PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa

Chapter GravitationalFields ElectricalFields Capacitors Magnetism

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By:AbdulGomaa 26/05/09

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa PHY5RevisionNotes 1.GravitationalFields GravitationalField:Isaregion wheregravitationalforcesareexertedonamass GravitationalFieldStrength:Forceexertedbyagravitationalfieldoneachkilogram

1 FM *M2 2 F1/r

Gistheuniversalgravitationalconstant.Itisameasure ofthestrengthofgravitationalforceandisequaltothe forceexertedonapair of1kgmassesseparatedmy1m.

11 2 2 G=6.673x10 Nm kg

Gravitationalfieldlinesshowthegravitationalfieldwith arrowspointingtothedirectionthatanobjectwill accelerateduetothisfieldifreleased. ForasphericalobjectthefieldisRADIAL.Thespacing ofthelinestellsusthestrengthofthefieldataparticular point. Neartheearththefieldlinesareclosertogether,thefield isstronger.Movingfurtheroutfromtheearththefield linesarefurtherapartasthefieldisweaker. Closetotheearth'ssurfaceandoverrelativelyshort distances,wetreatthefieldasuniformsothelinesare drawnparalleltoeachother.
2 F=GMm/r =mg 2 Therefore,mg=GMm/r 2 Leadingtog=GM/r Antherinversesquarelaw

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa Equipotentials Allpointsatequalheightsabovetheearthssurfacehavethesamepotential. Alinejoiningallthepointswithequalpotentialiscalledanequipotential. Gravitationalfieldsactat90 toequipotentials Foranobjectmovingacrossanequipotential,thepotentialenergydoesnotchange. Thereisnomovement inthedirectionofforcesonoworkisdone.

Energychanges Whenanobjectmovesfromonepointinafieldtoanotherpoint,workISdone andpotentialenergychanges Foramass,m,inagravitationalfieldasitmovesfromoneequipotentialto anotheritsheightchangesby h. Thepotentialenergychangesbyanamountequaltotheworkdone. PE=workdone=forcexdistancemoved=mgxh PE=mgh

InverseSquarelaw

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa FundamentalForcesinorderofstrength 1. StrongNuclear 2. Electromagnetic 3. WeakNuclear 4. Gravity Satellites Centripetalforceprovidedbygravitationalforceoftheplanetcausescircular motionofthesatellite 2 2 ThusFgrav =mv /r=GMm/r WheremisthemassofthesatelliteMisthemassoftheplanet,withrthe distancebetweenthem. 2 2 Thuscentripetalacceleration, v /r=GM/r =g,thegravitationalfieldstrength Thereforesatellitesareinfreefall. Satellitemotionandangularspeed
2 Centripetalforce=mr 2 2 Therefore,GMm/r =mr 2 2 So, r =GM/r So,freefallaccelerationofasatelliteisalsocentripetalaccelerationthiskeeps thesatelliteonacircularpathabouttheearth.

KeplersThirdLaw Theperiodofaplanetsorbitsquaredtoitsmeandistancefromthesuncubed: Derivation

2 2 F=GMm/r =mv /r 2 v =GM/r equation1 T=2r/v 2 2 T =4(r)2/v 2 2 3 T =4 r /GM 2 3 SoT r

Typesofsatellites Nearearth satellitesorbitquicklyjustaboveatmosphere.Usesincludeweather monitoring,mappingandspying.T=90mins,heightabovesurface=6.4Mm GeostationaryT=24hrsthereforekeepsamepositionaboveearthssurface(above equator).Satellitetelevisionandtelephones.Heightabovesurface=42Mm. Moon T=28daysandheightaboveearth=390Mm.

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa 2.ElectricalFields CoulombsLaw: Theforcebetween2chargesobeysaninversesquarelaw. Fproduct 2 ofthechargesand1/r .

