Various Topics in Bose-Einstein Condensation

A. Teker

Department of Physics, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey

(Dated: January 17, 2009)
In this project various properties of Bose-Einstein Condensation will be investigated. Beginning
from the very basics of nonrelativistic Bose-Einstein Condensation, eects of presence of relativistic
eects and pair-production will be considered. Afterwards, relativistic ideal Bose gas system upon
which a general conservative conning potential was applied will be investigated for its various
properties. The relativistic extremes along with the eects of the pair-production will be taken into
account. (Advised by Prof. Tanatar)
Properties of an ideal gas of nonrelativistic nonin-
teracting indistinguishable bosons will be investigated,
rstly [? ]. The ideal Bose gas system has very small
temperatures and high densities hence, the system has
its mean kinetic energy and mean distance between par-
ticles small. These properties are good approximations
to real systems. It is important calculate the grand-
canonical partition function of such a system, since it
gives vast amount of information about the system. In
its most general form, grand-canonical partition function
can be written as
q(T, V, z) = ln Z(T, V, z) (1)
for a system of T temperature, V volume and fugacity
z = exp(/k
B
T) which is a pressure parameter dened
with bosons chemical potential . Also it reects the
tendency of a substance to prefer one phase rather than
another. The chemical potential of an ideal Bose gas
must be smaller than the lowest value of energy,
k
=
0, so is a negative property which makes bosons feel
an attractive potential. The partition function can be
written as
q(T, V, z) =

k
ln{1 zexp(
k
)} (2)
and number of particles can be determined as
N =

k
1
z
1
exp(
k
) 1
(3)
where 1/k
B
T. For a large volume, the sum over all
one-particle states can be written in terms of an integral
as

k

V
(2)
3

d
3
k. Using energy dispersion relation

k
=
2
k
2
/2m and transforming to spherical coordinates
from phase space; the summation can now be written as

k
(2V /h
3
)(2m)
3/2

1/2
d. One thing here is to
be drawn serious attention: As long as a nite volume
is given, one-particle states are close to each other but
not in a continuous sense, so letting 0 would be a
catastrophic approximation to make; rather, = 0 state
is taken into account separately. Therefore the partition
function and total number of particles is written as
q(T, V, z) =
V

3
g
5/2
(z) ln(1 z) (4)
N(T, V, z) =
V

3
g
3/2
(z) +N
0
(z) = N

+N
0
(5)
where g
n
(z) is known as Bose function and is the
Broglie wavelength of the particle and N
0
is the number
of particles at the ground state. The rst term, N

, of
equation (5) represents the number of particles at excited
states, while N
0
gives that at ground state. The number
equation is bounded with the value of zeta function whilst
fugacity is unity, z = 1. Since 0 g
3/2
(z) (3/2)
2.612, a maximum number of particles in excited states
N
max

can be dened as N
max

= (V/
3
)(3/2). Thus,
no more than N
max

particles can be in excited states.

Under the thermodynamic limit of number equation, one
has to consider two cases for z. For z = 1, N
0
is nite
and N
0
/N 0; thus the number of particles at ground
state is negligibly small and all particles occupy excited
states; but, when z = 1, N

= N
max

, N
0
is divergent,
and N
0
/N is an indeterminate expression. In such a case
N
0
is given the excess of particles that are not in the
excited states, namely N N
max

. Therefore, when the

fugacity is unity, excited states can no longer accommo-
date any more particles and it becomes for the system
energetically more favorable to ll the state = 0 with
particles that cannot stay in excited states. In summary,
one obtains,
1 =
N

N
+
N
0
N
lim
N

1 =
N
N
,
N0
N
= 0 for z < 1
1 =
N
max

N
+
N0
N
for z = 1
(6)
This phenomenon is known as
Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC). Using equation
(5), this result can be restated that if
N < N
max

=
V

3
(3/2) (7)
holds, all N particles can be put in an excited state of
the system; but if
N > N
max

=
V

3
(3/2) (8)
is valid, excited states > 0 are not enough to contain all
particles within the system thus, BEC takes place and
2
N
0
particles occupy the ground state
N
0
= N N
max

