Eur. J. Mineral.

2007, 19, 859870 Published online November 2007

Source composition and melting temperatures of orogenic granitoids: constraints from CaO/Na2 O, Al2 O3 /TiO2 and accessory mineral saturation thermometry
Stefan JUNG1, * and Jorg Albert PFNDER2 Philipps-Universitt Marburg, Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Lahnberge/Hans-Meerwein-Strae, 35032 Marburg, Germany *Corresponding author, e-mail: jungs@sta.uni-marburg.de 2 TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Institut fr Geologie, Bernhard von Cotta Strae 2, 09599 Freiberg, Germany
1

Abstract: Granitoid melts, generated experimentally from various materials by uid-absent melting, show characteristic majorelement compositions that can be used to infer source characteristics and melting temperatures. CaO/Na2 O ratios distinguish between pelite-derived melts (CaO/Na2 O < 0.5) and melts derived from greywackes or igneous sources (CaO/Na2 O: 0.31.5). Distinctly more mac melts (granodiorites and quartz diorites) generated by uid-absent melting of amphibolite can show even higher CaO/Na2 O ratios, up to 10, although the majority of the melts have CaO/Na2 O ratios between 0.1 and 3. Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios reect the melting temperature, and mathematical formulations are presented that allow using this ratio as a geothermometer for given source compositions. A comparison of temperatures from melting experiments with corresponding Al2 O3 /TiO2 values indicate a reasonably good correlation (r2 : 0.700.91), demonstrating the usefulness of temperature estimates in granitoid rocks based on Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics. Application to well investigated S-type and A-type granites and quartz diorites from the Damara Belt (Namibia) shows dierent CaO/Na2 O and Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios for all rock types, supporting their origin from dierent sources at dierent temperatures. For the quartz diorites, temperature estimates derived from Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios, and those derived from apatite solubility in mac rocks, agree within 20 C. On the other hand, temperature estimates for A-type and S-type granites derived from Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios are systematically higher by 50150 C compared with those from accessory mineral saturation, suggesting disequilibrium during partial melting of the lower crust. Key-words: granite, major element ratios, accessory phase thermometry, major element thermometry, geochemistry, partial melting.

Introduction
Anatexis of metamorphic rocks of dierent composition in the middle to lower continental crust and subsequent separation of melt and residue are important processes with respect to intracrustal dierentiation and element redistribution (Brown & Fyfe, 1970; Fyfe, 1973; White & Chappell, 1977; Clemens, 1990; Thompson, 1990). The products of these melting processes range from small-sized migmatite leucosomes to large-scale plutonic complexes, both of which can have granitic compositions. However, such granitic rocks usually show a range of compositions and occur in dierent tectonic settings. These observations suggest diverse sources, distinct conditions of formation (including processes linked to fractional crystallization, assimilation, magma mixing) and varying relative contributions of the upper mantle and crustal reservoirs in the genesis of granites. During the last decades radiogenic isotope data and trace-element data have been used to shed light on some of these issues, however less attenDOI: 10.1127/0935-1221/2007/0019-1774

tion has been paid to what major-element compositions can tell us about the origin of granitic rocks. Some of the most important issues are melting temperatures and the nature of the source rocks. Here, the concept of I-type and Stype granites was a rst essential step towards placing constraints upon the nature of granite source regions (Chappell & White, 1974; Chappell & White, 1992). In a recent evaluation, Patio Douce (1999) has shown that there are signicant dierences in the sources and conditions of formation that explain why there are distinct types of granites. The degree of alumina saturation in non-fractionated granites is considered to reect two fundamentally contrasting types of sources: metaluminous (igneous protoliths) and peraluminous (sedimentary protoliths). Partial melting of metapelites and metagreywackes is considered to be a viable process to generate peraluminous granitic magmas with a molar ratio Al2 O3 /(CaO+Na2 O+K2 O) > 1.1 (Chappell & White, 1974; Miller, 1985; Vielzeuf et al., 1990) but peraluminous granites that originate by partial melting of meta-igneous source rocks are also rather 0935-1221/07/0019-1774 $ 5.40
c 2007 E. Schweizerbartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, D-70176 Stuttgart

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common (Miller, 1985; Chappell, 1999). However, the lower continental crust also contains amphibolites, mac granulites and tonalitic to granitic meta-igneous rocks, which may be volumetrically even more important sources for granitic magmas. Therefore, melting of these rock types must be considered in models dealing with granite formation by crustal anatexis. In the present study we have undertaken a reassessment of major-element behaviour during anatectic melting of dierent source rocks. Systematic changes in major-element ratios with source composition and melting temperatures indicate that CaO/Na2 O and Al2 O3 /TiO2 are useful in discriminating between dierent sources and, most notably, allow reasonable estimates of melting temperatures.