PositiveandNegativeforces Astheelectrostaticforcecanberepulsiveorattractivetheforcecanbesaidtobeve (attractive)or+ve(repulsive)

Electricfieldstrength:Atagivenpoint,itistheforcepercoulombexertedonapositive chargeplacedatthatpointinthefield Everychargedobjectis surroundedbyanelectricfieldaregionofspacein whichanotherchargedobjectwillexperienceaforce. Electricfieldischaracterisedbystrengthanddirection, soitsavector quantity Electricfieldscanbeattractiveor repulsive Thestrengthofanelectricfieldatapointinspaceisdeterminedbythesizeof force.

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa Aroundapointcharge

Directionoffieldlinesisdecidedbytheeffectofplacinga small+vetestchargenearthecentralcharge Fieldstrengthsizeofcharge 2 Fieldstrengthisalso1/(distancefromthecharge) .Linesare thereforeclosetogethernearthechargethanfurtheraway

Electricfieldsobeyasuperposition principlethefieldatanyparticularpoint isduetothesumoftheseparatefields frommultiplechargesatthatpoint.

Measuringelectricfieldstrength Electricfieldstrengthatapoint,E,istheforceonacharge/thesizeofacharge 1 E(NC )=F(N)/Q(C) Ifapointcharge+Qproducesaradialelectricfieldandasmalltestcharge,+q,isplaced inthefieldatadistance,r,Coulombslawstatesthattheforceexperiencedby+qis: 2 F=kqQ/r Andaselectricfieldstrength,E=F/q,substitutingandcancellinggives:

2 E=kQ/r

Electricfieldstrengththusobeysaninversesquarelaw withdistance ElectricalFieldsandCircularMotion

2 2 2 Centripetalforce=electrostaticforce,mv /r=kqQ/r givingv =kqQ/mr

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa UniformElectricalFields Betweentwoparallelelectrodes. Fieldstrengthisconstant,fieldlinesareparallelandevenly spaced Energy(J)=p.d.(V)xcharge(C) Thusforacharge,q,movingbetweenplateswithapotential difference,V,betweenthem,separatedbyadistance,d(m) Energy=qV Thuselectricalworkdone=p.d.xq (workdoneonthe charge) Electricfieldstrengthandforce Asworkdone=Fxd thus Vxq=Fxd So,theforce,F,experiencedbythecharge,q,movingbetweentwoplatesseparated byadistance,d,withap.d.,V,acrosstheplatesisfoundfrom F=Vq/d, Electricfieldstrength,E,ap.d.acrossplates Iftheplatesareseparatedbyadistance,d, E1/d ThereforeE(Vm1)=p.d.(V)/d(m) E=V/d Forceinauniformfield Theforceisgivenby F=EQ SinceEisconstant,theforcewillbeconstantandtherefore,by F=ma,the accelerationwillalsobeconstantanddirectedalongthefieldlinesforapositive chargeandoppositetothefieldlinesforanegativecharge. Electricpotentials Theelectricpotentialisthepotentialenergythateachcoulombof+vecharge 1 wouldhaveifplacedinafield(JC ) Thisunitisequivalenttothevolt Allpointsthathavethesamepotentialinanelectricfieldlieonanequipotential. Linesofequipotentialinelectricfieldshavethesamevoltage. Fieldlinesareperpendiculartoequipotentials. Asachargemovesalonganequipotentialitsenergydoesnotchange. Plottingagraphofpotentialagainstdistanceforauniformelectricfieldproduces astraightlinegradientElectricFieldstrength.

