d(s), we must I()io have I S 0 l c= 0 (Le. the weight should approach to infinity while o approaches zero). Under the invariant relationship S l j o ) + T ( j w ) = I , V u the corner frequency can be approximately chosen to complement the asymptotic frequency property of W,(s). To avoid consuming too much control energy at higher frequencies, the h g h frequency gain should be strictly limited. The design of the weighting function matrix W,.(s)is thus similar to that of F Q ) . For more details about how to specify appropriate weighting function matrices, one is referred to [19].

s = {SI 1 s2 1 . . . 1 sw) (16) For the current problem, the population set for w individuals is given by:

s = (kllk2,. . .lkW1

(17)

. . . vecTki vec'kt . . . vec'k;] ', where &= [ vec'k; with the 'vec' operator. being defined as vecP = . [PI,... pnZ1.p12 pm2:... :pin,... pmmIT,P E 3Imxm. o p ... eration of the EA is illustrated in Fig. 2, To proceed, we first need to characterise potential individuals, whch will be used in the solution search.

3.3

Time domain objective

Evaluation of the transient response provides a simple and effective way which is more directly 'related to the tracking performance than indirectly examining the frequency
IEE Proc,-EleE(ectr.Power Appt., Vol. 14Y, No. 6, Nownrbrr 2002

4. I Selection of potential individuals For SISO cases, the admissible parameter space of control gains can be characterised using the root contours technique as described in Section 2. Individuals of S are uniformly randomly selected over the admissible parameter space.
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multi-objective problem

real code of solution objective function

evolution operators

I I I

I specified knowledge I

Fig. 2

Operation o EA f

For MIMO cases, potential individuals of the control gains are characterised for the almost stable parameter space. To describe the process of treating the problem, we assume, for simplicity, that each element of KI has the same number of partitions and so has K2. For K 1 ,the partitions of all elements have the same interval, with the pth interval denoted by [ p ,p + 11 and partitions of all elements of K2 have the same interval with the qth interval denoted by [4,4 + 11. We choose n [ p , , , ( p + l ) , J ] ~ [ q , J , ( q + l ) ,points on ki:. E ] [pq,( p l)q] and k; E [qG, q l)q] by uniform random ( selection and denote nsp ~ j , ( p + l ) , ~ ] ~ [ q , J , ( qas~the number Of [ + ),] control gains that are stabilising (i.e. these gains belong to the space O0)in the interval of k:. E [pq,( p l)q] and k i E [qjj, q l)ij]. For simplicity, we assume that all ( elements of I 1 and K2 have the same number of partitions, C say g1 and y2 respectively. Thus there are N = (glg2)''n combinations of k,$ and k;. over the entire search domain. The stabilising probability for all k:. E [pq,( p l)q] and k;. E [qij, q l)[,] is defined by: (

viduals. The process is conducted by spinning a simulated weighted roulette wheel, whose slots have different sizes proportional to the stabilising probabilities of the individuals. This is implemented algorithcally in the following steps.
1. Sum the stabilising probabilities of all the population members and call this result the total stability degree. 2. Generate a random number between 0 and the total stability degree. 3. Return the first population member whose stabilising probability, added to the preceding population numbers (Le. running total), is greater than or equal to i.

<

Step 3 is repeated a certain number of times to generate the stabilising candidates. The selected candidates are then subjected to the evolution searching operation. Example: Suppose that K,; E [0,5O],K;. E [-lo, lo], i, j = 1,2, and that the range of each element of K I is uniformly divided into five partitions as ([0, lo), [lo,20), [20,30),[30,40), [40,50]), and K2 is also uniformly partitioned as ([-lo, -5), [-5,0), [0,5),[5, 101). Based on these partitions, there will' be 160 000 (= 54 . 44)combinations of K , and K2 over the entire search domain. Suppose

