CHAPTER 27 ALGAE (PLANTLIKE) AND FUNGUSLIKE PROTISTS SECTION 27-1 OVERVIEW OF ALGAE Algae are plant-like organisms that

belong to the Kingdom Protista. Although most species of algae are unicellular, some are large, multicellular organisms. Algae differ from protozoa, which are also classified in the Kingdom Protista, in that they manufacture their food through the process of photosynthesis. OBJECTIVES: Compare algae with other protists. Explain how algae differ from plants. Describe the various body structures of algae. Identify the characteristics used to classify algae into seven phyla. Summarize the events of asexual and sexual reproduction in representative genera of algae. CHARACTERISTICS 1. Algae are a diverse group of protists. They range in size from microscopic Singlecelled organisms to large Seaweeds that may be hundreds of feet long. 2. Algae are AUTOTROPHIC Protists- they are called Plant-like because they perform PHOTOSYNTHESIS. Like plants, Algae contain CHLOROPHYLL and produce their own Carbohydrates giving off Oxygen as a by-product of Photosynthesis. 3. Algae are different from plants because they LACK Tissue Differentiation and have No True Roots, Leaves or Stems. 4. The Reproductive Structures of Algae also differ from those of plants; they form Gametes in Single- Celled GAMETANGIA, or Gamete Chambers. Plants form Gametes in Multi-cellular Gametangia. 5. For these Reasons Algae are classified as Protists. 6. Despite their Diversity, different kinds of algae have some things in Common. A. Most Algae are AQUATIC. B. Most have FLAGELLA at some point in their life cycle. C. Algae Cells often contain PYRENOIDS, organelles that Synthesize and Store Starch. STRUCTURE 1. The Body Portion of an Algae is called a THALLUS. The Thallus of an Algae is usually Haploid. 2. A variety of Thallus formats characterize Algae. The Thallus can be consist of a Single Cell, or made up of Many Cells in varying arrangement. 3. FOUR Types of Algae are recognized, based on the following Body Structures: UNICELLULAR, COLONIAL, FILAMENTOUS, AND MULTICELLULAR.

A. UNICELLULAR ALGAE - A Structure that consists of a Single Cell, most are Aquatic Organisms, and form the PHYTOPLANKTON, a population of photosynthetic organisms the forms the foundation of the Food Chain. They produce half of the worlds Carbohydrates and are among the major producers of Oxygen in the Atmosphere. (Figure 27-1 (a)) B. COLONIAL ALGAE - Have a Structure that consists of Groups of Cells acting in a coordinated manner. Some of these Cells Become Specialized. This division of Labor allows Colonial algae to move, feed, and reproduce efficiently. C. FILAMENTOUS ALGAE- Have a slender, rod-shaped Thallus, composed of rows of cells joined end to end. Some have specialized structures (Holdfast) that Anchor the Thallus to the ocean bottom. This adaptation secures the Alga in one place as it grows toward the sunlight at the water's surface. D. MULTICELLULAR ALGAE - Have a large, complex Thallus. The Leaf-like Thallus may be several centimeters wide but only TWO Cells Thick. Some have rubbery leaflike portions, stem-like regions, and enlarged air bladders. CLASSIFICATION 1. Algae are classified into Seven Phyla, based on their Color, Type of Chlorophyll, Form of Food Storage Substance, and Cell Wall Composition. (Table 27-1)

SEVEN PHYLA OF ALGAE PHYLUM THALUS FORMAT FORM OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS FOOD STORAGE CELL WALL COMPOSITION Polysaccharides, Primarily Cellulose

Unicellular, Colonial, Chlorophyta Chlorophylls a and b, Filamentous (Green Algae) Carotenoids , and Multicellular Phaeophyta Chlorophylls a and c, Multicellular (Brown Algae) Carotenoids, Fucoxanthin Rhodophyta (Red Algae) Chlorophylls a, Phycobilins, Multicellular Carotenoids

Starch

Laminarin (an Cellulose with oily Alginic Acid carbohydrate) Starch Cellulose or Pectin, many with Calcium Carbonate

Mostly Bacillariophyt Unicellular, Chlorophylls a and c, a Some Carotenoids, Xanthophyll (Diatoms) Colonial Dinoflagellata (Dinoflagellat Unicellular es) Chrysophyta (Golden Chlorophylls a and c, Carotenoids

Leucosin (an Pectin, many oily with Silicon carbohydrate) Dioxide

Starch

Cellulose

Mostly Chlorophylls a and c, Unicellular, Xanthophyll, Carotenoids

Laminarin (an Cellulose oily

Algae)

Some Colonial

carbohydrate) No Cell Wall, Chlorophylls a and b,Carotenoid Paramylon (a Protein-rich s, Xanthophyll Starch) Pellicle

Euglenophyta Unicellular (Euglenoids)