= N
V

3
(3/2) (9)
Hence, one can say that BEC occurs when
N
3
V
= (3/2) (10)
Since the Broglie wavelength of bosons is =
h/(2mk
B
T
c
)
1/2
, critical temperature at which BEC oc-
curs is
k
B
T
c
=

N
V

2/3
h
2
2m((3/2))
2/3
(11)
For large temperatures and low densities there is enough
number of excited states to accommodate excited bosons.
On the contrary, for small temperatures and high densi-
ties, bosons tend to occupy the ground state eventually.
In such a case, the ground energy level is statistically
more desirable for bosons. It becomes favorable for the
system to no longer distribute the thermal excitation en-
ergy homogeneously over all particles, but only over a
fraction of N
max

/N and to put the rest of the energy

into the ground state. That is why the ground state en-
ergy level, = 0 was dealt separately in equations (4),
(5).
The temperature dependence of BEC can be shown with
the help from the fugacity. Using equation (5), the fu-
gacity can be restated as,
z =

1 if N
3
/V (3/2)
N
3
V
= g
3/2
(z) if N
3
/V < (3/2)
(12)
so the number of particles at the ground state and excited
stated can then be obtained as,
N

N if N
3
/V < (3/2)
N
max

if N
3
/V (3/2)
(13)
N
0
=

0 if N
3
/V < (3/2)
N N
max

if N
3
/V (3/2)
(14)
Using equation (11), the fractions of number of bosons
at excited and ground-states with respect to temperature
can be tabulated as
N

N
=

1 T T
c

T
Tc

3/2
T < T
c
(15)
N
0
N
=

0 T T
c
1

T
Tc

3/2
T < T
c
(16)
One has to remember that BEC does not occur spon-
taneously when N
3
/V = (3/2) but also provided that
N
0
> 0 : This nuance is to be taken seriously. When
BEC is not present in the system, the fugacity has to be
determined from N
3
/V = g
3/2
(z) as it can been from
equation (5) since N
0
= 0.
For the classical limit, very small values of N
3
/V is
to be considered. This is where g
3/2
(z) converges to the
rst term of expansion of the Bose function as
N
3
V
= z +
z
2
2
3/2
+. . . (17)

N
3
V
= z (18)
which is the classical gas equation, as it can be veried
from various textbooks, i.e., [? ].
In a recent work of M. Grether, et al., [?]; boson num-
ber density is calculated for a relativistic ideal Bose
gas (RIBG) for ultrarelativistic (UR) and nonrelativis-
tic (NR) extremes, where pair-production of boson-
antiboson couples are present. Their approach is em-
ployed here. The total number of bosons, without anti-
bosons, is given by equation (3); here the total energy of
each boson is
|
k
| =

c
2

2
k
2
+m
2
c
4
(19)
= mc
2
+
2
k
2
/2m+O(k
4
)
= ck

1 +
1
2
(mc/k)
2
+O(k
4
)

where k is boson wavenumber, m is its rest mass, c is

the speed of light and is the Plancks constant. In
D-dimensions, the volume integral of a D-dimensional
hypersphere of radius a will replace the summation in
equation (3) as

k
(L/2)
D

d
D
k. At critical tem-
perature T
c
, the chemical potential of bosons will be as-
sumed to be equal to their rest mass. Hence, the boson
number density can be written as
n
N
L
D
=
1
(2)
D

1
exp[
c
(|
k
| mc
2
)] 1
(20)
In the (NR) extreme case, inserting the rst term of
the energy dispersion relation into equation (20) will
yield to n = (2)
D

exp[
c
(
2
k
2
/2m) 1]
1
. In-
tegration over all space can be achieved by d
D
k =
[2
D/2
/(D/2)]k
D1
dk. Solving for critical temperature
yields
k
B
T
NRB
c
=
2
2
m
[n/(D/2)]
2/D
(21)
where the superscript stands for the nonrelativistic limit
for bosons only. In a 3D application of the above result
turns out to be exactly equal to equation (11). In the
(UR) limit, inserting
k
= ck into equation (20) will
3
yield to the critical temperature expression as,
k
B
T
URB
c
=

