Real-World xperiences annteractive Hoc E with I Ad S

MarkYarvis, Steven onner, D. W. C Lakshman rishnamurthy, K Jasmeet Chhabra, Brent and Elliott Alan ainwa M

ensor etwork N
ring
Intel Research

Intel Labs {mark.d.yarvis, w.steven.conner, lakshman.krishnamurthy}@intel.com amm@intel-research.net {jasmeet.chhabra, brent.j.elliott}@intel.com

Abstract
While ftenuggested moderate-scaled io s is t that a hoc sensor networks a arepromising approach solving to real-world roblems, evaluationssensoret p most of n work protocols aveocused simulation, h f on ratherhan t r ealworld, experiments. In addition, experimental most results ave obtained limited This a h been in scale. p per describespractical pplication moderate-scale a a of ad hocensor etworks.explore s n We several techniquesor f reducingacket includinguality-basedouti p loss, q r ngnd a passiveacknowledgment,and presentanempirical evaluationtheffectthese of e of techniquesnac op ket loss andata d freshness.

Figure 1:Externalandinternalviewsofamotebased voting device.

1.

Introduction

Sensor etworks rovide n p a promising mechanism for miningnformationrom physical Steady i f the world. improvementsin and IC radiotechnologies continueto shrinksensor devices,making large-scalesensorne tworkseasible. deal fesearch f A great or attention has beenlacedn developmentprotocolsor p othe of f org anizingdocensor ah s networks, efficientlybtaining o r elevant information a etwork, ensuring from n and network lo ngevity. Researchers aveendedovaluatehese h t te t protocolshroughimulationndmall-scale T t s a s testing. heeaf sibility ad sensor etworking moderate of hoc n in sc ale and under eal-world r conditions remains importan an t issue is that largelynexplored. u Onepplicationsensor etworkssonableud a of n it e a ienceeedbackf f oa lecturer o presentation. a Each udience member iven is votingeviceFigure g a d ( 1)amall s box 1 with uttonsor and EDsoreedback b f input L f f powered , by a versiontfhe erkeley ote5]. network o B m [ The allowssersrespondouestionsyressingne u to tq bp o of the buttonsnd etermineshe umberusershat a d t n of t pre ssed
Theuthors ishohank teven ordyceor h a w tt S F f his and aintaining votingevices. m the d Other names brands bclaimedtherope and maye as p 1 In future, oreophisticatedeviceould the m s a d c b switchesotherensors, or s allowing speakero the t theudience. a elponstructing c rtyothers. of built gravity e using obtain sense f a o

Figure 2:100 A node hoc ad topology handheld of votingdevicesdeployedintheSanFrancisco Moscone Convention Center.

eachutton. mayhange responsever b Users c their o time, requiring continuous a tally. Whilehispplicationouldenabled y t a c b bfixed a infrastructure uilt a articular uditorium, b into p a a wireless networkcouldenableaudienceparticipationinany venue. engineering ireless etwork c Since a w n that ompletelyovers c a particular enuean eimeonsu v c bt c ming andmpractical, ultihopd oc etworksdeal i a m ah n ii To . this we end, constructedwireless a sensor etwork n of over 00 odesFigure 1 n ( 2). inhe etwork elivNodest n d eredesults designatedatewayodever r via a g n o an adoc h routing topology which was generated usingsinglea destination implementationf DSDV othe protocol [12 ].

Eventhis oderatecale, found obtainin at m s we that reasonable erformancenhis etwork as p it n wa challe The ainmpediments ereongestionnd acket m i w c a p los Our applicationequiresnformationrom r i f all simultaneouslyollectedaingleocation, c as t l resu data implosion.leveragedeveral We s techniques, i ingacket p aggregation, educe amountdat to r the of verging the on gateway. addition, efound In w that packet bothuring loss, d transmissionnd ithin a w in diate odes, difficultcontrol theim n was to given s radiosndimitedesourcestfhe odes. expl a l r o n We techniquest theink andheetwork aboth l layer t n l reduce acket This aper escribes ur p loss. p d o experiences ith oderateizeddocensor w m s ah s netwo and techniqueshat an employedreduce onge t c be to c tionnd acket inhese etworks, a p losst n including o perimental results.

g nge. s. nodesbe to ltingn i ncludcona termeplistic ored ayer to real-world rks, sur ex-

Client Application Sensor Network

XM L
Serialized Packets

Sensor Gateway

Gateway ode N

Figure 3: oftware S architecture the of voting application.

2.