Suppose that there are A combinations with stabilising 4 probabilities higher than a specified level, say 0.8, left to be considered in the subsequent genetic operations. One may want to pick M to be sufficiently large for the population elements to cover the search space. However, it should not be too large, since this would surely increase the number of computations that one has to perform. To simplify the representation, let the candidate combinations having the stabilising probability be denoted by pk, k = 1, . . . , M . If n[p~,,(p+l),,],[,u.(q+l)e] are considered for points each combination, the population set consists of M . n[pe.(p+l),]~[qe,(q+l)~J] individuals. The offspring (individuals) of the sifted combinations to be considered in the evolutionary search are first picked up using the concept of selection in GAS. The most qualified individuals are retained as the candidates and are considered in the subsequent genetic searchmg process. We qualify the 'most qualified ones' via a production probability defined by: pk
pk = s
~

further that, in any search domain, we arbitrarily choose 1000 points for each combination and find the number of points generating the stable roots for the nominal characteristic (8). Eliminating the combinations with stability probabilities lower than 0.85 sifts five combinations and hence generates 5000 individuals. The stability probabilities for the combinations Pi to P5 are assumed to be:

[ 10,20) [20,30)
K2 =

ELIpk

The scheme available for selection named the 'roulette wheel' [20] can be applied to produce the qualified indi400

{[

[-5,o) [-IO, -5)

[0,5)1} [O, 5 )

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[O, 5 ) [-5,O)

1-

10' -5) [-5,O)

11

Now the corresponding production probabilities are obtained as: partition stabilising probability 0.86 0.97 0.89 0.91 0.93

% of total
18.9 21.3 19.5 20.0 20.3

running total 0.86 1.83 2.72 3.63 4.56

current generation

P,

P2 :

P3 : P4 : P5 :

(k;, ( 0 ,0 2 ) ) ,where the first vector ki represents a point N in the search space; the second one N ( 0 ,0 2 ) is a vector of independent random Gaussian numbers with a zero mean and a standard deviation of 6.The search for new points is based on one operator (i.e. the mutation operator). In (w, 3,) ES [18], the search starts by generating w parents in each generation. Then 3, offspring are generated by mutation, as a result of the addition of random numbers, and it is assumed that /z > w. One may choose, for example, /z = l where 1 is a positive integer. Note that each mutant w is subjected to the constraints imposed and the nonfeasible one is eliminated. Selection of the qualified mutant is performed until all members are feasible. Next, the ; I members are sorted according to the magnitude of the objective function values defined in (14). Then the w bests of the ; members generated become the parents of the next I generation. Note that the offspring (mutant) is accepted as a new member of the population if it has better fitness. Otherwise, the offspring is eliminated and the original parent remains. This is also called the competitive selection. Fig. 3 illustrates the operation of the depicted ES.
next generation
b4

w parents

1 offspring

i offspring

Fig. 3

(cv,

3.) Evolution strategy

We want to determine a desired number of candidates based on the 5000 individuals. The 'roulette wheel' parent selection chooses the first candidate for which the running total of the stabilising probability is greater than, or equal to, the random number i,with i being generated from interval 0 and 4.56. Table 1 shows several demonstrative randomly generated numbers, together with the indices of the chosen partitions.
Table 1
Random number Partition chosen
2.53 1.62
0.31

To realise the previous descriptions, we characterise the mutations by replacing the individual ki by:

4.29

2.949 0.91

...

0.65

P3

P2

P1

P5

P4

Pz

...

P1

where y is the index of the generation number. An appropriate choice of the variable standard deviation D would speed up the convergence of the evolution searching algorithm to the global minimum of the cost function. A fixed (T may encounter the difficult situation where the search cannot escape from the local solution. However, using a variable o,the evolution of generations would make the search more effective. The following process is suggested. 1. Initially, a population of w potential parent solutions &, i = 1 , . . . , w, is chosen based on the selection criterion. 2. Each parent creates an offspring k:, where ki is determined by the following update criterion:

When the partition set Pi is chosen, a potential member is randomly chosen from the members of Pi. This process is repeated several times until the desired number of candidates is obtained. After choosing w initial parents, we proceed to use the evolution operation (i.e. mutation, reproduction and selection, to solve the current problem, see Fig. 2). The process is described in more detail below.

4.2 Evolution strategy (ES) The idea of the ES (not present in GAS) is to represent an individual as a pair of float-valued vectors u =
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 149, No. 6, November 2002

where the real constant 1 < r < 5, the exponent CI N ( 0 , A g 2 ) is determined according to a normal distribution with mean zero and variance do2,in which Aa is the difference of o between the last two generations.
N