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa 3.Capacitors Capacitorsstoreelectricalenergy Thebasicstructureis2metalplatesseparatedbyanonconductingmaterial (DIALECTRIC) Theplateonthecapacitorthatattachestothenegativeterminal ofthebattery gainsanegativechargeastheelectronsarerepelledbytheveterminal. Theplateonthecapacitorthatattachestothepositiveterminalofthebattery loseselectronssogainsapositivecharge. Onceit'sfullycharged,thecapacitorhasthesamevoltageasthebattery. Becausethedielectricbetweentheplatesisaninsulator,currentcannotflow. Althoughthereisapotentialdifferencebetweentheplatestheoverallchargeon thecapacitoriszero,+Q=Q,thusoverallchargeiszero. Discharging Achargedcapacitorisasourceofpotentialenergy.Ifthecapacitor isconnected intoacircuit,currentwillimmediatelybegintoflowthroughfromthenegative platetothepositiveplate.Thecapacitorisdischarging. Thechargedcapacitoristhesourceof p.d.forthecurrentflow.Thecurrentwill ceaseflowingwhenthechargesofthetwoplatesareagainequal,meaningthat thecapacitoriscompletelydischarged.

Acurrenttimegraphforacapacitor discharging. Theareaunderthecurvegivesthe totalchargethatflows

Capacitance Capacitanceistheabilityofacomponenttostorecharge Thetotalchargeatalltimesiszero Chargedisplacedbyadischargingcapacitorisdirectlyproportionaltothe chargingvoltage.Theconstantofproportionalityiscapacitance. C=Q/V(MeasuredinFarads) Q=magnitudeofchargestoredoneachplate. V=voltageappliedtotheplates.

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa TheFarad Capacitorsstoragepotential,orcapacitance,ismeasuredinfarads. A1faradcapacitorcanstoreonecoulombofchargeat1volt.Acoulombis 18 6.25x10 electrons.Oneamprepresentsarateofelectronflowof1coulombof electronspersecond,soa1faradcapacitorcanhold1ampsecondofelectronsat 1volt. CapacitorsinSeries ThecurrentintheconnectingleadsinaseriescircuitisthesameasQ=Itthusthe chargeacrosseachplatemustbethesamealthoughtheindividualcapacitancesmaynot be. Thus,sinceV=Q/CandVT=V1 +V2 Q/CT=Q/C1 +Q/C2 andsinceQisconstant 1/CT=1/C1 +1/C2 CapacitorsinParallel

Eachcapacitorseessamevoltage. IT =I1 +I2 C=Q/VLeadstoQ=CV QT =Q1 +Q2 ThusCTV=C1V+C1VSinceVisconstant: CT =C1+C2 EnergyStored Energy(joules)=Q(coulombs)p.d.(volts). WithapdV,acapacitorCwillstorechargeQ,buttheenergystoredisnotQV.A graphofp.d.againstchargelookslike: Atfirst,itiseasytopushchargeontothecapacitor,as thereisnochargetheretorepelit.Asthecharge storedincreases,thereismorerepulsionanditis harder(moreworkmustbedone)topushthenextlot ofchargeon. MovingthechargeQ,thepddoesnotchange significantly,sotheenergytransformedisVQ. Butthisisjusttheareaofthenarrowstrip,sothetotal energywillbethetriangularareaunderthegraph. Energystoredinthecapacitor: 2 =QV/2 =CV /2 9
2 =Q /2C

PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa 4.Magnetism

Magneticormagnetisedobjectswillexperienceanoncontactforceifplaced withinamagneticfield Thelinesweseearecalledlinesoffluxtheygivethedirectionandstrengthof thefield:fluxlinespointNS,themorecloselypacked thestrongerthefield strongestnearthepoles Magneticfieldsarevectorquantitieswherethefieldsfrom2likepolesmeet they cancelout byvectoraddition theneutralpoint. ThemorecloselypackedthelinesthestrongerthefieldMagneticFlux Density, BunitTesla,T(quantityoffluxpassingthroughunitareaateachpoint inafield) Electromagnets Acurrentcarryingconductorissurroundedbyanelectricfield. Therighthandgrip,or corkscrewrulegivesthedirectionofthemagneticflux lines. Tomakeausefulelectromagnetacoilofwireisusedandwoundontoasoftiron corethemorecoilsandthehighertheappliedvoltagethestrongerthe magneticfield Alongcoilofwirewithanumberofturnsisknownasasolenoid.