Thepplicationrchitecture a a

The otingpplicationonsists v a c of parts:ensor four s a network voting of nodes, ateway with n a g node a int erfaceoraditional omputing ta t c platform, a sensor gateway application, nd or a one more client pplication a s. This architecture ishown s in Figure 3. The oting odesre uilt a v n a b upon variantthee of r ne mote5], [ originally evelopedthe niversity f d at U o CaliforniaBerkeley, at whichervesthe aseommun s as b c icationndomputationlatform. oreomponent a c p The c c of s the oteren tmel m a aA ATmega163L AVR microcontroller1] ith KB flash, of AM, a [ w 16 of 1 R and KB n RFM TR100016 Hzadio 9 M r transceiver Protoco [14]. ls and applications remplemented TinyOS ai using [5], an event-driven operating system designedfit ithi to w n the minimal resources hardware. of mote Theadio rovides n-off eying odulationnd er p o k m a d livers bit o10 bps. a rate f k SEC/DED raw (single error correcting, double rror etecting) aseband e d b encodi ng is implementedsoftware, in resultinga aximum in m the oretical hannel apacity approximately bytes c c of 568 per second. Becauseach acket 7 ytesong, e p is b l the 3 channel capacityas h theoretical of packets a limit15 per second. Channel accesssontrolled yarrier ic bc sense multipleccess collisionvoidanceCSMA/CA). a with a ( One odenhe etworkctsa n it n a as gateway, allowing resultso obtained the t be from sensor etwork. n Ea ch nodesapableperiodicallyendinghe sers ic of s t u voteo t the gateway, herecan delivered, cross w it be a a se rial link,a sensor ateway rocess n Since to g p oa PC. the useran c change is ote uringhe oting rocess, hv d t v p and since ackets an lostn p c be i transport, voting each node sendshe sersurrent once erimenterva t u c vote p t i As l. voting packets re assed ap hop-by-hop acrossheen t s sor network, nodettachesIDtheacket, each a its to p f orming traceroute. a

Theensor s networkormsndocopologysing f a ah t u a single-destination ofhe form t DSDV protocol12]. [ In this the case, gateway initiates DSDV route request s, whichreloodednto network. routeeq af i the Each r uest contains a monotonicallyncreasingequence umber i s n a , metric, thedentitythe revious op. and i of p h The metric ismonotonically a increasing measure the o of cost f transmissionthe estination. to d A typical etric m is op h count, allowing shortest tbidentified. the path e o We ill w explore disadvantageso metric well s t this as a a linkquality-basedlternativen ection. ptimiz a iS By 4o ing the metricanddiscardinganypacketswithoutdatedsequence numbers, can a node identify best ext the n h op along tohe ateway ode. a t g path n Together, these paths form routing rootedt gateway. a tree a the The ateway delivershe acketsteceives g node t p ir t o the sensor ateway g process running a This onPC. process eepsrackthe urrent vote. k t of c total Usi ng the tracerouten vote ackets, gateway i the p the process also maintains a representation theopology the of t of s ensor network. gateway The process erveshe s t current o v te and network topology in XML an format overTCP a socketclient to applications, athe isplay suchs d applicationhown s in Figure 2.

3.

Trafficeduction r
alcan a In ed

The otingpplicationllustrates v a i a fundamental ch lengeor f sensor networks: volumesensor the of dat readily over-commithe vailableystem t a s resources. particular, etwork n bandwidth an is extremely limit resource uchetworks. is n n Ifach in 00 network to its e nodea node 1 weresend voteohe ateway ncevery 0econds, gate tt g o e 2s the would receivevote 5 packets ach e second. th While channel upportstheoretical aximum 15 s a m of packet per econd, ontention s c reduces achievable the chann capacitynnd oc etworko iaa h n ta fractiontfhe o channel apacity In c [9].addition, SDV upda D route packets re lso transmitted per ode v a a being once n e ten seconds.a As result, application ses this u a

way e s el actual te ery signifi-

(a)
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A: 3, B: 4

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Votes counted twice

A: 1,

A:0, B:1

Old data propagating

B: 1

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Figure 4: motion resultunbounded Node can in aggregation

errors.