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3. Perform the closed-loop system simulation for the step input with respect to each offspring. Each offspring solution &: is scored in the light of the objective function F, in (14). 4. Check the H,-norm constraints (10). If the offspring does not pass the test, go to Step 2 until all 3. members are feasible. If most of the offspring generated by the same parent do not pass the test, replace the parent by picking up a new one from the pregenerated potential candidates and repeat the process. 5. Each solution k:(i = 1, . . . , A) is evaluated against the other solutions randomly chosen from the population. For each comparison, a win is assigned if the solutions score is larger than, or equal to, that of its opponent. 6. The KJ solutions with the greatest number of wins are retained to be parents of the next generation. The stopping criterion adopted is to terminate the search process when the maximum number of generations is reached or when IFgL - F:l < E or: ,&I jA -~ ~ , ! , l / ( ~ $l)) < E where E is the acceptable upper bound, F,, maxi=l,,,.,w and = mini=,,,,,;w Othewise, proceed 6. to Step 2. As can be seen from (22) the deviation of the mutation range decreases gradually when AU decreases with the evolution of generations. It increases when LICJincreases with the evolution so as to make the search escape from the local optimum. The individual having the highest fitness in the converged population is defined as the final solution.
5 Numerical and experimental results

~ ~ l
Fig. 4 Trunsportution fudities of manufucturinq system. Inchide LBDCM, carriage y o w r box, granite bed, driuer, PC-bused controer

magnetic flux. Hence, the thrust force is directly proportional to the current. The electromagnetic force equation of the LBDCM drive can be expressed as:
d2Y dY F, = KTiq =n/l,---+p-+F, dt2 dt

i,

= Kdu

(23)

The transportation fiacilities of manufacturing systems, including an LBDCM, are considered here. The moving carriage connected with the translator was guided precisely by a linear bearing rail attached to the stator side, which was fixed on the granite bed (see Fig. 4). Ironless core armature coils and Hall-effect sensors were installed in the translator part, and permanent magnets were fixed on the stator side. To measure the carriages position, an optical

where y is the position of the carriage, u is the voltage input to the driver, F, is the thrust force, KT is the thrust force constant, K,/ is the total gain of the drivers and the electrical part of motor, ML is the total mass of the moving part of motor, p is the viscous friction constant, F is the external disturbance force, and i(, denotes the force current component. The experimental setup is represented by the schematic diagram drawn in Fig. 5.

linear scale with a resolution of 5 pm/pulse was attached on the stator side. A current-controlled voltage-source pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) inverter, which accepts voltage inputs in the range of +lOV, was used to drive the LBDCM. The controller was implemented on an industrial PC featuring a 450 MHz processor-Pentium I11 and an IjO interface card. The sampling rate is 1 kHz. A linear encoder and three Hall-effect sensors are used to obtain the position and electrical position information of the moving member, respectively. With the Hall-effect signal synchronised to the back-EMFs, the basic concept of the field orientation and a zero current value id of the field component, correct current commands can be generated to let the primary movingmagnet field be kept perpendicular to the secondary
402

A random analogue voltage signal, generated by a dynamic signal analyser (DSA), is sent to the driver and DSA simultaneously to perform the system identification. The curve-fitted Bode gain plot for the driver combined with the motor is shown in Fig. 6; the nominal transfer function (where the payload is 1.5 kg) was obtained as:
y(s) u(s)
-

s(s

34.24 13.82) (m/V)

The enveloping function bounding plant uncertainties are characterised as (see also Fig. 6):
AP(s) =

s2 + 22s + 110 = K(.) s2 + 34s + 277

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-501 ".._...' 10-1 100

. ~
10'

~
102

" .~. . , . . I

.
10

frequency, radk

Fig. 6 Bode gain plots of motor with puyload of Okg, 1.5kg, 3 kg, and A P(s)

For the controller design, we choose the weighting function Wi(s) as: 3.5(0.001s 1) Pqs) = s 0.0001 The constant 0.0001, included in the denominator polynomial, is so small that it will not affect the frequency feature of JV,(s). To avoid saturation, the control gain above 50 Hz should be limited. The weighting function Wr(s)is thus chosen as: 200s 0.001 K ( s )= 0 . 0 1 ~ ~ 100s 500 For the PID controller defined in (3), we choose c( = 1 and = 0.001, which yields the controller in the form: k2s2 (kl 0.001k2)s 0.001kl

0
real axis

Fig. 7 Root contours of nominal closed-loop system kz E (0,

03)