MagneticFluxDensity Foralongstraightwire,magneticfieldstrength(fluxdensity,B)isproportionaltothe current,I,andinverselyproportionaltothedistancefromthewire,r, 7 2 BI/randB=Io /2r (o =permeabilityoffreespace=4x10 NA ) ForasolenoidBdependsuponthecurrentflowingandthenumberofturnsofwireper unitlength,n,thus: B=onI

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PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa

TheCatapultForce/MotorEffect Acurrentcarryingconductorissurroundedbyamagneticfield.Ifplacedin anothermagneticfieldtheconductor experiencesaforceduetotheeffectsofthe twofields. Catapultfieldduetofieldsreinforcing/cancelling. TheCatapultforceisasidewaysforce.ItdoesNOTactalongthewirecarrying acurrent,NOR doesitactalongthemagneticfield. Itactsperpendiculartoboth thecurrentandthemagneticfield. FlemingsLeftHandRule(FLHR)

Thecurrent(+vetove)magneticfield(NS)and thefieldareallatrightanglestoeachother

Flemingslefthandrulecanpredictthedirectionof theforce.

Factorsaffectingtheforce F=BIl F(N)=B(T)xI(A)xl(m) Byrearrangingit,theTeslacanbedefinedas: Amagneticfluxdensityof1T o producesaforceof1N oneachmetrewirecarryingacurrentof1Aat90 tothe field o Thepreviousequationapplieswhenthecurrentisat90 tothefield. Whenthecurrentisat90o tothefieldtheforceisatamaximum,astheangleis reducedforceisreduced. Whenthecurrentisparalleltothefieldtheangleis0andtheforceis0,giving: F=BIlsin TheHallProbe ItsusedtomeasuremagneticfluxdensityusestheHallEffect.A constantcurrentis passedthroughsemiconductorsliceplacedatrightanglestoBfieldvoltageacross widthofsliceafluxdensityvaries.ProbesoftencalibratedtogivereadinginTesla.

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PHY5RevisionNotesBy:AbdulGomaa Magneticfluxdensityinasolenoid Themagneticfieldstrengthofasolenoidisdependentonthecurrentandthenumberof turnsper unitlength,i.e. theturnsdensity. Thisisprovidedthatthelengthislarge comparedtothediameter. ThisgivesB=0nI(0 isaconstantknownasthe 7 2 permeabilityoffreespaceandhasavalueof 4x10 NA ) Foralongstraightwire,B=0n/2rwhererisdistancefromthewire. FaradaysLaw Faradayslawstatesthat:Themagnitudeofaninducede.m.f.inacircuitisdirectly proportionaltotherateofchangeofmagneticfluxlinkagethroughthatcircuit. e.m.f.( )=N/t MagneticFlux:Isthetotalamountof magnetismthroughanarea, equaltotheproductof themagneticfluxdensity andthearea. =BA whereBisthemagneticfluxdensityand Aisthearea. MagneticFluxLinkage:Istheproductofmagneticfluxandthenumberofturns.

=N/t and =BAleadsto: =NBA/t

Forawiren =1andalsoA/t=lv. Thissimplifiestogiveus LenzsLaw LenzsLawstatesthat:Anycurrentdrivenbyaninducede.m.f. opposesthechange causingit.

=Blv

=N/t

AlternatingCurrentandTransformers DirectCurrent:Flowofcurrentinonedirection AlternatingCurrent:Flowofcurrentwhosedirectionis constantlyreversing Transformers: ACisinducedintheprimaryproducingachangingmagneticfieldin theprimarycoil. Themagneticfieldcarriedthroughcoretosecondarycoil throughthe softironcore.Thechangingofmagneticfieldoversecondary induces e.m.f.withinit. Stepupordown dependsontheratioofturns,summarisedbythisequation: Vs/Vp =Ns/Np

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