cant mount the vailable a of a bandwidth. Reducing t he numberpackets eliveredohe ateway ouldi of d tt g w l kely beeneficial. b While ggregationa a is naturalolution this ro s to p blem, ote v aggregation challenging is because topolo gy changes an c resultn i unbounded errors. Consider t he networkn Figure 4a. eachocal interval, i During l time a node aitsortshildrens otes. end f w f ic v At o the anni terval, nodeorwards ggregated totalsi the f a vote ( ncludingownote) ts Thus, its v toparent. it i takes n intertime valsoroteromodet f v f n atree-depth a a nbreceived toe byhe ateway. t g If a subtree ovesdueoopol m ( ta t ogy change)o igher osition thereeFigure ta h p in t ( 4b),ts i votes ould e oubleountedor omoreime w bd c f one r t intervalsdepending nhe istance oved). a ( ot d m Since subtree consist f ny can oa number f odes,he on t resulting error nbounded. is u Similarly, ubtree oves if s a m deeper inheree, votes ill beountedor t t its w not c f one or ore m intervals.ddition, In a if packet retransmission i usedo s t reduce packetoss, ny l a topology changes an c result in aggregation errors, if evena nodes epththe d in t rees i unchanged. that this Note while problem pre is not sent in min/max aggregation functions,hese t functions re a not applicable oteggregation. tv a o Anlternativepproachoggregateackets, a a its a p ra ther thanggregatingata. fromivenodee a d A vote g n r a quires aingle yteodentifyhe oting ode ndwo s b ti t v n a t b itso t specify voteA,orvote). leaf the ( B,no Each nod othe en treeanenerate packet c g vote a containingown its identity and vote, forward its and it towardheoottheouting t r of r tree. forwarding packet, nodean When vote a each c also append own its identity nd Becausehe ate a vote. t g way can distinguish source each it an the of vote, mai c ntain theast l known oterom node v f each and rovideheurp t c rent count lient vote to applications. c Since aboveggregationchemenlyequires the a s o r le af nodeso t initiate packets, any m fewer ackets eed p n be deliveredtheateway.ur to g In experiments,a o an verage of 5% onodes ereeaf odes. node 5 ( = f 5%) w l n Leaf detectionanimplementedsing c be u timeout; a each node transmitsvote a packetfhas ot orwardedv iit n f a ote packet (appendingts wn overomeime eri i o vote) s t p od.

Note despiteeducing network that r the traffic, thi gationchemencreasesedundancy; from s i r votes nonnodesan ave ultiple pportunitieso receive c h m o t be the ateway.ddition, a need ot g In a since node n wa itshildrens otes eforeorwarding ataots c v b f d ti the latency involved eportingotes ir n v is reduced. The mountaggregationlimited packet a of is by size in urystem votes. a o s 13 When packet becomesull f can eorwardedohe ateway. that bf tt g A node detec full packet behaveseaf as node. l a

aggres leaf dy b it for parents, ; it , ts a

4.

Quality-basedouting r

Hopount c is typical a metric sedodentifyn u ti ao ptimal tohe estination. patht d However,a in wireles nets workopount otentially choice. h c is p bad a Link uality q betweenairsnodes ay aryuringheifetime p of m v d t l of a networkbasedondistance,transmitpower,antenna shape orientation, adio and r interference, nd a envi ronmental factors apeople heensor (suchs in s t networ kield f attenuatingadioignals). r s Moreover, variati such on ay m leadasymmetricinks etween to l b nodesnhe etwo it n rk. Eventheocations nodesn network f if l of i the are ixed and nodeconfigured an each is with identicalrans t mit power,nodeinterconnectivitywillchangeduringth e coursefexperiment. o an Giventheseoperatingconditions,blindlyselecting DSDV parentsasedn inimum b om numberhopsthe of to destination ayesultpooroutehoices. m r in r c For example, odehattypically from desti a t is n 7 hops the nation may sporadically receive arouteupdate ( RUPDATE) messageromodehathopsrom destina f a t is f the n 4 tion. However, sending ata acketslonghisoute ay d p a t r m resultgreater in packet since acket ar loss, p losses e igher h over extremehysical p distances. Innttemptalleviatehese rawbacks, aa to t d our DSDV implementation a cost etrichats ase uses link m t ib d on linkualitytatistics. q s

4.1.

Measuring quality link

4.2.