2. All known Phyla contain the light absorbing Photosynthetic Pigment Chlorophyll a. 3. Different types of Algae also contain other Forms of Chlorophylls-such as Chlorophylls b, c, or d-that absorbs different Wavelengths of light. 4. Some Phyla also have Accessory Pigments that give them their Characteristic Color. 5. Algae live wherever there is Sufficient WATER. 6. They grow in ponds, in salt water, in moist soil, and even on the surface of ice. 7. In Aquatic habitats, Algae have the same basic role as plants on land - that of PRODUCERS. REPRODUCTION 1. Many Species of Algae Reproduce BOTH Asexually and Sexually. Some species Reproduce only Asexually. 2. Sexual Reproduction is Often Triggered by Environmental Stress. 3. Both Asexual and Sexual Reproduction have been studied in the Unicellular Green Algae Chamydomonas. (Figure 27-1 (a))

A. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - It exist as a Flagellated Haploid Cell, during Asexual Reproduction, it First absorbs its Flagellum, then the Haploid Cell divides Mitotically (Mitosis) up to Three Times, and forms from Two to Eight Haploid Flagellated Cells called ZOOSPORES, that develop within the parent cell. These motile Cells break out of the parent cell, disperse, and eventually grow to full size. (Figure 27-2) B. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Begins with Haploid Cells dividing Mitotically (Mitosis) to produce either "Plus" or "Minus" Gametes. A "Plus" Gamete and a "Minus" Gamete come in contact with one another and Shed their Cell Walls. They Fuse and form a Diploid Zygote, which develops a Thick Protective Wall. A Zygote in such a Resting Stage is called a ZYGOSPORE. A Zygospore can withstand unfavorable conditions. When favorable conditions exist, the Thick Wall Opens and the Zoospore emerges. It then undergoes Meiosis, forming Numerous Haploid Cells that grow into mature organisms. (Figure 27-2)

REPRODUCTION IN MULTICELLULAR ALGAE 1. Oedogonium is a Filamentous Green Algae. The Oedogonium has cells specialized for Producing Gametes. (Figure 27-3) 2. The Modified Cells that produce and hold Gametes are called UNICELLULAR GAMETANGIA. 3. The Male Unicellular Gametangia is called an ANTHERIDIUM and produces SPERM. 4. The Female Unicellular Gametangia is called an OOGONIUM and produces an EGG. 5. The Antheridium Releases Flagellated sperm into the surrounding Water, where they swim to an Oogonium and enter through small pores. 6. After Fertilization, the resulting Zygote is released from the Oogonium and forms a Thick Walled, Diploid, Resting Spore. They will undergo Meiosis, forming Four Haploid Zoospores. One of the New Cells becomes a Root-like HOLDFAST, and the others divide and form a New Filament 7. The Filamentous Green Algae Spirogyra reproduces Sexually by a process called CONJUGATION. 8. During Conjugation, Two Filaments Align Side by side. The walls of adjacent cells dissolve and a Conjugation Tube Forms between the Cells. One cell contains a Plus Gamete, that move through the Conjugation tube, entering the other cell, and fuses with a minus Gamete. After Fertilization, the Zygote forms a Thick Wall, falls from the Parent and becomes a Resting spore. It latter produces a New Spirogyra Filament. 9. The Leaf-like Alga Ulva has a Sexual Reproduction Characterized by a pattern called ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. (Figure 27-4) 10. A Life Cycle that Exhibits Alternation of Generations has TWO Distinct Multicellular Phases A. A Haploid Gamete Producing Phase called a GAMETOPHYTE PHASE. B. A Diploid Spore Producing Phase called a SPOROPHYTE PHASE. 11. The Adult Sporophyte has Reproductive Cells called SPORANGIA which produce Haploid Zoospores by Meiosis. The Zoospores divide mitotically and form motile spores, which settle on rocks and grow into Multicellular, Haploid Gametophytes. The Gametophyte looks exactly like the Sporophyte. (Figure 27-4) 12. The Gametophyte produces Gametangia and then produces Plus and Minus Gametes that unite and form Zygotes. The Diploid Zygotes complete the Cycle by dividing Mitotically into New Diploid Sporophytes.