Melting experiments: a review of CaO/Na2 O and Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics

Partial melts of metaluminous to peraluminous granitic anity exhibit a wide compositional range, depending on melting temperature, the extent of melting, pressure, a H2 O and protolith composition (Conrad et al., 1988; Holtz & Johannes, 1991; Patio Douce & Johnston, 1991; Skjerlie & Johnston, 1993; Johannes & Holtz, 1996; Patio Douce, 1997). The solidus temperature of metasedimentary and meta-igneous rocks in the presence of excess H2 O is low (c. 640 C at 1 GPa; Holtz & Johannes, 1994) and abundant H2 O in the crust should result in widespread melting. However, although some migmatites may result from partial melting under nearly H2 O-saturated conditions (Johannes, 1988), intrusive granitoid magmas principally require uid-absent melting conditions due to the negative dP/dT slope of the H2 O-saturated granite solidus (e.g. Clemens & Droop, 1998). Experimental results and results from numerical modelling also indicate that appreciable amounts of melt can only be generated at H2 Oundersaturated conditions, involving dehydration melting of muscovite, biotite and hornblende (Clemens & Vielzeuf, 1987; Vielzeuf & Holloway, 1988; LeBreton & Thompson, 1988). Starting materials included in the melting experiments were pelites (Thompson, 1982; LeBreton & Thompson, 1988; Puziewicz & Johannes, 1988; Vielzeuf & Holloway, 1988; Patio Douce & Johnston, 1991; Patio Douce & Harris, 1998; Pickering & Johnston, 1998), greywackes (Conrad et al., 1988; Patio Douce & Beard, 1995; Skjerlie & Johnston, 1996; Montel & Vielzeuf, 1997), intermediate igneous rocks (Conrad et al., 1988; Holtz & Johannes, 1991), mixed charges (metapelite/metatonalite; Skjerlie et al., 1993) and amphibolites (Beard & Lofgren, 1991; Rushmer, 1991; Wolf & Wyllie, 1994; Patio Douce & Beard, 1995). It should be noted here that even minor bulk-rock compositional variations in the studies that used metasedimentary (i.e., pelitic or psammitic material) can have a strong inuence on the uid-absent melting behaviour and hence on the major element composition of the coexisting melts (e.g. Stevens et al., 1997). Therefore, due to the variations in the starting materials it may be dicult to evaluate exactly the dierence in melting temperatures

of metapelites and metapsammites. Most of the experimental studies that have addressed the melting behaviour of common crustal lithologies were performed at aH2 O < 1 at temperatures between 750 and 1200 C and pressures between 0.1 and 3.2 GPa, with only a few conducted at x H2 O 1 and low pressures and temperatures (700 750 C, 0.30.5 GPa; Holtz & Johannes, 1991). Therefore, most of the available experimental data can be used to constrain the H2 O-undersaturated melting behaviour of dierent source rocks in the middle to lower crust. Other works, using intermediate igneous rocks as starting material, were concerned with the generation of A-type granites (Skjerlie & Johnston, 1993; Patio Douce, 1997). These granites are usually considered to be late- to anorogenic intrusive rocks (Eby, 1990), as disparate in composition and genesis as peralkaline syenite-granite associations, metaluminous alkalirich granites, topaz-bearing granites and rapakivi granites. Therefore, our evaluation is restricted to metaluminous to peraluminous late-orogenic A-type granites considered to have been emplaced shortly after the main period of preto syn-collisional calc-alkaline to peraluminous plutonism (e.g., Patio Douce, 1997). Figures 1 and 2 show CaO/Na2 O vs. Al2 O3 /TiO2 for granitic melts derived from dierent types of source rocks, highlighting the eect of source composition (Sylvester, 1998). Partial melts from metagreywackes have CaO/Na2 O ratios mostly > 0.3, independent of the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio, which ranges from c. 20 to 200. On the other hand, partial melts from pelitic sources have CaO/Na2 O < 0.5 over a similar range of Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios (Fig. 1). Partial melting experiments with a pelitic (plagioclase-poor) starting material showed that, if plagioclase disappears completely, Na2 O becomes progressively enriched in the melts and CaO becomes concentrated in the residue, notably in garnet, amphibole or clinopyroxene. Overall, CaO/Na2 O ratios will be signicantly lower in such melts than in the pelitic starting materials. In contrast, melting of plagioclase-rich greywackes will result in CaO/Na2 O ratios equal or only slightly lower in the melt than in the residue, given that plagioclase remains stable in the residue (Sylvester, 1998; Skjerlie & Johnston, 1996). Therefore, unfractionated pelite-derived peraluminous granitic melts should have lower CaO/Na2 O ratios than greywackederived granites (Fig. 1), although the mean CaO/Na2 O ratios of Proterozoic to Phanerozoic shales (c. 1.52, range: 0.943.18) and greywackes (c. 0.93, range: 0.801.03) are broadly similar (Condie, 1993). It is important to note here, that the mineralogy and hence the CaO/Na2 O ratios of intermediate igneous rocks are not much dierent to those of greywackes. Consequently, it is not possible to distinguish between greywacke and intermediate meta-igneous sources, based on CaO/Na2 O ratios of peraluminous granites (Sylvester, 1998). There is no correlation between the CaO/Na2 O ratio and temperature or pressure (Fig. 3a and b), suggesting that the source composition exerts the major control on the CaO/Na2 O ratio. However, Holtz & Johannes (1991) have shown that the CaO/Na2 O ratios of peraluminous granites increase with increasing amounts of H2 O due to the increasing solubility of plagioclase (with increasing An content) in the melt.