Using qualityaouting etric link ar s m

Toacilitateink ualityracking, tagach f l q t nodes e outgoingacket one-hopequenceumber, p with a s n indepe ndentpacket Nodesrackhese ne-hopequ of type. t t o s ence numbers ackets in p receivedrom otheir f eachf neig hbors. Anyequence umber apsdentifiedaeceiver s n g i ar t i ndicate acketshat sent not p t were but received. Each node learnsthedownstreamreliabilityfromeachofits neighbors ytoringhe umberpacketsuccessf bs t n of s ully receivedut lastpackets o of 32 the sent. To identifyi-directional b quality, share nodes the ir local uality q statistics ith ofheir eighbors w each t n This . data could transmitted a periodic be innew message . However,avoid to consuming additional bandwidth, w e chose piggyback statistics nto to these o the RUPDATE messages are that already periodically broadcast r f om each for SDV establishment. to node D route Due the limited in space RUPDATE messages, neighboristsre l a divided fourategories ased n ualityhres into c b oq t holds: Qis%-10% 0 loss, Qis0%-21% 1 loss, Qis1%-53% 2 3 2 1 loss, and Qis3%-100% When receives 5 loss. a node a 0 quality fromeighbor, list n a it supplementslo its cal qualitytatisticsor neighbor theeighbor s f that with n perceps tiontfhe ualitytfheinkrom Bi-di o q o l f itself. rectional link quality considered be minimum is to the qualit y value achirectionetween of I ie d n b pairnodes. a node a f is otisted its eighbors uality the n l in n q list, l inkasis sumedbasymmetricndeceiveshe inimum toe a r t m qua lity of rating Q0. Therereeveral as notable limitationshe q to link t uality implementation, primarilyelatingo eighbor r tn stor age1 ( KBtotal spacen ur latform)ndommuni of data i o p a c cationonstraints31 ytespayload c ( b of space). In a dense network,node have neighborshancan a may more t it track, nd parent election result. a poor s may When the neighboristsull a ew l if and neighbordetecte n is d, the current eighboristsearched, the eighbor n l i and n with theowest quality eplaced. is l link ir s Ifode n a not listed onneighborseighbor theode ust its n list, n m assu me that ansymmetricinkxists. inormallyhen a l e Thiss t i tended behavior, if issingrom list to butm it is f the due neighbor overflowthenahigh-qualityneighbormaybeoverlooked. Thenitial i quality for neighbor ust value a new m b e chosenarefully.initial iset c If the value too s low, identification a quality ofhigh neighbor ill w requirelong a delay.thether an valuehat On o hand,initial t is tooigh h may in resultreplacing igher uality a h q neighbor i n the neighborabletheablesull ueo t if t if d t limited storage space, potentiallyesultingnablehrash. r i t t In t heurrent c networkmplementation, initial i the quality alue v i chos sen 45% near midpoint tbe loss, the o of Q1.

We aventegrated quality h i link metrics ith w DSDV routeelection. Inarticular, wantedollow s p we ta DSDV toelect s routes ithhe ighest w t h end-to-end acket p delivery rate. The nd-to-end e packet elivery oa rout d rate f given e cancomputed y ultiplying deliveryatef be bm the r o each link (measured described Section along as in 4.1) t hat route. approach impractical ecause This is b floati ngpoint ultiplicationexpensive terms m is in both of ode c sizendtorageomplexity.ddition, link a s c In a our quality implementationannlyrovideestimatelink c o p an of quality categorizing link one four ual by each into of q ity categories. a As result, e ave hosen convert wh c to the quality easuref link linkost, m oeach into c wher a higher e linkcostsareassignedtolinksthathaveahigher estimated loss Link rate. costs alongpath be a can summed, roducingmonotonically p a increasing metric forhe t DSDV algorithm identifies that paths t with he highest packet delivery rate. Appropriate costs an chosen converting link c be by packet deliveryatesoheogcalendhen or r tt l s a t n malizingohenteger omain. tt i d Becauseheink etric t l m isn i theogomain, l d adding metricssquivalent link ie t o ulm tiplying acket p deliveryates, r allowing athsd p of ifferent lengthso correctly t be compared, ithoutequiring w r expensive ultiplication. m As escribedSection each maintains n d in 4.1, node a estimatethe ualitytheinkoach eighbo of q of l t e n The r. estimateorrespondso opacket c ta range f delivery rates. The etricor link m f each idetermined s byormalizing n the logtfhe o estimate alueorachategory,shownn v fe c as i Table Becauseherere numbercategories, 1. t a small a of thessociated costs bprecomputed. a link cane Upon receipt an of RUPDATE message a with new sequenceumber, nodeetermines quality n each d the o the f linkoheender, tt s selectshe etricssociated t m a w ithhat t link uality, addsheink etricoheoute q and t l m t t r cost in the RUPDATE message. metric useddenThis ithen ti s o tify lowest and highest the cost, thus delivery rat e, to path theinkode. nodean advertiseown s n The c then its route cost, othe basedn lowest identified. th cost Note at to due limited acket our p size, implementationestricts r t heotal t
Table Link etrics ssociated each of 1: m a with level link uality. q Quality Delivery Rate Q3 90-100% Q2 79-90% Q1 47-79% Q0 0-47% Delivery ate R ln(Re) Link EstimateR e) ( Metric 0.95 -0.05 1 0.85 -0.16 3 0.65 -0.43 8 0.25 -1.39 28