13. Alternation of Generation in Green Algae is important because it also occurs in more complex Land Plants. 14. In plants the Gametophyte and Sporophyte DO NOT Resemble Each other. 15. Also, the Male and Female Gametes (Sperm and egg) in Plants are developed in Multicellular Reproductive Structures. SECTION 27-2, ALGAL DIVERSITY The Seven Phyla of Algae are a showcase of diversity. Microscopic forms, such as diatoms, dinoflagellates, and euglenoids, differ enough to be placed in separate phyla. Pigmentation distinguishes the green algae, red algae, brown algae, and golden algae, which are also placed in separate phyla. OBJECTIVES: Explain why the phylum Chlorophyta (GREEN) is considered the most diverse phylum of algae. Describe the characteristics of the members of the phyla Phaeophyta (BROWN) and Rhodophyta (RED). Describe the essential characteristics of diatoms, and explain their industrial importance. List the important structural characteristics associated with dinoflagellates. Discuss why Euglena is considered both a protozoan and an algae. PHYLUM CHLOROPHYTA- GREEN ALGAE 1. The Phylum Chlorophyta contains more than 7,000 species of organisms called Green Algae. 2. Their body structures range from Single Cells and Colonial Forms to Multicellular Filaments and Sheets. 3. Most Species are Aquatic, but some also inhabit Moist Land Environments, such as the Soil, Rock Surfaces, and Tree Trunks. 4. GREEN ALGAE (CHLOROPHYTA) are Green and usually Multicellular. Most green algae live in fresh water or in moist soil. Some kinds live on the shallow ocean floor. A few live in Symbiotic Relationships with other organisms or as part of organisms called LICHENS. 5. Biologist believe that Green Algae gave Rise to Land Plants. Evidence supporting this, both groups have Chloroplasts a and b, Both also have Carotenoids and Store Food as Starch. Both also have Cell Walls made of Cellulose. PHYLUM PHAEOPHYTA - BROWN ALGAE 1. The Phylum Phaeophyta contains 1,500 species of organisms called Brown Algae. 2. BROWN ALGAE (PHAEOPHYTA) have a Brown Color, are Multicellular, and most grow in Cool Saltwater Habitats. They include the Giant KELPS and SEAWEEDS, the largest organisms (147 - 328 ft long) in the Kingdom Protista. They have specialized structures: rootlike structures called HOLDFAST that anchor the Thallus to rocks, and specialized AIR BLADDERS that causes the Leaflike portion of the Thallus to

FLOAT near the Surface. Where it can absorb the sunlight needed for PHOTOSYNTHESIS. 3. The Stem-like portion of the Alga is called the STIPE, and the Leaf-like region, modified to capture sunlight for Photosynthesis, is called the BLADE. 4. The Brown algae contain Chlorophylls a and c and a large amount of the Brown Pigment called FUCOXANTHIN (FYOO-koh-ZAN-thin), which gives them their Brown Color. The food they produce is stored as LAMINARIN, a Carbohydrate with glucose units that are linked together differently than those in starch. 5. Some of the largest algae known are classified in this phylum Macrocystis (Giant Kelp) can grow to a length of 100 m. The thallus is anchored to the ocean bottom by a rootlike holdfast. The stemlike portion is called the stipe. The leaflike region, modified to capture sunlight for photosynthesis, is called the BLADE. 6. The cell walls of Macrocystis (Giant Kelp) contains Alginic Acid source of ALGINATE and is used in Cosmetics and Various Drugs, as Food, and as a Stabilizer in most Ice Cream. PHYLUM RHODOPHYTA - RED ALGAE 1. The Phylum Rhodophyta contains 4,000 species of organisms called Red Algae. 2. RED ALGAE (RHODOPHYTA) are Multicellular organisms and grow in warm Saltwater Habitats. Red Algae have Thalli with Branched Filaments. Besides Chlorophyll a, Red Algae have other PIGMENTS called PHYCOBILINS, that TRAP SUNLIGHT. They allows Red Algae to live in DEEP WATER where there is too little light for most other plants and algae. 3. Despite their common, name, Not all Red Algae are Red. The depth at which they live in the ocean determines the amount of pigment they have. 4. Certain species of Red Algae have Cell Walls coated with a Sticky substance called CARAGEENAN, a polysaccharide used in the production of Cosmetics, Gelatin Capsules, and some types of Cheese. AGAR, which is used as a gel-forming base for culturing microbes is extracted from the cell walls of Red Algae. PHYLUM BACILLARRIOPHYTA - DIATOMS 1. The Phylum Bacillariophyta contains 11,500 species of organisms called DIATOMS. 2. DIATOMS ARE ALGAE THAT LACK BOTH CILIA AND FLAGELLA AND HAVE GLASSLIKE CELL WALLS CONTAINING SILICA (Silicon Dioxide) and are commonly called Shells. (Figure 27-8) 3. Their shells consist of Two pieces that fit together like in a box with a lid. Each half is called a VALVE.