n
D
c
D
2
D1

D/2
(D/2)
(D)(D)
1/D
(22)
In 3D, the expression turns out to be k
B
T
URB
c
=
c
2/3
(n/(3))
1/3
. At high temperatures such as
k
B
T
c
mc
2
, boson-antiboson pair production will oc-
cur [? ]. Since energy of each particle will have to sat-
isfy the energy dispersion relation in equation (19); pair-
producted antibosons will have negative energy values
of their pair-producted bosons. Therefore, E
k
= |E
k
|
where positive(negative) sign indicates the energy of a
boson(antiboson). In this case, the total number of parti-
cles will not be conserved where total number of charges,
Q will be. The total number of charges can be found
by the following formula [? ]
Q = N

N =

k
(n
k
n
k
)
=

1
exp[(|E
k
| )] 1
( )

(23)
where n
k
( n
k
) is the average number of bosons (an-
tibosons) which have E
k
(E
k
) energy, at a given
temperature T, and N(

N) is the total number of
bosons(antibosons). ( ) refers to another set of
boson equations in which chemical potential is taken to
be instead of . The chemical potential must be
bounded by mc
2
mc
2
, since n
k
, n
k
> 0 at
any temperature for all states and E
0
= mc
2
. Instead
of constancy of N, one must now use Q as a constant
in order to nd correct critical temperature, T
B

B
c
of
BEC for both bosons and antibosons are present. Since
|(T
B

B
c
)| = mc
2
, equation (23) becomes
q Q/L
D
=
2
D/2
(D/2)(2)
D

0
k
D1
dk

sinh (
c
mc
2
)
cosh (
c

c
2

2
k
2
+m
2
c
4
) cosh (
c
mc
2
)
(24)
where q is the charge density. Equation (24) is an ex-
act expression for critical temperature k
B
T
B

B
c
of BEC at
any temperature when boson-antiboson pair-production
is present.
There are two limiting cases of k
B
T
B

B
c
; one of low tem-
perature limit as k
B
T
c
mc
2
and other of high tem-
perature limit as k
B
T
c
mc
2
. For the low temperature
limit, the expression of k
B
T
B

B
c
turns out to be exactly
the same expression for (NR) case without antibosons-
T
NRB
c
in equation (21). The high temperature limit
diers from antiboson-absent case, for which it is now
expressed as
k
B
T
URB

B
c
=

n
D
c
D2
(D/2)(2)
D
4m
D/2
(D)(D 1)

1/(D1)
(25)
In FIG.1, the critical temperatures of the NR and UR ap-
proximations are plotted for dierent number densities.
As expected, the exact expression of critical temperature
in equation (24), tends to align itself with UR expression
when the density and temperature of particles is high
where this tendency turns in favor of the NR expression
when densities and temperatures are low.
FIG. 1: Number density versus critical temperature of bosons
in dimensionless units,
3
n/m
3
c
3
and kBTc/mc
2
. The number
density of bosons in NR and UR cases are represented by lightly
and boldly dashed straight lines, respectively. The bold straight
line is the exact expression for critical temperature for all speeds
as in equation (24).
Another aspect of BEC can be investigated if a general
external potential is involved in theoretical evaluation of
the system of conserved number of bosons. This problem
was dealt, recently by G. Su et al., [? ]. In D-dimensions,
Hamiltonian of a relativistic boson in presence of a po-
tential U(r) can be written as
H(p, r) =

p
2
c
2
+m
2
c
4
+U(r) (26)
where p and r are momentum and position vectors of the
boson and U(r) is the potential function corresponding
to the conservative eld which can be formulated as
U(r) =
D

k=1

x
k
L
k

t
k
(27)
where x
k
is the k-th component of the position of a bo-
son and t
k
,
k
, L
k
are all-positive constants that dene
the shape and the strength of the potential. In D dimen-
sions, the number and energy equations of a collection
of bosons, when there is an external potential with the
previously dened characteristics, can be written as
4
N = N
0
+
1
h
D

d
D
pd
D
r
exp[(

p
2
c
2
+m
2
c
4
+U(r) )] 1
(28)
E = N
0
mc
2
+
1
h
D

p
2
c
2
+m
2
c
4
+U(r)
exp[(

p
2
c
2
+m
2
c
4
+U(r) )] 1
d
D
pd
D
r. (29)
where N
0
, the number of particles at the ground state
energy level of the system is,
N
0
=
1
exp[(mc
2
)] 1
(30)
After integration and substitution of general external po-
tential into equations (28), (29); general expressions for
number and energy for a system of bosons are found as
N = N
0
+