routeostblesshan 55.allow netwo c to e t 2 To for rks f o reasonableize, link etricsand5 eresed s m of 1w u 6 for Q1 and Qinsteadf theoreticallyorrect othe c values. 0 Ideally, ach should for e node wait a minimum settlingime,he xpected elayrom time t t e d f the a nod eer ceivestsirst if RUPDATE message ith sequence w a new numberndheimet a t t ireceiveshe t RUPDATE message forbest its parent, beforeelectingparent s its [1 2]. Due to codepaceimitations, s l settlingimenot t is curren tlymi plemented heetwork. eachode aits it n n Instead n w rana dom interval receivingn after a RUPDATE message ith w new a sequence number advertisingown before its lowest deliveryost. Whileot c n perfect, schemeoes this d reduce the overhead associated with RUPDATE messages. In addition, andomization been r has shown reduce to th e inherentlyurstyaturef isensor b n otraffic n netwo rks [15].

5.1.

Loss rates

5.

Empirical results

To evaluate performance ad networking the of hoc protocolsn ur i o votingpplication, deployedh a we t vote ingodes egular n ir n topologies244x6),(6x of( 48 8), and 917x13) odes, a ( n with gateway at endinhe idone ( t m dleone of of short Inachase, were the edges). c nodes e deployed officenvironment rectangula ian e n over a grid r withodeseet inneirectionnd n 4 apart d f o a 6 feet apart in thether.radio otheodes adjust o The rangef n was educh s that,a in noiselessnvironment, e nearlyossless l c ommunication asossibletistanceup10ee wp a d a ofto f Each t. experiment runor was f approximately ne our, o h prod ucing 0003000 acketsthe ateway. ll 1 to p at g In ex a periments, aggregationas escribedSection vote ( d in 3) as w usedoeduce atamplosionthe ateway ode, tr d i at g n with leaf generatingoteackets 2seconds nodes v p every0 . Inll a experiments, DSDV used a upwas with route date interval10econds. flavorsDSDV ofs Three of were compared: straight DSDV, DSDV asymmetricink with l detection, DSDV linkuality onitoring. and with q m In the basease, c DSDV hopounttheole etric uses c as s m a In. theecondase, exchangeeighbor (des s c nodes n lists cribed in Section to 4.1) identify avoid and asymmetric li nks when selecting arent ode. third n a p n In the case, odes maintainrecenthistory thelink a of quality th to eir neighborsnd se i-directional qualityoe a ub link ts lect the parent ith lowest ost oute the w the c r to gateway (d escribed ection). iS n 4 Asymmetric detection link wasimplementedusing link quality monitoring setting quality by the thre sholds so eachink forced one two that l was into of catego ries, depending whether ny on a packets been had received from that neighbor. rovidetraight To p s DSDV, qual link ity monitoring disabled setting threshol was by the dso s thatnodes forced singleategory. all were into c a All results shown ith0% are w 9 confidence intervals .