4. There are Two types of Diatoms; CENTRIC DIATOMS have Circular or Triangular Shells and are most abundant in Marine Environments. PENNATE DIATOMS have Rectangular Shells and are most abundant in Fresh Water Pond and Lakes. 5. Some Pennate Diatoms move by secreting threads that attach to the surface of the water. When these threads contract, they pull the diatom forward. 6. Diatoms are an abundant component of Phytoplankton and are important Produces in freshwater and marine food webs. 7. When they die, their shells sink to the bottom of the sea and accumulate forming a layer called DIATOMACCEOUS EARTH. 8. DIATOMACEOUS EARTH is slightly Abrasive and is a major component of many commercial products, such as detergents, paint removers, fertilizers, insulators, and some types of toothpaste. PHYLUM DINOFLAGELLATES - DINOFLAGELLATES 1. The Phylum Dinoflagellates contains 1,100 species of organisms called Dinoflagellates. 2. Dinoflagellates are small, usually Unicellular organisms. Most are Photosynthetic. But a few species are Heterotrophic. 3. Along with diatoms, dinoflagellates are one of the Major Producers of Organic Matter in Marine Environments. 4. DINOFLAGELLATES ARE ALGAE WITH TWO FLAGELLA OF UNEQUAL LENGTH THAT SPIN THE CELLS LIKE A TOP THROUGH THE WATER. (Figure 27-9) 5. The alga is covered by a Cellulose Plate that looks like Armor when seen under a microscope. 6. They can be free-living, or have Symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Symbiotic Dinoflagellates DO NOT have Flagella. 7. Some species (Noctiluca) can produce BIOLUMINESCECE, a display of sparkling light often seen in the Ocean at night. 8. Other species produce Toxins and Red Pigments. When their populations Explode, they turn the water brownish red, resulting in a phenomenon known as RED TIDE. (Noctiluca) 9. When Shellfish including oysters, feed on the Dinoflagellates, they also consume the Toxins, which are dangerous to humans who eat the Shellfish. PHYLUM CHRYSOPHYTA - GOLDEN ALGAE 1. The Phylum Chrysophyta contain 850 species of organisms called Golden Algae. 2. Most live in Fresh Water, but a few are found in Marine Environments.

3. The Cells form Highly Resistant Cysts that enable them to survive beneath frozen surfaces of lakes in winter and dry lake beds during summer. 4. Two Flagella of unequal length are located at one end of each cell. 5. Most species are some shade of Yellow or Brown due to the presence of large amounts of Carotenoids. 6. Golden Algae store much of their surplus energy as OIL and are important in the formation of Petroleum Deposits. PHYLUM EUGLENOPHYTA - EUGLENOIDS 1. The Phylum Euglenophyta contains 1,000 species of Flagellated organisms called Euglenoids. 2. EUGLENOIDS ARE ORGANISMS THAT HAVE NO RIGID CELL WALL, HAS A FLEXIBLE PROTEIN COVERING CALLED PELLICLE, AND THEY HAVE TWO FLAGELLA. 3. They show characteristics of both Algae (plant-like), many have Chlorophyll and are Photosynthetic, and Protozoans (animal-like) they Lack a Cell Wall and are Highly Motile. 4. Most species live in Fresh Water, but a few are found in Moist Environments, in the Soil or in the Digestive Tract of Certain Animals. 5. A Familiar genus of Euglenoids is Euglena, this protists is abundant in freshwater, has an elastic transparent pellicle beneath its cell membrane, it also has a Contractile Vacuole to rid the cell of excess water. (Figure 27-10) 6. The Euglena is usually Photosynthetic, but if raised in a Dark environment, it will not form Chloroplasts and will be Heterotrophic. SECTION 27-3 FUNGUSLIKE PROTIST The Kingdom Protista contains a number of fungilike protists in addition to the algae. Among these are the slime molds and water molds. These organisms have unique life cycles that set them apart from the protozoa, algae and fungi. They are Eukaryotic, Multicellular or large Multinucleate Heterotrophic organisms with very little tissue specialization. OBJECTIVES: Describe the two forms that characterize the life cycle of the slime mold. Describe the environment in which slime molds live. Outline the basic life cycles of the two groups of slime molds. Point out the unique characteristics of water molds. 1. Most Funguslike Protists are small and live in damp or watery places, helping to break down dead organic matter. 2. Funguslike Protists are divided into THREE Groups: A. CELLULAR SLIME MOLDS C. WATER MOLDS

B. PLASMODIAL SLIME MOLDS SLIME MOLDS 1. Funguslike Protists are called Slime Molds because they have a Shiny, Wet Appearance, a Texture like Gelatin, and look more like a Mold or Fungus than anything else. Some are White, but most are Yellow or Red. 2. They spend part of their lives in a Mobile, amoeba-like Feeding form, engulfing organic matter and bacteria much as protozoa do. They also produce Fungus-like Reproductive Structures. 3. Most Slime Molds and Water Molds are DECOMPOSERS; THEY GET THEIR NUTRIENTS FROM DEAD ORGANISMS OR THE REMAINS OF DEAD ORGANISMS. 4. Slime molds are typically found growing on Damp soil, Rotting logs, decaying Leaves, or other decomposing organic matter in moist places. 5. Biologist recognized Two groups of Slime Molds- the Cellular Slime Molds (Phylum Acrasiomycota) and the Plasmodial Slime Molds (Phylum Myxomycota). 6. Both types have life cycles with Two Phases: a Mobile Feeding Stage and a Stationary Reproductive Stage. 7. During Reproduction, Slime Molds produce a Spore-bearing Structure called a FRUITING BODY. PHYLUM ACRASIOMYCOTA - CELLULAR SLIME MOLDS 1. CELLULAR SLIME MOLDS alternate between an amoeboid form and a defined spore-producing Fruiting Body. (Figure 27-11) 2. Most live in Fresh Water, Damp Soil, or on decomposing plant matter. When there is little food available they will clump together and resemble a plasmodial slime mold. 3. THE CLUMP IS KNOWN AS A PSEUDOPLASMODIUM (A False Plasmodium) BECAUSE IT CONSISTS OF INDEPENDENT CELLS THAT RESEMBLES A SLUG. 4. The Cells within the clump move as one unit, but each cell maintains its independent identity within its own cell membrane. 5. Eventually the Pseudoplasmodium settles and Forms a Fruiting Body in which Haploid Spores Develop. When the fruiting body breaks open, the Wind Disperses the spores to new locations. Each spore may grow into an individual Amoeboid Cell, thus completing the life cycle. PHYLUM MYXOMYCOTA - PLASMODIAL SLIME MOLD 1. PLASMODIAL SLIME MOLDS come in many different colors, and have different forms at different stages in their Life Cycle.