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Fig. 1. CaO/Na2 O vs. Al2 O3 /TiO2 of experimental melts derived from metapelitic and metapsammitic sources. Data sources: Pelites: Vielzeuf & Holloway (1988), Patio Douce & Johnston (1991), Patio Douce & Harris (1998), Pickering & Johnston (1998). Psammites: Conrad et al. (1988), Patio Douce & Beard (1995), Skjerlie & Johnston (1996), Montel & Vielzeuf (1997).

Fig. 3. (a) CaO/Na2 O vs. temperature and (b) CaO/Na2 O vs. pressure for partial melts from metapelitic and metapsammitic sources. Data sources as in Fig. 1.

Fig. 2. CaO/Na2 O vs. Al2 O3 /TiO2 of partial melts from felsic metaigneous and amphibolitic sources. Extremely high CaO/Na2 O ratios in experimental melts given by Wolf & Wyllie (1994) result from unusually high CaO/Na2 O ratios in the starting materials. Data sources: Conrad et al. (1988), Beard & Lofgren (1991), Holtz & Johannes (1991) excluding four outliers, Patio Douce & Beard (1995), Rapp & Watson (1995), Wolf & Wyllie (1994).

Melts from melting experiments using meta-basaltic sources (Beard & Lofgren, 1991; Rushmer, 1991; Wolf & Wyllie, 1994; Patio Douce & Beard, 1995) have high and variable CaO/Na2 O ratios, ranging from c. 0.1 to 9.9 (Fig. 2) depending on the CaO/Na2 O ratios of the sources, which are themselves highly variable (1.35.5). These experiments covered a similar temperature range, between c. 750 and 1100 C. However, experimental melts from partial melting of a natural, low-K, high-Ca amphibolite (CaO/Na2 O: 14.3; Wolf & Wyllie, 1994) have signicantly higher CaO/Na2 O ratios compared to those derived from synthetic quartz amphibolites (CaO/Na2 O: 3.74.0; Patio Douce & Beard, 1995). For the CaO/Na2 O ratio to be useful as a monitor of the source, this ratio should not vary with temperature or pressure. Although there is no de-

pendence on pressure (Fig. 4b), some experimental results from uid-absent melting of amphibolites (Wolf & Wyllie, 1994; Patio Douce & Beard, 1995) show a weak negative correlation between temperature and the CaO/Na2 O ratio of the melts (Fig. 4a). Liquids from the experiments performed by Patio Douce & Beard (1995), which used intermediate plagioclase (CaO/Na2 O: 1.1), show decreasing CaO but increasing Na2 O concentrations with increasing temperature. This eect is due to an increase of Na2 O activity from plagioclase breakdown and consumption of the anorthite component of plagioclase by garnet-forming reactions. Another factor could be the formation of secondary amphibole with a lower CaO/Na2 O ratio than the initial amphibole. Wolf & Wyllie (1994) used extremely calcic plagioclase whose composition did not change signicantly during partial melting. Consequently, reactions involving amphibole became more inuential. In the experiments of Wolf & Wyllie (1994), Na2 O and CaO enters the melt, but the growth of low-Na2 O minerals, such as garnet and clinopyroxene, causes the melt to evolve toward more Na2 O-rich compositions with increasing temperature. On the other hand, partial melts produced by Rapp & Watson (1995) show the opposite trend. In some

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Fig. 4. (a) CaO/Na2 O vs. temperature and (b) CaO/Na2 O vs. pressure for partial melts from felsic meta-igneous and amphibolitic sources. Data sources as in Fig. 2.

of these experiments CaO increases and Na2 O decreases, resulting in an increasing CaO/Na2 O ratio with increasing temperature. This eect has been attributed to crystallization of new hornblende with a higher CaO/Na2 O ratio at higher temperature, the formation of Na2 O-rich pyroxene in the higher P (and higher T) runs, and a decrease in the grossular component of garnet with increasing temperature. Notwithstanding these complications, the features evaluated above still emphasize the importance of source composition in xing the CaO/Na2 O ratios of metaluminous to peraluminous granitoid melts. For a given source composition, high-temperature melts have lower Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios than low-temperature melts (Sylvester, 1998) (Fig. 5a and b) whilst there is no correlation between the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio and pressure (Fig. 6a and b), suggesting that the temperature is the main controlling factor. Some experiments, however, gave conicting results that deviate from these general trends. In the experiments performed by Montel & Vielzeuf (1997), using a peraluminous metagreywacke, partial melts have low CaO/Na2 O ratios (< 0.3) similar to the melts from pelites. More importantly, partial melts from low-temperature runs have lower Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios than partial melts from higher temperature runs. Skjerlie et al. (1993) used mixed sources (metatonalite/metapelite) to simulate partial melting of common crustal rocks and found that partial melts from the metatonalitic and metapelitic layers have simi-