Figures 5 through the nd-to-end 9 show e packet loss measured the network Loss a for three sizes. rates re computed using end-to-end an sequence number ainm tained yacheaf Packet aredenti b e l node. losses i fied y b gapsnheequence umberspackets enerated it s n of g b y a given node. rates re leaf Loss a broken down nod by e depth. Packetshat successfully t are received are attributedtheumberhopsecorded heacket. to n of r in p t Since the etworkdynamically n is changing, iven c a node g an changelocationndepthhe SDV over its a d it D tree n time. Sincet ifficultaccuratelyttribute iis d to a nod a depth e to a ropped d packet, have hosenattribute ach we c to e lost 2 packet to nodes a previouslynown depth. k tree Inthe24-nodeexperiment(Figure 5),useofthe straight SDV D algorithm resulted moderate in packet loss. xpected, As e packet wasreater nod loss g for eshat t wereurtherinermshops)rom gateway. f ( t of f the Both asymmetric detection link link and quality monitori ng reducedacket Inarticular, quality p losses. p link monitoring reducedacket byetween p lossesb 24nd 32%, a except in casenodes from gatewaydisc the of 1 hop the as ussed inection.2. S 5 The8-nodexperiment 4 e (Figure 7) resulted imilar, in s but dramaticesults. case, qual less r Inhis link t ity onim toring reduced acket by etween 20%. p loss b 6 and The 91-nodexperiment e (Figure 9) produced an improvement of to%. only 2 4 From results, these it appearshat quality-ba t both sed routingnd asymmetricinketectionecomeessffeca l d b l e tivet a reducing packet ratets size the loss a he o theetfn work increases. We identified likely have two causes. First, communicationhannel breachinga the c maye c pacity, articularly the p near gateway. theory This is supported yheelativelylat rateor odes bt r f loss f n b eyond 2 hops, suggestinghat ajoritylfosses ccur e t a m o o n arhe t gateway. Second, neighbor may e verflow the list bo ing, causing ineffectiveas it e to b ( described ecti iS n on.1). 4 Underhessumptionhat t a t channel contention asn wa issue, augmentedur we o MAC tonclude layeri passive a acknowledgment scheme7]which retransmi [ in node a ts packet not a if it does overhearparent its forward inghat t packet. urimplementationprovidesbest-effortre O transmission hat tplatform it (due n o limitations) onlyne o packet bbufferedt Inddition, cane a ime. t a a ret ransmissions occur orhendpoints. never fromt e to The results 24- nd of a 48-node experimentshatnt i cluded passive acknowledgments rehown as in Figure 6 and Figure Note 8. thatthe 4-nodease, in 2 c passiveca

2 Had instead we chosenfreezehe etwork to t n topolo gy ytopping bs the SDV D protocol, the amount network of traffic ould been w have alteredndheopology ould aveeen nableo a t t w h b u t adaptchanging to linkonditions. c

0.8 0.7 0.6 Packet Rate Loss Packet Rate Loss 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 Quality 2 3 4 5 Node Depth 6 7

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 Quality 2 3 4 5 Node Depth 6 7

Asym

Straight DSDV

Asym

Straight DSDV

Figure 5: acketoss P l rates a in 24-node network with straight SDV, SDV link D D with quality detection, DSDV asymmetric detection. and with link
0.9 0.8 Packet Rate Loss

Figure 6: Packetoss l rates a in24-node network underthreeDSDVvariants,withtheadditionof passive acknowledgments.

0.9 0.8 Packet Rate Loss 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 1 Quality 2 3 4 5 Node Depth Asym 6 7

1 Quality

Straight DSDV

4 5 6 7 Node Depth Asym Straight DSDV

Figure 7: Packetoss l rates a in48-node network with straight SDV, SDV link D D with quality detection, DSDV asymmetric detection. and with link

Figure 8: Packetoss l rates a in48-node network underthreeDSDVvariants,withtheadditionof passive acknowledgments.

knowledgmentseducedhe verall rates you r t o loss br ghly 25%. However, rates loss in 48-node ase nda the c a in 91-nodeexperiment(notpictured)wereactuallyincreased passive by acknowledgments. believe We the negative ffectpassive cknowledgmentthea e of a in l rger experiments resulted ecause ur b o DSDV implementation does ot quell uplicate ackets roduced the AC n d p p by M layer.Asaresult,anyunnecessaryretransmission (caused a odeailso its eighbororwa when f t see n n f rd a packet) ill w produce a duplicate ata acket w d p that ill be forwarded the to gateway. increased The traffic ha s a negativeffectlarger e on networks hichrelread w aa cony gested, ffsetting o possible benefit. believe We th atf i duplicatepacketswerediscardedwithin thenetwork , rather being than forwarded,passive acknowledgment could improveossatesnarger etworks. l r il n It is worth noting in 48-node that, the experiments Figure ( 7 and Figure 8), lossatesortraight SDV loss while r f s D rose,

rates quality-based for routing not. did Quality-b routing helproute round additional may to a the con tionausedy c b the oin-networkuplicateetection. lackf d d

ased ges-

5.2.