V

1/2

j=1
exp(j)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/)
(31)
E = N
0
mc
2
+

V k
B
T

1/2

j=1
exp(j)
j
D

+
(32)
[( 1 j/)K
D
(j/) + (j/)K
D

+1
(j/)]
where D

= (D + 1)/2, =

D
k=1
1/t
k
, = k
B
T/mc
2
,
=

h
2
/(2mk
B
T) is the Broglie wavelength and

V =
D

k=1
(2L
k
)(1/t
k
+ 1)
(
k
)
1/t
k
(33)
is the the eective volume of the system. When the sys-
tem approaches its critical temperature, chemical poten-
tial of the bosons approach to their rest energy and the
number of particles at the ground state is negligible since,
BEC has not yet taken place within the system. So, the
number of Bose-Einstein condensates can be determined
from equation (31) as
N =

V
C

D
C

1/2

j=1
exp(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/
C
)(34)
where
C
=

h
2
/(2mk
B
T
C
),
C
= k
B
T
C
/mc
2
and

V
C
=
D

k=1
(2L
k
)(1/t
k
+ 1)
(
C

k
)
1/t
k
. (35)
The ground-state fraction at T T
C
is calculated as
N
0
N
= 1

T
T
C

+1

j=1
exp(j/)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/)

j=1
exp(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/
C
)
Also, the heat capacity of the system can be calculated
with C = (E/N)
N
, where it should be calculated sep-
arately for below and beyond the critical temperature.
This is because at T = T
C
, = mc
2
. When T > T
C
,
the number of ground-state particles will be zero and the
heat capacity can be calculated using equation (32) as
C
T>T
C
=

E
T

N
=

E
T

N,
+

N,

N
= Nk
B

j=1
exp(j)
j
D

[( 1) 2( 1)j/ +j
2
/
2
]K
D
(j/) + (j/)
.(2 3 2j/)K
D

+1
(j/) + (j
2
/
2
)K
D

+2
(j/)

j=1
exp(j)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/)

j=1
exp(j)
j
D

+1
[( 1 j/)K
D
(j/) + (j
2
/
2
)K
D

+1
(j/)]

j=1
exp(j)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/)

j=1
exp(j)
j
D

+2
K
D
(j/)

(36)
where the recurrence relation of the modied Bessel function of the second kind is employed [? ]. When T T
C
, the
5
chemical potential is equal to bosons rest energy and the specic heat can be calculated as
C
TT
C
=

E
N

N
(37)
= Nk
B

T
T
C

+1

j=1
exp(j/)
j
D

[( 1) 2( 1)j/ +j
2
/
2
]K
D
(j/) + (j/)
.(2 3 2j/)K
D

+1
(j/) + (j
2
/
2
)K
D

+2
(j/)

j=1
exp(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/
C
)
(38)
So, there exists a jump in the heat capacity between T T

C
and T T
+
C
as
C C
T=T

C
C
T=T
+
C
= Nk
B

j=1
exp(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
[( 1 j/
C
)K
D
(j/
C
) + (j/
C
)K
D

+1
(j/
C
)]

j=1
exp(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/
C
)

j=1
exp(j/
C
)
j
D

+2
K
D
(j/
C
)
Since the number of bosons at T
C
has been calcu-
lated earlier by equation (34), one can investigate when
a trapped relativistic Bose system will condensate at
a nonzero temperature. Approximations of the modi-
ed Bessel functions of the second kind for NR and UR
limits are very useful here [? ]. For massive bosons,

c
= k
B
T
C
/mc
2
is nite and j/
C
1; so one can do
the following approximation for large j/
C
,
K

(x) =

2x
exp(x)

1 +
4 1
8x
+. . .