Fig. 5. Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios vs. experimental temperature for (a) partial melts from metapelitic, metapsammitic and felsic meta-igneous sources (A-type granites only) and (b) partial melts from felsic metaigneous and amphibolitic sources. Data sources: Pelites (Patio Douce & Johnston (1991), Pickering & Johnston (1998), Patio Douce & Harris (1998). Psammites: Conrad et al. (1988). Metaigneous rocks (A-type granites only): Skjerlie & Johnston (1993). Felsic meta-igneous sources: Conrad et al. (1988) and Holtz & Johannes (1991) excluding four outliers. Amphibolites: Beard & Lofgren (1991), Patio Douce & Beard (1995), Rapp & Watson (1995), Wolf & Wyllie (1994).

lar and comparatively low CaO/Na2 O ratios. Experiments that used igneous sources in order to constrain melting conditions of A-type granites (Skjerlie & Johnston, 1993; Patio Douce, 1997) yielded partial melts that also have comparatively low CaO/Na2 O ratios. On the other hand, Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios vary as a function of temperature and, when plotted in Fig. 5a, the data dene a good correlation, indicating that Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios are a function of the melting temperature for partial melts with Atype anity, generated from tonalitic sources. Unlike the melting experiments that used pelites, psammites and felsic

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meta-igneous sources, melting experiments that used amphibolites gave two, distinct, linearly correlated data sets in a Al2 O3 /TiO2 vs. temperature plot (Fig. 5b inset). Experiments performed by Wolf & Wyllie (1994) and Rapp & Watson (1995) gave similar results, whereas for experiments performed by Patio Douce & Beard (1995) the data points plot at lower Al2 O3 /TiO2 for a given temperature. The reason for this is most likely the dierent Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios of the starting materials. Wolf & Wyllie (1994) and Rapp & Watson (1995) used amphibolites with Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios ranging from 8.3 to 36.3, whereas amphibolites used by Patio Douce & Beard (1995) have lower Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios of 4.5 and 6.6.

Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio in granitoids as a geothermometer

Experimental results suggest that Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios can be used to constrain the melting temperature of granitoids. During anatexis of pelite and psammite, the concentration of Al2 O3 in the melt remains more or less constant, due to the buering by alumina-rich phases (e.g., garnet, cordierite and Al2 SiO5 ). In contrast, the TiO2 concentration increases with increasing temperature, probably due to the progressive breakdown of rutile or ilmenite at higher temperatures (Sylvester, 1998). The Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios of shales (c. 22) and greywackes (c. 20) are similar (Condie, 1993) and peraluminous granites with low Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios are generated at higher temperatures than those with high Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios, largely independent of source composition (Sylvester, 1998; Fig. 5). These observations are also valid for melting of meta-basaltic sources, although the bulk composition of the starting material seems to exert some control (Fig. 5b inset). Nevertheless, the decrease in Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios of experimental melts derived from meta-basaltic sources is strongly related to increasing temperatures. In this case melting is mostly controlled by the breakdown of amphibole (with low but increasing Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios with increasing temperature) and the concomitant growth of garnet plus clinopyroxene, which have substantially higher Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios than the corresponding amphibole. From the overall good correlations between Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios and temperatures of partial melts derived from dierent source rocks (Fig. 5a and b), quantitative thermometric expressions are calculated, using dierent regression methods (power law, exponential law, linear regression). The results are presented in Table 1. Using these equations, the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio of a granite allows calculation of the corresponding melting temperature. Both, linear and non-linear ts (power and exponential) yield similar good correlations for pelite, psammite and igneous rock melting. For melting of igneous sources to yield A-type granites, all three equations yield also fairly good results. For amphibolite melting the equation following linear regression is recommended (Table 1). To estimate the error of temperature calculation for pelite melting, greywacke melting and melting of igneous rocks, the temperatures of the experimental melt glasses were recalculated from their Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios and compared to

Fig. 6. Al2 O3 /TiO2 vs. pressure for (a) partial melts from metapelitic and metagreywacke sources and (b) partial melts from felsic metaigneous and amphibolitic sources. Data sources as in Fig. 1 and 2.

the experimental run temperatures (Fig. 7). Treating all experimental results equally, maximum deviations are about 100 C. However, early studies may have had problems either in the experimental set up or in the analytical procedures and consequently the quality of the data is probably not at the same level. In order to reduce this uncertainty we have only considered those experiments where the published analytical data allow a complete evaluation of the melting conditions and in which microprobe totals of the experimentally produced glass compositions are close to 99 wt%. For pelite melting these are the studies of Patio Douce & Harris (1998; only high T runs > 800 C were considered), Pickering & Johnston (1998) and Patio Douce & Johnston (1991; only high T runs > 850 C were considered). For psammite melting, some modern studies (Montel & Vielzeuf, 1997 and Patio Douce & Beard, 1995) yielded ambiguous results because only a few runs show a temperature dependence of the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio. For calibration of the thermometer the studies of Conrad et al. (1988) and Skjerlie & Johnston (1996) were considered. For melting igneous sources, the studies of Conrad et al. (1988) and Skjerlie & Johnston (1993) can be used to infer melting temperatures.