2. When they are Feeding, plasmodial slime molds form a mass of Cytoplasm called a PLASMODIUM. Each Plasmodium is Multinucleated, containing thousands of Nuclei. 3. A PLASMODIUM IS THE FEEDING STAGE IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF A PLASMODIAL SLIME MOLD. 4. The Plasmodium creeps around the ground, rocks and decaying logs eating Bacteria and other small organisms as it moves by Phagocytosis. 5. When food or water is Scarce, the plasmodium crawls to an exposed surface and begins to reproduce. (Figure 27-12) 6. It forms Stalked Fruiting Bodies, which Haploid Spores Form by Meiosis. The spores are very resistant to adverse conditions. 7. Under Favorable Conditions, the spores crack open and give rise to Haploid Reproductive Cells. Two cells fuse together and their Nuclei Combined to form a Diploid Nucleus. Repeated divisions by Mitosis follow, but the cells do NOT undergo Cytokinesis, so the result is the Multinucleated Cytoplasm characteristic of the Plasmodium. WATER MOLDS 1. A WATER MOLD is a funguslike organism composing of branching filaments of cells 2. WATER MOLDS, these are decomposers or parasites that typically grow in fresh water on decaying plants and animals. Rusts and Mildews are also considered Water Molds. 3. Water Molds are familiar as the white fuzz on diseased aquarium fish or on organic matter floating on water. PHYLUM OOMYCOTA 1. The Phylum Oomycota includes a number of organism that are pathogenic to plants. 2. One infamous water mold Phytophthora infestans, is known for damaging Irish potato crops (BLIGHT) in the nineteenth century and started a famine that killed nearly 2 million people. 3. Blight is a Disease of plants characterized by quickly developing Decay and discoloring of Leaves, Stems, and Flowers. (Figure 27-13) 4. Plasmopara viticola infects Grape Plants, attacking the Leaves and the Fruit. Plasmopara infection causes the grape leaves to wilt and die. Plasmopara may also infect vegetables and other fruits. (Figure 27-14) 5. Water Molds Reproduce Asexually and Sexually.

6. During Asexual Reproduction, they produce motile, Flagellated Reproductive Zoospores. Zoospores Germinate into threadlike cells, some Zoospores from Reproductive Structures called Sporangium, in which new Zoospores are produced. 7. During Sexual Reproduction, the cells of the Water Mold develop Egg-Containing and Sperm-Containing Structures. Fertilization Tubes grow between the Two types of structures, enabling the Haploid Sperm Cells to Fertilize the Haploid Egg Cells and form Diploid Zygotes. A Zygote develops into a new mass of filaments, from which Asexual Sporangia as well as Sexual Oogonia and Antheridia form. PHYLUM CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA - CHYTRIDS 1. The CHYTRIDS (KIE-tridz) are primarily Aquatic protists characterized by gametes and zoospores with a Single, Posterior Flagellum. (Figure 27-15) 2. Most are Unicellular, Some have long filamentous bodies that anchor the organism, Many are Parasites on algae, Plants, and Insects, while others are Saprophytes. 3. Many Biologists not think Chytrids should be classified as Fungi. They Both have similar characteristics; they have similar methods of absorbing nutrients through the cell wall, cell walls that are made of the same type of material, and long filamentous bodies. 4. Because of all these similarities, Biologists think that Chytrids are a link between Protists and Fungi.