(39)
The series are convergent when the summation is divided
up to two parts such that

j=1
=

jm1
j=1
+

jm
and
provided that D

1/2 > 1. In this case, a number

of j
m
1 particles go through BEC above absolute zero.
Therefore, it can be asserted that; if
D

k=1
1
t
k
+
D
2
> 1, (40)
BEC will occur in a system of massive bosons at a
nonzero temperature. Whereas, for a system of nearly-
massless bosons which can attain UR speeds,
c
=
k
B
T
C
/mc
2
and
K

(x)
()
2

2
x

(41)
approximation is convenient. Using the same method of
diving sums apart, BEC condition for UR bosons can be
written as
D

k=1
1
t
k
+D > 1. (42)
Using same approximations, condition of presence of a
jump in the heat capacity can be calculated as
D

k=1
1
t
k
+
D
2
> 2 (43)
for massive bosons, and
D

k=1
1
t
k
+D > 2 (44)
for massless bosons. A few verications can be made
by using equations (31), (39) number of Bose-Einstein
condensates for NR limit can be found as
N =

V

D
( +
D
2
) (45)
For = 0 and D = 3 the above expression gives ex-
actly the result previously found in equation (10). This
is expected since is a parameter of conning external
potential and with inserting = 0 into the equation (31),
one has to get the same equation (10) and equation (21)
for D = 3. Similarly; for the UR case, the equation (31)
under UR approximation in equation (39) becomes,
N =

V
C

D
C
( +D) (46)
This equation seems to be similar to equation (45), but
thermal wavelength of UR bosons are now dened as

D
C
=
hc
2k
B
T
C

(D1)/2
(D/2 + 1/2)

1/D
(47)
For = 0 and D = 3, the above equation is equal to equa-
tion(25), as expected. It is seen from equation (34) that
6
critical temperature is dependent on the number of par-
ticles, therefore a useful parameter,
C0
= k
B
T
C0
/mc
2
can be constructed as

C0
=
1
mc
2

Nh
D
( +D/2)(2m)
D/2

i=1

1/t
k
k
(2L
k
)(1/t
k
+ 1)

1/(+D/2) (48)
where T
C0
is the critical temperature under NR limit. So
using equation (48), equation (31) can be rewritten as,

+D/2
C0
=

1/2

+D/21/2
C
( +D/2)

j=1
exp(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/
C
)
(49)
FIG.2 shows
C0
as a function of
C
for the cases D = 3
and dierent parameters . It can be asserted that rel-
ativistic eects lowers critical temperature for BEC; and
for a system bosons with little rest masses, the relativistic
eects should be taken into account.
FIG. 2: The parameter C0 as a function of C. The solid line
represents the NR approximation, where dashed curves corre-
spond to results of the relativistic Bose gas for dierent .
A few important and useful expressions can be calcu-
lated for NR and UR limits of the considered system.
Using the rst term of equation (39); critical tempera-
ture, number fraction, heat capacity at T > T
C
, heat
capacity at T T
C
and heat capacity gap for massive
bosons can be calculated as
T
C
=
1
k
B

Nh
D
( +D/2)(2m)
D
/2
D

i=1

1/t
k
(2L
k
)(1/t
k
+ 1)

1/(+D/2)
, (50)
N
0
N
= 1

T
T
C

+D/2
, (51)
C
T>T
C
= Nk
B

( +D/2)( +D/2 + 1)
g
+D/2+1
(z)
g
+D/2
(z)
( +D/2)
2
g
+D/2
(z)
g
+D/21
(z)

, (52)
C
TT
C
= Nk
B
( +D/2)( +D/2 + 1)

T
T
C

+D/2
( +D/2 + 1)
( +D/2)
, (53)
C = Nk
B
( +D/2)
2
( +D/2)
( +D/2 1/2)
(54)
where fugacity, z exp[(mc
2
)] can be determined from equation (45). On the other hand, same type of equations
can be written for the UR case as
T
C
=
1
k
B