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Fig. 7. Plot of experimental temperature vs. temperature calculated from Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics for (a) partial melts from metapelitic and metapsammitic sources, and A-type granites from igneous sources, and (b) partial melts from felsic meta-igneous and amphibolitic sources. Details see text, data sources as in Fig. 1 and 2.

Fig. 8. Plot of Zr, La and P2 O5 for S-type and A-type granites and quartz diorites from the Damara orogen (Namibia). Data sources: Jung et al. (1998); (1999); (2002a); (2002b); (2003).

For amphibolite melting, all experiments indicate a positive correlation of the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio with temperature, however, the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio of the source must be considered (see above). Due to a limited amount of experimental data, only the data set of Skjerlie & Johnston (1993) can be used to infer melting temperatures in the genesis of A-type granites. Using these data sets, most of the data agree within 50 C (or less) which is similar to a conservative error of about 50 C commonly assigned to conventional, i.e. cation exchange thermometry (Essene, 1989).

Application
In practice it may be dicult or impossible to evaluate whether a granite represents a parent melt or has undergone modications (crystal accumulation or fractionation, magma mixing, assimilation etc.) during ponding or ascent within the crust. Crystal fractionation processes, with

or without assimilation as well as restite unmixing, may obscure primary features of granitic melts. These processes could change the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio, depending on the amount of dierent fractionating mineral phases and the nature of the contaminant. Ultimately, such processes could lead to an over- or under-estimation of the initial magma temperature. In order to constrain some of the eects of these processes we use previously published data from granites collected from well-investigated areas in the Proterozoic Damara orogen (Namibia), namely the Oetmoed Granite-Migmatite terrane (OGMC; Jung et al., 1999), the Khan area (Jung et al., 2003) and the area around the road cut Omaruru-Kalkfeld (Jung et al., 2002b). Furthermore, quartz diorites from the Goas-Okongava area (Jung et al., 2002a) and unpublished granite data from the granulitefacies coastal area of the Damara orogen (Masberg et al., 1992) are considered. Therefore, we compare results from traditional saturation thermometry with results using the proposed Al/Ti thermometer.

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Table 1. Temperature equations. Power law: T ( C) = [A / (Al2 O3 /TiO2 )]1/B A = 2.14 1023 B = 7.294 r2 = 0.85 18 B = 5.853 r2 = 0.91 A = 6.48 10 18 B = 5.853 r2 = 0.91 A = 6.48 10 31 B = 0.992 r2 = 0.76 A = 2.98 10 3 B = 9.677 r2 = 0.80 A = 2.82 10 A = 1.81 1027 B = 8.689 r2 = 0.75

for pelite melting for psammite melting for igneous rock melting for A-type granite melting for amphibolite melting (Rapp & Watson, 1995) for amphibolite melting (Patio Douce & Beard, 1995)

Exponential law: T ( C) = [ln(A) ln(Al2 O3 /TiO2 )] / B A = 93183 B = 0.00813 r2 = 0.86 A = 23400 B = 0.00729 r2 = 0.92 A = 23400 B = 0.00729 r2 = 0.91 A = 14018 B = 0.01020 r2 = 0.75 A = 435247 B = 0.00969 r2 = 0.80 A = 171928 B = 0.00934 r2 = 0.75

for pelite melting for psammite melting for igneous rock melting for A-type granite melting for amphibolite melting (Rapp & Watson, 1995) for amphibolite melting (Patio & Beard, 1995)

Linear regression: T ( C) = A / [(Al2 O3 /TiO2 ) + B] A = 414134 B = 391 r2 = 0.84 A = 380090 B = 388 r2 = 0.90 A = 309901 B = 309 r2 = 0.89 A = 867604 B = 809 r2 = 0.75 A = 266664 B = 233 r2 = 0.88 A = 211213 B = 197 r2 = 0.74

for pelite melting for psammite melting for igneous rock melting for A-type granite melting for amphibolite melting (Rapp & Watson, 1995) for amphibolite melting (Patio Douce & Beard, 1995)

First, it is important to demonstrate that the melts were saturated in the relevant accessory mineral phases (monazite, zircon, apatite). This is best done using binary plots with whole rock SiO2 on the abscissa (Hoskin et al., 2000). In Fig. 8, La, Zr and P2 O5 abundances, which are essential structural constituents (ESC) in monazite, zircon and apatite are plotted against SiO2 . Based on such diagrams, accessory mineral saturation can either start as positive and saturation is reached at an inection point, or is negative from the beginning on indicating early saturation. An assumption is that the ESC is predominantly contained within the given accessory mineral. A further assumption is that once accessory mineral saturation is attained, that mineral phase will crystallize from the melt and a decrease in abundance indicates that the element becomes compatible in a fractionating mineral phase (in this case monazite, zircon or apatite). It is therefore suggested that the S-type and A-type granites investigated were once saturated in zircon and monazite as indicated by the decrease in Zr and La abundances in the evolving liquids. The inection in P2 O5 abundances in the quartz diorites at ca. 55 wt.% SiO2 is interpreted to represent apatite saturation that was subsequently followed by apatite fractionation. Experimental investigations of accessory mineral saturation (Harrison & Watson, 1983; Watson & Harrison, 1983; Montel, 1986; 1993) provide additional evidence for the saturation be-