CHAPTER 26, PROTOZOA THE ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS SECTION 26-1, OVERVIEW OF PROTOZOA The Kingdom Protista contains a diverse collection of Eukaryotic organisms, protozoa, algae, slime molds, and water molds. Collectively, these organisms are called Protists. Protists are sometimes described as animal-like, plant-like, and fungi-like. However, all protists are Eukaryotic and lack tissue differentiation. OBJECTIVES: Describe the characteristics of protozoa. Explain the role some protozoa play in aquatic ecosystems. Discuss the classification scheme used to identify protozoa. Name an adaptation that enables some protozoa to survive harsh environmental conditions. Briefly explain the evolution of protozoa. CHARACTERISTICS 1. Protozoa are Single-Celled microscopic Eukaryotic organisms that are noted for their ability to Move Independently. 2. Protozoa are sometimes referred to as Animal-Like Protists. 3. Biologist have identified about 65,000 species of protozoa, almost half which are extinct species from fossils. 4. Protozoa live in many different environments; they can drift in the ocean, creep across vegetation in fresh water rivers and ponds, crawl in deep soil, and even reproduce in the bodies of other organisms. 5. Most Protozoa are HETEROTROPHIC, obtaining their nutrients by ingesting small molecules or cells. These particles are usually broken down in FOOD VACUOLES, membrane-bound chambers that contain Digestive Enzymes. 6. Many species are free-living, while others are Parasites. 7. Free-living live in any habitat where WATER or MOISTURE is available at some time during the year. 8. Many species make up ZOOPLANKTON, a population of organisms that constitutes one of the primary sources of energy in Aquatic Ecosystems. They are the beginning of the Food Chain. 9. Some Free-Living Protozoa live in the soil. 10. Parasitic Protozoa usually have Complex Life Cycles that take place in the cells, tissues and bloodstream of their Host. Several species cause serious human diseases, including Malaria, Amebic Dysentery and Giardiasis.

REPRODUCTION 1. All Protozoa can reproduce ASEXUALLY, Usually by Binary Fission. During binary fission, a protozoan divides into TWO Identical Individuals. 2. Some species reproduce by MULTIPLE FISSION, a form of Cell Division that results in a Number of Identical Individuals. 3. While ALL species can reproduce Asexually, a few also reproduce SEXUALLY, through CONJUGATION. 4. During Conjugation, individuals from Opposite Mating Strains Pair and Exchange Genetic Material (DNA). Conjugation in protozoa is more complex than in Bacteria. CLASSIFICATION 1. Protozoa are members of the Kingdom Protista, along with Algae (plant-like), and Slime Molds, and Water Molds (Fungi-like). 2. A Convenient way to classify Protozoans is based on the WAY THEY MOVE: THE FOUR PHYLA OF PROTOZOANS ARE: (Figure 26-2 and Table 26-1) A. PHYLUM SARCODINA (SCARCODINIANS) MOVE BY EXTENDING THEIR CYTOPLASM. B. PHYLUM ZOOMASTIGINA (ZOOFLAGELLATES) PROPEL THEMSELVES BY FLAGELLA. C. PHYLUM CILIOPHORA (CILIAPHORANS) OR CILIATES MOVE BY HAIRLIKE CILIA. D. PHYLUM SPOROZOA (SPOROZOANS) DO NOT MOVE BY THEMSELVES AT ALL. (b)

A SUMMARY OF PROTOZOA, TABLE 26-1 PHYLUM COMMON NAME LOCOMOTION NUTRITION TYPE heterotrophic; some parasitic heterotrophic; some parasitic heterotrophic; some parasitic heterotrophic; some parasitic REPRESENTATI VE GENERA Amoeba Radiolaria Naegleria Paramecium Tetrahymena Balantidium Trypanosoma Leishmania Giardia Trichonympha Plasmodium Toxoplasma

Sarcodina

sarcodines

pseudopodia

Ciliophora

ciliates

cilia

Zoomastigin zooflagellates a Sporozoa sporozoans

flagella

(None in Adults)

ADAPTATIONS 1. Many species have physiological mechanisms for Monitoring Conditions in their Environment. 2. Many free-living species have a localized Region of Pigment called an EYESPOT. Eyespots detect Changes in the Quantity and Quality of Light. 3. Certain Protozoan species also sense physical and chemical changes or Obstacles in their environment. 4. Most Protozoa are separated from their Environment Only By their Cell Membrane. 5. They can survive in Extreme (Harsh) Conditions due to their ability to form CYSTS. A Cysts is a Dormant Form characterized by a Harden External Covering in which Metabolic Activity has Ceased. 6. Many species form Cysts in response to Changes in the Environment, such as Nutrient Deficiency, Drought, Decreased Oxygen Concentration, or pH or Temperature Changes. 7. Cyst formation is important to many Protozoa that must survive such conditions between Host. 8. When Favorable Environmental condition Return, a Protozoan emerges from the Cysts and resumes Metabolic Activity. EVOLUTION 1. The First prokaryotes evolved more than 3.5 years ago, about 1.5 billion years ago the First Eukaryotic Organisms Evolved. Protozoa are the descendants of these early Eukaryotes.