Based on the characteristic equation of the nominal closedloop system, root contours for various values of k, with variable k2 are drawn in Fig. 7. It can be seen that the stabilising ranges of kl and k2 are characterised by: kl>O, k2>0 Parameters k , and k2 were further chosen to achieve the optimality with respect to the fitness function (14) and subject to the H , specification (10). At the beginning of the

C(S)=

+ +

10.04

7 10.02 0 2 10.00 0
x c

u !
0 .c

9.98 9.96

9.94 9.92 9.90 9.88 9.94 I 0

3
8
v,

50

100

50
generation

100

generation

Fig. 8

Trunsients of standard deviations for kILs and k2xs

Table 2: Comparison of the designs between RGA and EA

RGA

EA

ki
k2
CIS)

3.7291 0.3041 0.3041~~ -+ 3.7294s+ 0.0037

s

4.0724 0.4986 0.4986~~ + 4.0731s+ 0.0041

S

Mo (%, mm) TAs)

E,, (mm)

0.011, 0.022 0.569 0.021 0.5721 0.3813

0.0096,0.0193 0.542 0.018 0.5581 0.3588

403

I1 WrWW)ll,

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generation

Fig. 9

Convergence of solution seuvch

parameter search, the initial population comprises a set of chromosomes that were scattered over the search space SZ = {k,,k210 5 k, 5 10, i = I , 2). On applying the ES to the parameter search, the parents w = 100 were chosen, and offspring i, = 7 . IV were produced by mutation; they were initially randomised and evolved afterwards according to (21) and (22). The parameter r used in the variable deviation given in (22) was chosen to be 2.718. The parameters of the fitness functions defined in (15) were chosen as cl = 2 = 0.4, ~3 = 0.2, nl = 4, n2 = n3 = 1. By performing the developed search algorithm, after 150 generations of the population, we obtained the controller parameters k , and k2 and the resulting PID controller C(.s). Table 2 lists the controller parameters and related results with respect to time and frequency responses. Here, the unit step input used to examine the time domain transient response corresponds to a carriage travelling range of 200". Fig. 8 shows the transient of the standard deviation cr used in the ES.

200
150

0
time, s

a
2001 150

time, s d

1
:

" "

"

"

'

--*

/--i

6 I\
.L--

1
-100
-1 50

li'

j'

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-200
0

time, s

05 10 15 20 25 3 0 35 40 45 50 1.0 5 0 5 3.0 5 time, s

20
15

10
5 5

i .g ._
v)

: -5 :
-1 0 -1 5 -20

0
time, s
C

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 time, s f

4.5 5.0

Fig. 10 (a)-(c) Position response (a) loud. Okg, (b) loud: 1.5 kg, (c) loud: 3.0kg, dashed: simulution, solid: experiment; (d)-(fl velocity response, ( d ) loud: 0 kg, (e) loud 1.5 kg, ( load: 3.0 kg, dashed: simulation, solid. experiment 0
404
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We have also compared the convergence behaviours of the fitness function for the presented EA with a typical realcoded genetic algorithm (RGA) [21], which was shown to be an effective global search approach for solving optimisation problems. For the real genetic search, the number of potential individuals within a population was chosen to be 1000; the crossover rate G, and the mutation probability G,, were appropriately chosen to be 0.7 and 0.4, respectively, which yielded a satisfactory convergence speed to the desired solution. Related results are also given in Table2. From Table2, we can see the advantage of the current approach. Comparison of the transient of the averaged fitness values for the two approaches is illustrated in Fig. 9. It is quite clear that the presented EA gives quicker convergence than RGA in the solution search. The EA almost converges after 20 generations, whereas the RGA takes six times as many generations to arrive at the steady state. The initial conditions of the carriage were set as y(0) = Omm and j ~ ( 0= Omm/s. A square wave signal ) d(t), with an amplitude of 200 mm and period of 2.5 s, was used as the test signal. Fig. lO(a)-(c) and IO(dF(f) show the simulated and experimental position and velocity responses for various payloads. These Figures show that the experimental results are consistent with those obtained from the numerical simulations. The presented study demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed approach for the robust output tracking control of LBDCM. Finally, performance of the proposed design is compared to that obtained from the application of the first method of Ziegler-Nichols rules [22]; the latter offers a simple, but representative, guide for tuning the PID parameters of SISO systems that minimise the integral of absolute values of tracking error. The Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules gives:
cZN(s) =

-10

10 12 time, s a

14

16

18

20

-101

'

'

'

'

10
time, s

'

12

'

14

'