N(hc)
D
2
D

(D1)/2
(D/2 + 1/2)( +D)
D

i=1

1/t
k
(2L
k
)(1/t
k
+ 1)

1/(+D)
(55)
N
0
N
= 1

T
T
C

+D
(56)
7
C
T>T
C
= Nk
B

( +D)( +D + 1)
g
+D+1
(z)
g
+D
(z)
( +D)
2
g
+D
(z)
g
+D1
(z)

(57)
C
TT
C
= Nk
B
( +D)( +D + 1)

T
T
C

+D
( +D + 1)
( +D)
(58)
C = Nk
B
( +D)
2
( +D)
( +D 1)
(59)
where equations (55), (56), (57), (58) and (59) are critical temperature, number fraction, heat capacity at T > T
C
and T T
C
, and heat gap in UR limit. Also here fugacity is to be determined from the number equation namely
equation (46).
The case of presence of pair-production has been handled by G. Su, et al., [? ]. The total charge of the system is
employed here as in equation (23) and the total energy of the system is given by,
E =

exp[( )] 1
+ ( )

. (60)
After using energy expression as in equation (26), the total number of charges and energy can be expressed as
Q = Q
0
+
1
h
D

d
D
pd
D
r
exp[(

p
2
c
2
+m
2
c
4
+U(r) )] 1
( )

= Q
0
+

V

1/2

j=1
sinh(j)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/) , (61)
E = N
0
mc
2
+
1
h
D

p
2
c
2
+m
2
c
4
+U(r)
exp[(

p
2
c
2
+m
2
c
4
+U(r) )] 1
d
D
pd
D
r + ( )

= E
0
+

V k
B
T

1/2

j=1
cosh(j)
j
D

+
[( 1)K
D
(j/) + (j/)K
D

+1
(j/)] , (62)
where the total charge of the bosons at ground-state
energy level is
Q
0
=
1
exp[(mc
2
) ] 1
( ) (63)
whose energies are given by
E
0
=
mc
2
exp[(mc
2
) ] 1
+ ( ) (64)

1
exp[(mc
2
) ] 1
( ) (65)
= Q
0
mc
2
(66)
since the term ( ) is negligible near ground-state.
The calculations of equations (61) and (62) are almost
trivial since equations (31) and (32) are known before-
hand. They show great similarity except that the ex-
ponentials of equations (31) and (32) turn to hyperbolic
trigonometric functions.
The total charge at critical temperature can then be
determined as
Q =

V
C

D
C

1/2

j=1
sinh(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/
C
)(67)
which can be calculated form equation (34). The charge
fraction of the particles can be given with a similar man-
ner as
Q
0
Q
= 1

T
T
C

+1

j=1
sinh(j/)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/)

j=1
sinh(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/
C
)
Also, heat capacity of the boson gas when pair-
production when T > T
C
can be calculated as
8
C
T>T
C
=
dE
dT
=

E
T

T
d
dT
=

V k
B

1/2

j=1
cosh(j)
j
D

+
[( 1)K
D
(j/) + (2 3)(j/)K
D

+1
(j/)
+(j
2
/
2
)K
D

+2
(j/)]

j=1
sinh(j)
j
D

+1
[( 1)K
D
(j/) +K
D

+1
(j/)]

j=1
cosh(j)
j
D

+2
K
D
(j/)

(68)
When T T
C
, the chemical potential of the bosons will be equal to their rest energy, so the heat capacity will read
as
C
TT
C
=
dE
dT
=

V k
B

1/2

j=1
cosh(j/)
j
D

+
{[( 1) + (j
2
/
2
)]K
D
(j/) + (2 3)(j/)K
D

+1
(j/)
+(j
2
/
2
)K
D

+2
(j/)} (2/)

j=1
sinh(j/)
j
D

+1
[( 1)K
D
(j/) + (j/)K
D

+1
(j/)]

(69)
And equations (68), (69) can be used in the same fashion to determine the heat capacity gap which reads as
C = C
TT

C
C
TT
+
C
=

V k
B

1/2

j=1
sinh(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
[( 1)K
D
(j/
C
) + (j/
C
)K
D