2. The first Eukaryotes Probably evolved through ENDOSYMBOSIS, a process in which one prokaryote lives inside another and Gradually both host and guest become dependent on one another. (Read: The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells, pg 510511) SECTION 26-2, PROTOZOAN DIVERSITY The broad diversity of protozoa is evident in the four major phyla identified by biologist. The phyla are distinguished by their Form of Locomotion, and each group contains a number of Parasites that causes serious human disease. The complexity of protozoa sets them apart from the relatively simple structures of bacteria and viruses. OBJECTIVES: Explain how sarcodines have contribute to Earth's geological features. Explain how the four groups of protozoan move. Describe a type of sexual reproduction that occurs in ciliates. Identify four human diseases caused by zooflagellates. Discuss the life cycle of Plasmodium. PHYLUM SARCODINA (SAHR-kuh-DE-nuh), SARCODINIANS 1. Biologists have classified 40,000 species of protozoa in the Phylum Sarcodina. 2. Sarcodines include hundreds of Species of Amoebas, which inhabit fresh water, salt water, and soil. Some can even live on mud, rocks, and other surfaces in shallow, slow moving streams and ponds. (Figure 26-3) 3. SARCODINIANS ARE PROTOZOANS THAT MOVE BY EXTENDING LOBES OF CYTOPLASM. 4. The lobes of Cytoplasm that Sarcodinians extend are called PSEUDOPODS (PSEUDOPODIA), WHICH MEANS "FALSE FOOT". 5. A Pseudopodia forms when ENDOPLASM, the inner portion of Cytoplasm, pushes the ECTOPLASM, the Outer Layer, forward to Create a Blunt, armlike Extension. 6. Amoebas move by extending part of their cell membrane into a lobe, or pseudopodia, that can attach to a surface. Then, Cytoplasm streams into the pseudopodia and pulls the organism forward. This movement is called AMEBOID MOVEMENT. Ameboid Movement is a form of CYTOPLASMIC STREAMING, the Internal flowing of a Cell's Cytoplasm. (Figure 26-4) 7. Sarcodines also use Pseudopodia for Feeding. Sarcodines live on other protists, which they engulf (eat) by Phagocytosis. 8. When a Sarcodine feeds, it surrounds the food with its Pseudopodia. A portion of the Cell Membrane then pinches together and surrounds the food in a Food Vacuole, in a process called Endocytosis. Enzymes from the cytoplasm then enter the Vacuole and digest the food. Undigested food leaves the cell in a reverse process called Exocytosis. 9. Most fresh water Sarcodines have CONTRACTILE VACUOLES, an organelle that removes excess water from the cell.

10. When conditions are unfavorable, amebas survive by becoming hard CYSTS. THE CYSTS CAN WITHSTAND DROUGHT, HEAT, OR BEING EATEN BY OTHER ORGANISMS. 11. Not all Sarcodinians are soft "Naked"; many have Hard Shells or TEST, of Calcium Carbonate or Silica and are called: FORAMINIFERANS AND RADIOLARIANS. (Figures 26-5 and 26-6) 12. Most hard shell Sarcodinians live in the Ocean, and are important food sources for many marine animals. 13. When hard shelled Sarcodinians die, their shells sink to the bottom of the ocean making huge deposits of limestone called Chalk. The most famous chalk deposits are the Cliffs of Dover on the coast of England. The Great Pyramids of Egypt were built with stones quarried from Limestone Beds that are made from a Large Foraminiferan. HUMAN DISEASE 1. Amoebas (Entameba histolytica) as CYSTS can spread by Water, in Food, or on Dishes causing AMEBIC DYSENTERY which can be Fatal. 2. It lives in the Large Intestines, where it secretes Enzymes that attack the Intestinal Lining and causing deep Ulcers. Affected individuals feel intense pain, and complications arise when the amoebas are carried by the blood to the liver and other organs. 3. This is where the saying "Don't Drink the Water" in certain countries comes from. Travelers are warned never to drink UNTREATED WATER to avoid Amebic Dysentery. PHYLUM CILIOPHORA, CILIAPHORANS or CILIATES 1. The 8,000 species that make up the Phylum Ciliophora swim by means of CILIA, which are short, hairlike cytoplasmic projections that line the cell membrane. 2. THE CILIATES ARE PROTOZOANS THAT HAVE BODIES COVERED WITH SHORT HAIRLIKE PROJECTIONS CALLED CILIA. 3. The Cilia is used for movement by Beating like Oars to propel the Protists. 4. Some kinds of Ciliates have specialized Cilia shaped like Teeth, Paddles, or Feet. 5. Most Ciliates live in Freshwater. A common freshwater ciliate is the Paramecium. (Figure 26-7) INTERNAL STRUCTURES 1. Ciliates have the most ELABORATE ORGANELLES of any protozoa. (Figure 26-8)