16

'

18

'

20

'

0 . 0 9 3 6 ~ ~0.821s + 1.791 +
S

20

Fig. 11 illustrates the magnitude specifications of SGu) and T(i0) of the proposed design against Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules. It can be seen that the latter gives rise to a peak at the frequency of 2.3rad/s, which will naturally result in larger oscillations. Fig. 12 illustrates simulated square wave responses of the proposed design with respect to those obtained from the Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules. Note further that the latter does not take into account plant uncertainties in the control design. Therefore, it cannot ensure closed-loop stability when plant uncertainties exist.

l5 10
5
0

B
a

g-

-1

'J

I \

I
\ I

I I I

L'j

I
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,-,
,

-5

11)

' 1
, , ,

!J

time, s

- -20 -40 -60 -80 10-1

50
0
'

T ESPID

Fig. 12 Position response o proposed design against Zieglerf Nichols tuning rules (a)load: 0 kg; (b) load: 1.5 kg; (c) load: 3.0 kg

100
'
'

10'
' ' ' """ '

lo2
"""'
' ' '
"

io3
'
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lo4
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105

Conclusions

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S(Zieg1er) T(Ziegler) ): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

- -

-1001 . . ......* . . ......, . . ......, . . ......# . . ......' . . ..J 10-1 loo 10' lo2 io3 lo4 lo5
frequency, radls

.--

f Fig. 11 Mugnitude specijkutions o S(jw) and T(jw); ES-PID cornpured with Zieg1r.r-Nichols tuning rules
IEE ProccElects, Power Appl, Vol. 149. No. 6, Nouetnbes 2002

A two-parameter PID control framework is developed via an evolution searching approach, which ensures multiple specifications imposed. An evolution design algorithm, whch offers a simple and elegant way to bridge H , control methods and practical control designs, has effectively solved the complex multiobjective control design problem. The design approach is applied to treat the robust tracking control of a transportation carriage, directly driven by a linear brushless DC motor. Simulated and
405

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experimental results using the proposed controller are shown to work extremely effectively.
7 Acknowledgment

10

11

This research was sponsored by National Science Council, Taiwan, R.O.C. under grant NSC89-2213-E035-035.
8
1

12

References
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2 HEMATI, N., THORP, J.S., and LEU, M.C.: Robust nonlinear control of brushless DC motors for direct-drive robotic applications,
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Leondes, I. (ed.): to appear in Intelligent Systems Techniques and Applications (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2001) PANAGOPOULOS, H., and ASTROM, K.J.: PID control design and H , loop shaping. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Control Applications, 1999, pp. 103-108 IKEDA, M., HASHIMOTO, H., and HARASHLMA, F.: Robust control of linear DC motor using DSP. IEEE International Symposium on lndustrial Electronics, 1993, pp. 397402 SHIEH, N.C., TUNG, P.C., and LIN, C.L.: Robust output tracking control of a linear brushless DC motor with time-varying disturbances, IEE Proc., Electr. Power Appl., 2002, 149, (I), P? 3 9 4 5 !: BACK, T.: Evolutionary algorithms in theory and practice, (Oxford, New York, 1996) MICHALEWICZ, Z.: Genetic algorithms + data structure = evolution programs, (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1996) SCHWEFEL, H.P.: Evolution and Optimum Seeking, (Wiley, New York, 1995) KIM, M.K., LEE, C.G., and JUNG, H.K.: Multiobjective optimal design of three-phase induction motor using improved evolution strategy, IEEE Trans. Mugn., 1998, 34, pp. 298CL2983 PARK, J.H., and CHOI, Y.K.: An on-line PID control scheme for unknown nonlinear dynamic systems using evolution strategy, IEEE Proc. Evvolut. Comput., 1996, pp. 759-763 COSTA, L., and OLIVEIRA, P.: Evohtionary algorithms approach to the solution of mixed integer non-linear programming problems, Comput. Chem. Eng., 2001, 25, pp. 251-266 GREEN, M., and LIMEBEER, D.J.N.: Linear robust control, (Prentice-Hall, New York, 1995) DAVIS, L.: Handbook of genetic algorithms, (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1991) LIN, C.L., and LAI, R.M.: Parameter design for guidance and control system using genetic approach, Aerosp. Sci. Technol., 2001, 5, pp. 425434 OGATA, K.: Modern control engineering, 3rd Edn. (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1997)

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