+1
(j/
C
)]
(1/
C
)

j=1
cosh(j/
C
)
j
D

+2
K
D
(j/
C
)

j=1
cosh(j/
C
)
j
D

+2
K
D
(j/
C
)

1
(70)
Also, the parameter
C0
can be determined for the
pair-production present case like in equation (48). Using
same methods of calculation, one can write,

C0,pp
=
1
mc
2

Qh
D
( +D/2)(2m)
D/2

i=1

1/t
k
(2L
k
)(1/t
k
+ 1)

1/(+D/2) (71)
where,
C0,pp
= k
B
T
C0
/mc
2
represents the parameter

C0
when pair-production is present. Using equation
(67); equation (71) can be expressed as

+D/2
C0,pp
=

1/2

+D/21/2
C
( +D/2)

j=1
sinh(j/
C
)
j
D

+1
K
D
(j/
C
)
(72)
FIG.3 represents the dependence of
C0,pp
on
C
for the
case D = 3 and = 3. The solid line represents the NR
case. It is shown that both relativistic eects and in-
uences of pair-production cannot be ignored when the
parameter
C0,pp
is large. Also for a large parameter

C0,pp
, pair-production considerably increases the criti-
cal temperature of BEC.
In this project, the conditions of BEC were calculated
in terms of thermodynamic properties, (N,T,V ) for a rel-
9
FIG. 3: The parameter C0,pp as a function of C. The solid line
represents the NR approximation, and lightly and boldly dashed
curves corresponds to cases when pair-production is absent and
present, respectively.
ativistic ideal Bose gas. As a rst approach, NR Bose
gas with constant number of particles, was considered
and its total number and energy expressions, ground-
state fraction, critical temperature were found. Then
relativistic eects along with pair-production were taken
into account by modifying the energy-momentum disper-
sion relation and imposing the idea of conserved total
charge. The total number, charge and energy equa-
tions of the relativistic ideal Bose gas were calculated.
Also, NR and UR limits of critical temperature were cal-
culated for a system with accommodates both bosons
and antibosons. It is found out that critical temperature
for UR-bosons dier from that of UR-bosons with anti-
bosons. Then, an exact expression was written for the
total number of charges which was evaluated numeri-
cally and was shown graphically that NR and UR cases
are very compatible with the numerical value of the exact
expression. As a third part of the discussion; a system
of ideal bosons on which a general conservative poten-
tial eld was applied, where pair-production eects were
discarded. Again, total number and energy expressions
were calculated analytically for this system. From these
two equations, heat capacity of the system was calculated
and presence of a specic heat gap at the critical temper-
ature was proven. The BEC conditions were calculated
using NR and UR approximations, depending only on
the dimensionality, D and the characteristic property,
of the potential. Using same approach specic heat gap
conditions were found in terms of the same parameters.
A useful parameter,
C0
was constructed and graphically
analyzed it was seen that relativistic eects lowers the
critical temperature and for a system of bosons with lit-
tle rest mass, relativistic eects should be considered.
Afterwards, useful expressions were calculated for criti-
cal temperature, ground-state fraction, heat capacity at
T > T
C
and T T
C
and the gap of the heat capacity
for both extremes. As a last part, a system of bosons
and anti-bosons with an applied external potential with
pair-production was considered. This part was dealt with
the same manner as of the previous part the delicacies
of having pair-production were taken into account. The
total charge and energy expressions were calculated for
this case and these expressions were used to calculate
heat capacity at T > T
C
and T T
C
and heat capac-
ity gap equations. Similarly, a parameter,
C0,pp
was
calculated and plotted. The plot revealed the eect pair-
production upon BEC for a large parameter
C0,pp
, the
pair-production eects should be considered and for a
large parameter, the critical temperature of BEC consid-
erably increases.
In conclusion, relativistic and pair-production eects
upon BEC were investigated thoroughly in this paper.
As the paper advances, it shows an immense compatibil-
ity with the results found previously.
A. Teker thanks B. Cakmak and L. Subasi for fruitful
discussions on the contents of this project and for their
support in writing this report.

Electronic address: ateker@ug.bilkent.edu.tr

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