haviour of specic mineral phases in individual granite suites (Hoskin et al., 2000). These experimental studies showed that saturation is a function of accessory mineral concentration and melt composition and zircon, monazite and apatite saturation models may be expressed as saturation temperatures, that is, the temperature at which a given melt is saturated in zircon, monazite or apatite (Hoskin et al., 2000). Here, monazite saturation calculations (Fig. 9) indicate that monazite saturation in the A-type granites occurred at ca. 920 C and in the S-type granites at ca. 800830 C. Apatite saturation in the quartz diorites occurred at ca. 1050 C. As expected saturation temperatures fall as the magmas become more evolved. In the above mentioned areas in the Damara orogen (Namibia), a number of unfractionated S-type granites and numerous fractionated granitic dykes, some of them pelitic xenolith-bearing, crop out. Figure 10a is a plot of LREE saturation temperature (Montel, 1993) vs. Zr saturation temperature (Watson & Harrison, 1983) for some nonfractionated S-type granites and three fractionated granite dykes that are associated with these S-type granites from the Oetmoed area (Jung et al., 1999). Both temperature estimates agree well for these samples. However, for these presumably little fractionated granites calculated temperatures from Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics are 100 to 150 C higher than both saturation temperatures (Fig. 10b), sug-

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1000 800
unfractionated granites differentiated granites

T (sat. Zr) C

600 400 200 0

200

400

600

800

1000

Fig. 9. Plot of monazite saturation temperature for S-type and Atype granites and apatite saturation temperature for quartz diorites (Damara orogen, Namibia). Data sources as in Fig. 8.

T (sat. LREE) C
1000 800
unfractionated granites differentiated granites

gesting that saturation in LREE and Zr must have occurred at a slightly higher temperature and the granites investigated here represent already fractionated liquids. It is also possible that even the most unfractionated melts may represent disequilibrium melts in which some monazite and zircon remained in the residue because saturation in LREE and Zr requires at least some residual monazite and zircon. It is generally possible that elevated temperature estimates using Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics are due to low Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios in the granites based on contamination of partly digested pelitic xenoliths. Xenoliths from this type of granite have Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios between 13.4 and 14.4 whereas metapelites (as an approximation of the source) have Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios ranging from 14.1 to 21.8 (Jung et al., 1999). The granites have Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios between 52.0 and 57.5 and any contamination process must have lowered the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios and consequently would result in higher temperature estimates. However, eld evidence does not support this model and only uncontaminated granites are considered. For the strongly fractionated granite dykes, processes linked with extensive fractional crystallization gave unrealistically low temperatures when both temperature calculations are applied. A thorough treatment of geochemical data is therefore necessary before major-element characteristics can be used for thermometry. For S-type, I-type and A-type granites with c. 70 wt % SiO2 there may be considerable overlap in major-element abundances (Whalen et al., 1987). However, critical trace-element ratios are, in most cases, indicative for dierent source rocks. These are, for pelite-derived melts (S-type granites): Rb/Ba 0.25, Rb/Sr > 2.6 and Sr/Ba < 0.4 (Miller, 1985; Whalen et al., 1987; Harris & Inger, 1992). For melts derived from igneous sources (Itype granites), Rb/Sr is about 0.6 and Rb/Ba is about 0.3 (Whalen et al., 1987). Melts derived from psammitic sources may have similar major- and trace element features. For A-type granites, critical major- and trace-element features dene a broad range because they are disparate in composition and origin. They may be distinguished from S-type and I-type granites by their high contents of alkali

T (Al/Ti) C

600 400 200 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

T (sat. LREE) C
Fig. 10. (a) Zirconium saturation temperature vs. LREE saturation temperature for inferred unfractionated fractionated S-type granites from Oetmoed (Damara orogen, Namibia) and (b) Al2 O3 /TiO2 temperature estimates vs. saturation temperature of LREE for the same samples. Data from Jung et al. (1999).

elements, high Fe/Mg ratios, high REE and F abundances, high Zr+Nb+Ce+Y values (> 350 ppm), high Ga/Al ratios of > 2.6 and low contents of CaO, Ba and Sr as well as low abundances of some transition elements (Cr, Co, Ni, Sc) (Collins et al., 1982; Whalen et al., 1987; Eby, 1990). As pointed out before, estimates of the conditions of formation of inferred unfractionated (near-primary) granites may be obtained from saturation equations for zircon and monazite (Watson & Harrison, 1983; Montel, 1993). Temperatures calculated using these equations can be interpreted as the temperatures of extraction of a granitic melt from its source, given that no fractional crystallization or incorporation of restitic accessory phases has occurred. Therefore, consistent results can only be expected if (i) chemical equilibrium prevailed during melting, (ii) the dissolution rate of the accessory mineral was fast relative to the melting event, (iii) the accessory mineral was not physically isolated from the melt as inclusion in residual minerals, (iv) the relevant accessory minerals control the trace-element budget and (v) the whole rock composition

Source composition and melting temperatures of orogenic granitoids

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Fig. 11. CaO/Na2 O vs. Al2 O3 /TiO2 of unfractionated S-type and Atype granites from the Oetmoed and Khan areas (Damara orogen, Namibia). Lower Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios indicate higher melting temperatures of A-type granites. Data sources: Jung et al. (1998), (2000) and (2003). Shaded areas represent unpublished data from the granulite facies coastal area (Damara orogen, Namibia; Masberg et al. unpubl.)