Problems loss with rate

Asotedbove, n a ineveralour s of experimentsualityq based routing appeared increase acketossate to p l r sor f nodes ithinnetwoopstheateway. w o or h of g This result isside a effect f ur easurement ethodology. oo m m A s described Section in 3, ackets p originate at eaf only l nodes. Since lossateseportedthisectionre easr r in s am ured using end-to-end an sequence number link-leve ( l sequence umbersre nlyvailableo odes ithin n ao a tn w the network), lossatesannly r c o be measuredor nodes. f leaf However, with our quality-based routing algorithm, a node becomesleaf ode a n becauseadvertisesto it ( its neighbors)elativelyoor toheinkode r a p routet s n . As a

1 0.9 Packet Rate Loss 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 1 Quality 2 3 4 5 Node Depth 6 7

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 Node Depth Asym 6 7

Asym

Straight DSDV

Data (sec) Age

Quality

Straight DSDV

Figure 9: Packetoss l rates a in91-node network with straight SDV, SDV link D D with quality detection, DSDV asymmetric detection. and with link

Figure 10: Dataageina24-nodenetworkwith straightDSDV,DSDVwithlinkqualitydetection, and DSDV asymmetric detection. with link

result, packet rates ill toinflated loss w tend e b in case the of uality-based q routing, particularly nodes e for n arhe t gateway. This problem could be eliminated each atif node tacheditsownsequencenumberwhileforwardinga packet, llowing a average rate be loss to based b on oth interior odes nd nodes. n a leaf This approach was ot n possible our in application, ue limited d to packet ize. s Instead, following the subsection escribesnlternative d aa metric, data age which can , be more easily measured acrossnetworkodes. all n

250 200 Data (sec) Age 150 100 50 0 1 Quality 2 3 4 Node Depth Asym Straight DSDV 5 6 7

5.3.

Datage a

Data ishe aget amount time of between subsequent voteseceivedromarticular Datages r f p a node. a i beta ter metricor application ecauset bm f this b i e can easured for ll odes, justeaf odes. an not l n In addition, d ata ge a measures a quality the etwork is isible of n thatv t o the user: latency etweenheime icast the b t t a s a vote ndhe t time eflected heesults. leaf ir is t in r t While no desenerg ate packet 20econds, ageorn a data every s data f i terior nodesan eignificantlyess, c bs l becausehese ode t n add s their atao forwarded d t all packets. the ther On o hand, data can age also be significantly increased packet by loss. Average atagen d a ia 24-node etworks epictedn n id i Figure 10. that uality-based Note q routing reduced the data ge y a b between and While uality-base 30 42%. q d routing tends increase to thetree depth (becauset he shortest inot paths necessarilyhe est da t b path), ta rigio natingrom in quality-basedouting f deepthe r tree didot n tend significantlylder datariginatin tbe o o than o deep g in thetraight s DSDV routing tree. Average ata gesor 8- nd d a f 4 a 91-node etworks re n a depicted Figure 11nd Figure 12espectively. in a r Inach e

Figure 11: Dataageina48-nodenetworkwith straightDSDV,DSDVwithlinkqualitydetection, and DSDV asymmetric detection. with link

350 300 250 Data (sec) Age 200 150 100 50 0 1 Quality 2 3 4 Node Depth Asym 5 6

Straight DSDV

Figure 12: Dataageina91-nodenetworkwith straightDSDV,DSDVwithlinkqualitydetection, and DSDV asymmetric detection. with link

case, improvementdatagesesshann the in a il t i t he 42 node ase, still c but significant. diminishing The benefit in ata gemost linkedthencreased d a is likely to i packet lossnarger il networks described in ection 5.1. S Despite these packet osses, uality-based l q routing allowed the averagegedatao reduced ymuch42% a of t be b as as in the 8-node etwork 34% the 1-node 4 n and in 9 network, significantly improvingetwork n responsiveness.

6.