2. Paramecia have a protective covering over their Cell Membrane, it is a Clear, Elastic Layer of Protein, called a PELLICLE. 3. Protozoan both eats and swims through water with it's Cilia. 4. When Eating, the Cilia sweeps food particles, such as microscopic Algae and Bacteria, into the ORAL GROOVE. In the Oral Groove, the MOUTH PORE opens into a GULLET, which pinches off around them to form a FOOD VACUOLES. (Figure 26-8) 5. The Food Vacuoles move inside the Cytoplasm where nutrients are extracted, it ejects the waste through an opening called the ANAL PORE. 6. ALL PROTOZOANS HAVE CONTRACTILE VACUOLES. These are an important adaptation for living in Water. Contractile Vacuoles collect excess water (Osmosis) and pump it outside the Cell body. 7. Paramecium, LIKE ALL CILIATES, can Reproduce ASEXUALLY by Binary Fission and SEXUALLY by Conjugation. They also have TWO distinct kinds of NUCLEI (MULTINUCLEATE): A. THE LARGE MACRONUCLEUS CONTROLS ONGOING FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL (THE BRAIN) AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION. The Large Macronucleus contains Multiple Copies of DNA. B. THE SMALLER MICRONUCLEUS IS INVOLVED IN GENETIC EXCHANGE DURING SEXUAL REPRODUCTION BY CONJUGATION - THE JOINING OF TWO OPPOSITE MATING STRAINS AND EXCHANGING GENETIC MATERIAL. Although Genetic Material is Exchanged during Conjugation, NO NEW Cells are produced. Following conjugation, each Paramecium divides, producing Four Genetically Identical Paramecia. Exchange of Genes can enable organisms to adapt better to changing environments, the four Offspring are Genetically Different from Either Original Paramecium. (Figure 26-9) PHYLUM ZOOMASTIGINA, ZOOFLAGELLATES 1. The 2,500 species that make up the Phylum Zoomastigna are characterized by the presence of one or more FLAGELLA, long, hairlike structures that are made up of Microtubules and are used for moving. 2. ZOOFLAGELLATES ARE PROTOZOANS THAT MOVE BY MEANS OF FLAGELLA. 3. Some Zooflagellates are free-living freshwater or marine organisms. 4. Many can live inside other organisms in SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP (A relationship in which TWO Different Organisms live closely together; it can be either BENEFICIAL or HARMFUL to the Organism). 5. The Symbiotic Relationship may be: A. MUTUALISTIC RELATIONSHIP - Both Organisms Benefit.

B. PARASITIC RELATIONSHIP - Causes Harm to the HOST. 6. Some Zooflagellates are parasitic organisms that cause Disease in Humans. 7. The Zooflagellate Trypanosoma causes African Trypanosomiasis, "African Sleeping Sickness", in Humans. It produces Toxins that destroy red blood cells, causing the host to become weak. This disease if left untreated eventually attacks the Host's Nervous System, causing DEATH. 8. This Disease effects all large Mammals, including Humans in some parts of Africa. The Disease is spread by the BITE if the TSETSE FLY. 9. Another species called Trypanosoma cruzi, causes Chagas' Disease. It is transmitted by an insect called the "Kissing Bug", patients suffer from fever, and heart damage. 10. The Trichonympha lives in the guts of termites, and help the termite digest Cellulose in wood. This is a mutualistic relationship, they both benefit from the relationship. PHYLUM SPOROZOA, SPOROZOANS 1. All 6,00 species in the Phylum Sporozoa have adult forms with NO Means of Movement. 2. MOST SPOROZOANS ARE SPORE-FORMING PARASITIC (HARMFUL) PROTOZOANS. 3. The name Sporozoan comes from the fact that when they are immature, they are surrounded by THICK, SPORELIKE WALLS. 4. Adult Sporozoans have NO Structures for Movement. Immature Sporozoans, called SPOROZOITES, can be transmitted through fluids from one host to another. 5. Sporozoans cause many Human Diseases, including MALARIA. The Protozoan that causes Malaria is Named Plasmodium, and is transmitted by FEMALE Mosquitoes (Anopheles). 6. The Life Cycle of the Plasmodium: (Figure 26-13) A. Infected (Carrying SPOROZOITES) Female Anopheles mosquito bites a person. B. Plasmodium SPOROZOITES enter the bloodstream and travel to the Liver. C. They Divide Repeatedly, and NEW Spores called MEROZOITES emerge and infect Red Blood Cells D. Some Merozoites in the blood develop into special cells called GAMETOCYTES.

E. When a female Anopheles bites the infected person, it ingests these Gametocytes. F. In the mosquito's Digestive System, the Sperm and Eggs combine to form a Zygote. G. The Zygote divides repeatedly to form more SPOROZOITES. H. The Sporozoites migrate to the salivary glands of the mosquito. When the insect bites another person, the Life Cycle Begins Again. 7. Malaria is a very serious disease characterized by severe chills, fever, sweating, fatigue, and great thirst. 8. One way to reduce human deaths (2.7 million annually) from Malaria is to control mosquito Populations. Without the Mosquito host, the Plasmodium Protozoan CANNOT Complete their Life Cycle. (Figure 26-13) 9. Malaria is usually cured with a drug derived from the Cinchona Tree, which is native to the Americas called Quinine.