Fig. 13. Al2 O3 /TiO2 temperature vs. saturation temperature of Zr and LREE for S-type and A-type granites from the Damara orogen (Namibia). Higher temperatures calculated from Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios indicate disequilibrium melting. Details see text, data sources as in Fig. 11. Shaded areas represent unpublished data from the granulite facies coastal area (Damara orogen, Namibia; Masberg et al. unpubl.)

Fig. 12. Zirconium saturation temperature vs. LREE saturation temperature for S-type and A-type granites from the Damara orogen (Namibia). Data sources as in Fig. 11. Shaded areas represent unpublished data from the granulite facies coastal area (Damara orogen, Namibia; Masberg et al. unpubl.)

represents a frozen liquid. A comparison of Al2 O3 /TiO2 and accessory phase thermometry may therefore provide important constraints on melting temperatures during granite formation. Figure 11 shows CaO/Na2 O vs. Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios for S-type and A-type granites from the central Damara orogen of Namibia (Jung et al., 1998; 2000; Masberg et al. unpubl.). The A-type granites have higher CaO/Na2 O and most of them have lower Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios than the S-type granites, suggesting that they were derived by partial melting of meta-igneous or metapsammitic sources, at higher temperatures. This suggestion is supported by higher saturation temperatures for zircon and monazite for the A-type granites (Fig. 12). More importantly, both temperature estimates (based on dierent solubility models for zircon and monazite) are well correlated, suggesting near-equilibrium between melt and zircon and monazite. However, zircon

in crustal derived granites can consist of new igneous zircon grown upon older inherited material. Such features can lead to an overestimation of temperatures although this effect is usually very small [Note that a core with half of the radius of a grain has only 1/8 of the mass]. On the other hand, monazite is rarely regarded as restitic, although there is growing evidence to the contrary (e.g., Copeland et al., 1988; Jung & Mezger, 2001). For the S-type granites and A-type granites from the Damara orogen, 208 Pb/206 Pb ratios of monazites are distinct (A-type granites: 1213, S-type granites: 0.91.4; Jung et al., 2003) but correlate well with Th/U ratios of the host rocks (A-type granites: ca. 8.9, S-type granites: ca. 2.7, Jung et al., 1998). This suggests that monazite in the granites does not represent entrained restitic material. Therefore, temperature estimates using monazite solubility models should indicate the temperature of monazite saturation. However, there is a large dierence between calculated temperatures using accessory phase solubility models and Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics (Fig. 13). The Al2 O3 /TiO2 temperatures are systematically higher up to 150 C, and, in general, crystal fractionation and assimilation may have obscured the Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratios. Since only samples with the most primitive majorand trace element characteristics have been considered, a signicant shift caused by crystal fractionation and/or assimilation is precluded. Thus, it is possible that these granites represent disequilibrium partial melts in which some zircon and monazite were left in the source region during melting. In this case, the S-type granites represent stronger evidence for disequilibrium. For more mac melts, the application of LREE saturation thermometry is not possible because this thermometer was calibrated only for peraluminous felsic melts and monazite is usually not present in metaluminous, mac rocks (Montel, 1993). The temperature at which a mac melt separated from its source may be estimated from its P2 O5 concentration, using the apatite solubility expression of Watson (1987; cited in Barbey et al., 1989) and Harrison & Watson (1984). This approach assumes that

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1100

1050

1000

950 950

1000

1050

1100

T (sat. P2O5) C
Fig. 14. P2 O5 saturation temperatures vs. temperatures derived from Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics for mac quartz diorites from the Damara orogen (Namibia). A fairly good correlation indicates near equilibrium melting consistent with high melting temperatures. Data source: Jung et al. (2002a).

the melt formed in equilibrium with residual apatite and has not undergone subsequent modication by processes related to fractional crystallization or assimilation. The rst requirement may be satised during melting, especially at low degrees of melting but the second requirement is more dicult to evaluate. However, the most mac quartz diorites from the Damara orogen (Namibia) have a primitive isotopic composition, indicating little modication by AFC processes (Jung et al., 2002a). For these samples, P2 O5 concentrations are between 0.32 and 0.34 wt.% indicating temperatures between 1060 and 1070 C using the mathematical expression of Watson (1987). In Fig. 14, the temperature calculations using the apatite solubility are plotted against the temperature estimates from Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics. A reasonably good t is indicated, and most temperatures agree within 20 C demonstrating the usefulness of temperature estimates based on major element compositions, even for intermediate to mac melts.