Related ork w

Published work prior evaluating hoc ad networking protocols as ainlyocused simulating etworks h m f on n of around nodes. theackimplementation 50 Given l of results, compare urmpirical we oe evaluation ithim w s ulationesults. effectmobilitynd rotocol r The of a p routing overhead been has studied extensively with simulation [2,4]. lessonsearnedre ot The l a n directlypplic a ablen i ournvironment e becausedifferencesn othhe of ib t kind of etwork was imulated n that s (802.11) nd typi a the cal workload (mobile odes). ould usefulo n It w be t und erstandheffectthe SDV updatenterval t e of D route i for a given mobility (orixed), ersus etwork rate f v n size and transmission workload. oa A study f multihop wirel ess adocetwork h n testbed11] [ reports effectm the of obility onhe erformanceTCP/IP. application oma t p of Our d in is uite ifferent the obileP q d from m I network studi ed in this Moreover network paper. the includednly o 5 m obile nodes fixedodes. and n 2 Evaluationf oa transmissionontrol c schemeor f sen sor networks sing simulation nd u both a Berkeley motes h as been presented[15]. evaluationses1odes in The u 1n in a fixed etworkopology ith n t w a network epth5 d oho f ps. The aper p defineshe elivery andwidththe at t d b at g eway and energy efficiency metrics evaluating as for sen sor network protocols. research This showed rando that m transmission delays random and back-offn MAC i the layerouldemove eriodicontention. implem c r p c Our entation theame AC presentedthis o used s M layer in w rk and incorporatedack-off b techniques mproveet to i n work performance. evaluationxpandsprevious Our e on re sults by exploring impact scale well sntegra the of as a i ting other performance-enhancing techniques. While many ad hoc routing protocols assume link symmetry, theresearchers ave o r h identified as that ymmetricinks re l aa problem in wireless d a hoc etworks. n Asymmetry as een ealt in h b d witha varietyways, of including exchange neighboristsn the of l i periodic local messageso t detect asymmetricinks13], l [ similar t o the approach in network. used our End-to-end technique s have also eenmployedo eal asymmetricinks, b e t d with l for example,floodingouteeply essages by r r m rathe than r simply reversing the request ath Likewise, route p [8]. techniques been have described measure lin to local k qualityyetectingacket for purposef bd p loss the o detect-

ingndvoidingeighbors ithighossates3] a a n w h l r [ Our . networkextendsthisapproachbypiggybackinglink quality information exchanged with neighborist e l m ssages, allowingi-directional qualitybe b link to stimated (Section 4.1). A taxonomy aggregation of schemes been has presented 10] i[ n whichlassifiesggregates oattribc a basedn utes importantsensor to networks. this Under taxo nomy, vote aggregation underhe falls t distributive aggregate classification, theoretically allowing partial records state to no than final ggregateize. be larger the a s How ever, frequent changesnur route io ad hocotingetworkrov n p vided many opportunitiesor ote f v duplication (Sect ion 3), to which istributiveggregationechniquesre ery d a t av sensitive. resultedn implementation f This i the o a holistic ggregate pproach, describedtheaxonomy a a also in t , where individual otes ere v w piggybacked tracerou on te packetso countedthe ateway, t be at g precluding du plicate counting. Otheresearchers also r have noted that such packingggregation saves a energyndandwidthy a b b reducing total er-transmission the p overhead the in network [6].

7.

Next steps

Theesults escribedn ection r d iS 5epresent initial r an ratherhan t comprehensive exploration the of perfor manceand sensor etwork. issuesema of a hoc n Many r in outstanding welan xploreheuture. that p te o it f n In paper, characterized network erm this we the it n of s packet Other etricsrelso ossible. loss. m aa p In particular, shapethe the of routing topology ouldof w be interest. We ave otedhat h n t augmenting SDV asymmetric D with linketectionlinkuality onitoring to d or q m tends produce treeshat more alanced t have b fan-in ut tend b also to e b deeper.would tonderstand effect We likeu the of different metricsthe on topologyf SDV-routedetwor oa D n k. Theesults resentedthis apereflect a r p in p r only few changesthe to algorithmic parameters. bvaluIt woulde ableo nderstandhe est updatenterval tu t b route i f orhis t application,balancingbandwidthagainstresilience to change. In addition, e w would to like understand h ow various ualityhresholdsffect q t a packet and loss w hether absolutehresholdsould eeplaced y t c br ba quartile ranking. Finally, hile have w we evaluated severalechniques t foreducing r packetoss, would likeo l we also t ide ntify the major ources f acketoss. s op l Through furtherni strumentationour weopeidentify of code, h to the degree to hichingle-packet w s buffering, limited acket p pr ocessingime, t packet coding, channel and contentionon c tributeo t packet In loss. addition, would to we like determine herenhe etwork acket imost w it n p losss likel yo t occur.

8.

Conclusions

Empiricalmeasurementsprovidevaluableinsights into performanceadocensor the ofh s networkommu c nication protocolsn context real pplication i the of a environments. perhaps nlyfirst tep, ures While o a s o r ults providensight theerformancethe SDV i into p of D pr otocolactual etworks moderatecale. in n of s In parti cular, we shown while have that, packetosses an quit l c be e high, known techniquesuch link s as quality monitor ing and passive acknowledgmentcan producemeasurable improvementsn networks. results ave i real These h allowed to usdemonstrate the alue moderate-scale d v of a hoc etworkingpplications. theremore n a While is w ork to done this pace,hese be in s t initialesults ro r p vide a promisingtart. s

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