Limitations
This study has shown that Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics in granitoid rocks can be used to infer melting temperatures. There are, however, some limitations. First, the eect of dierent oxygen fugacities on the stability of Ti-bearing mineral phases cannot be tightly constrained. Some experiments were performed at conditions above those of the Ni-NiO or QFM equilibria and magnetite/titanomagnetite together with some rare ilmenite are the stable mineral phases (e.g., Skjerlie & Johnston, 1993; Patio Douce & Beard, 1995). Most of the other experiments were performed at conditions at or lower than the Ni-NiO and QFM equilibria (pelite melting: Patio Douce & Johnston, 1991; Pickering & Johnston, 1998; Patio Douce & Harris, 1998; psammite melting: Conrad et al., 1988; Skjerlie & Johnston, 1996; layered sources: Skjerlie et al., 1993; igneous sources: Holtz & Johannes, 1991; Skjerlie & Johnston, 1993; Patio Douce, 1997). From these experiments, rutile and ilmenite as the important Fe-Ti mineral phases are reported. The occurrence of one or more of these mineral phases has cer-

tainly serious consequences on the amount of Ti in the corresponding melt since Holtz & Johannes (1991) reported both, rounded relict ilmenite and euhedral ilmenite that was interpreted to have crystallized from the melt. Another serious problem is, whether equilibrium between the Ti-bearing mineral phase(s) and the experimental melt has been attained. If biotite or amphibole is the only Tibearing mineral phase, near-equilibrium conditions during dehydration melting of the OH-bearing minerals are likely. For the behaviour of the accessory Fe-Ti minerals very little is known but some of them will remain residual, at least at lower temperatures (< 850 C). If so, one can speculate whether disequilibrium conditions are also valid for the Tibearing phases that are often enclosed in biotite and therefore may not participate in the melting process. As it is the case in the other studies of accessory mineral saturation, it is important to evaluate the amount of the dissolved ESC necessary to saturate a granitic melt in the accessory phase of interest. Rutile saturation represents the simplest of all cases in which a single oxide, TiO2 , is the sole ESC (essential structural constituent) (Ryerson & Watson, 1987). Ryerson & Watson (1987) have shown that rutile solubility is a function of pressure, temperature and melt composition. For xed external conditions (P, T), rutile solubility decreases with increasing SiO2 abundance in the melt and for a xed chemical composition, rutile solubility decreases with decreasing temperature. For xed temperatures, there is a slight negative pressure dependence. Content of H2 O has little eect on rutile solubility. Green & Pearson (1986) investigated the eect of oxygen fugacity on rutile saturation in hydrous melts at 950 C for wstite-magnetite and hematite-magnetite conditions, and found a decrease in saturation values of ca. 30%. From the experimental results of Ryerson & Watson (1987), one can conclude that rutile saturation in granitic melts at 1000 C (the maximum temperature for the A-type granites studied here) requires ca. 1 wt% TiO2 . The A-type granite suite from Baukwab (Jung et al., 1998), which is included in the data set here, has maximum TiO2 abundances of 1.3 wt.% TiO2 , implying TiO2 saturation. At 800850 C, which is a reasonable temperature estimate for the S-type granites, TiO2 saturation requires less than 1 wt% and TiO2 abundances of 0.3 0.5 wt% seem realistic. The most primitive S-type granites from the Oetmoed and Khan areas have ca. 0.3 wt% TiO2 , again suggesting that these melts were once nearly saturated in TiO2 . Perhaps the greatest advantage of TiO2 as a potential indicator of temperature is that its chemical potential in crustal systems is highly constrained. TiO2 is nearly unique among minor elements of typical crustal rocks in being present at activities generally close to unity. Rutile is common in metamorphic rocks but much less so in igneous rocks; however, even in the absence of rutile itself, other Ti-based phases (titanite, ilmenite) and Ti- bearing silicates constrain TiO2 activity to high values (Ghent & Stout, 1984).

T C (Al / Ti)

Conclusions
Melting of a variety of crustal rock types will produce peraluminous liquids of granitic composition depending

Source composition and melting temperatures of orogenic granitoids

869

on temperature, the extent of melting, pressure, aH2 O and protolith composition. The Al2 O3 /TiO2 ratio of a granitic melt is temperature-dependent and this can be used to estimate the temperature of melt formation, provided that the rocks represent relatively unfractionated melts. Metasedimentary rocks can be regarded as fertile sources, yielding appreciable amounts of granitic melt. However, peraluminous meta-igneous rocks, rich in OH-bearing minerals, may be also considered as fertile sources comparable to metapsammites as is indicated by similar temperature equations derived from Al2 O3 /TiO2 systematics. Composite plutons, originating by partial melting of distinct sources have distinct geochemical compositions reecting their dierent sources and dierent melting conditions. Such features are reported from dierent types of granitoids from the Damara orogen of Namibia (Jung et al., 1998; 2002a, b; 2003). Acknowledgements: We would like to thank P. Masberg for permission to use his unpublished granite data from the coastal region of the Damara orogen. I. Bambach and G. Feyerherd (Max-Planck-Institut fr Chemie, Mainz) are warmly thanked for providing high-quality illustrations. J. Clemens and C. Miller provided constructive reviews of a previous version and V. Janousek and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for constructive reviews that helped to clarify various aspects of the paper.

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Received 22 May 2006 Modied version received 22 May 2007 Accepted 3 September 2007