CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

PART A INSTRUCTION: Answer ALL questions QUESTION 1 Compare structural similarities between chloroplasts and mitochondria. Chloroplast The structure of chloroplast Mithochondria The structure of mithochondria

1. Outer membrane is highly permeable and inner membrane impermeable. 2. Substance called the stoma which contains DNA , RNA and ribosomes. 3. The chloroplast are contained in an intricately folded internal membrane system called the tylakoid membrane. 4. 5.

1. Outer membrane permeable and inner membrane impermeable. 2. The matrix contains circular DNA molecules and all necessary components for protein synthesis. 3. The inner membrane which projects inwards into folds called christae.

CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

QUESTION 2 a) Complete the table below by using a + to show presence and to show absence. Synapse DNA replication Mitosi + Meiosis I + + Meiosis II -

b) State TWO functions of chiasma. Chiasma is junction points between nonsister chromatids at the first diplotene of meiosis, the consequence of a crossing over event between maternal and paternally derived chromatids. A chiasma also serves a mechanical function and is essential for normal equatorial alignment at meiotic metaphase I in many species. Functions of chiasma are: i) ii) Ties that hold homologous chromosomes together, so that can correctly co-orient to opposite poles for the first meiosis. The genetic function follows from the fact that the chiasmata represent places where nonsister chromatids break and rejoin. When this happens, a portion of one chromatid changes places with the equivalent portion of another. This enables exchange of genetic material to occur between homologous chromosomes. c) List TWO benefits of meiosis. Two benefits of meiosis: i) Meiosis assures that the genetic code is passed on to the next generation. It assures that the gametes are prepared with the n numbers of chromosomes (23) so the sexual reproduction and fertilization will result in the 2n numbers (46). ii) Provide for variation due to a reshuffling of the genes genetic recombination. Crossing over (chiasma) of 2 non chromosomes. Genes can be exchanged and variation of the gametes is increases.

CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

QUESTION 3 The diagram below shows some stages of the Calvin cycle

a) Identify the compounds of A, B, C, D and E. Types of compounds A B C D E Names of coumpounds NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) RuBP (Ribulose Bisphosphate) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Glucose

b) Explain the term limiting factor in photosynthesis.

CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

Limiting factor in photosynthesis is factor that will affect the rate of photosynthesis. They can limit the rate of photosynthesis. If any factor is not at optimum level then the photosynthesis will be limited by the factor. For example the temperature may be just right and the air may contain a lot of carbon dioxide, but if there is too little light then the rate of photosynthesis will be low. These factors are light intensity, temperature and carbon dioxide concentration. c) Temperature is an important factor in photosynthesis. Explain. When the temperature rise up, the rate of photosynthesis rises also. This is because the particles in the reaction move quicker and collide more. There is an optimum temperature however. At this point the rate of photosynthesis progresses as fast as it can, limited only by the other factors. Beyond this temperature the enzymes controlling the reaction become denature and the reaction quickly comes to a halt.

CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

QUESTION 4 Consider the following processes that occur in a cell depicted in the following diagram.

a) Name the processes at point A, B and C. Point A B C b) Determine structures of D, E and F. Structures D E F Names of structures Ribosome Golgi apparatus/ Golgi bodies mRNA molecules Name of the process Transcription process Translation process Secretions/ exocytose process

c) List FOUR functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. i) Synthesis of lipid and steroid. 5

CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

ii) iii) iv)

Metabolism of carbohydrate. Regulation of calcium concentrations. Attachment of receptor on cell membrane proteins.

QUESTION 5 Consider the following base sequence of a DNA molecule: AGACTTGCAACTTGA a) Determine the amount of codons of this sequence. 5 codons b) Determine the mRNA molecule transcribed from this DNA sequence. 5 UCUGAACGUUGAACU 3 c) Determine the non-coding strand of this DNA sequence. 5 TCTGAACGTTGAACT 3

PART B INSTRUCTION:

CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

Answer ALL questions. QUESTION 1 a) Describe the process of active transport in cells by using an example.

Picture 1

Active transport uses cellular energy to move molecules across the plasma membrane, often against a concentration gradient. In picture 1, a transport protein has an ATP binding site and a recognition site for the molecules to be transported, in this case calcium ions (Ca2+). The best studied active transport phenomenon involves the movement of Na+ and K+ ions across the plasma membranes of various cells (such as the muscle cells, erythrocytes and neurons), resulting in an ionic concentration gradient across the cell membranes. That these movements involve active transport is illustrated by the fact if cell metabolism is interrupted by factors such as lowering of the temperature from 37C to 4C or addition of cyanide to the blood then sodium ions will continue to diffuse into the cell while potassium diffuse towards outside the cell until the ionic concentrations on both sides of the cell membrane are in passive equilibrium.In erythrocytes and neurons the active transport of sodium and potassium ions seems to be linked. The same mechanism, i.e. the Na+/K+ pump, that transports sodium ions out, transports potassium ions in at the same time.

CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

Let us look at what happens during this process. Step 1 - Three ions of Na+ bind to the interior end of the membrane protein complex producing a conformational change of the protein. Step 2 - The complex binds a molecule of ATP and cleaves it. Step 3 - The binding of the phosphate group induces a second conformational change of the protein complex, where the three Na+ ions pass through. This conformation also has a very low affinity for Na+ ions but high affinity for K+ ions. Step 4 - K+ ions bind to the exterior end of the membrane protein, producing another conformational change to the protein complex. This conformation leads to dissociation of the phosphate group. The K+ ions are now exposed on the interior side of the membrane. The protein complex reverts back to its original conformation with high affinity for Na+ ions. An enzyme has been isolated from nerve cells that have two binding sites, one for each cation, and identified as an integral protein that span the width of the lipid-bilayered membrane. The active transport of ions requires ATP as energy source and the ATP is converted to ADP during active transport by a membrane-bound enzyme, the Na+K+ATPase. This enzyme activity has been identified in membranes of cells of various mammalian tissues. Each phosphorylated molecule of ATP will transport two K+ ions in and three Na+ ions out of the cell. Three sodium ions and one ATP molecule are bound to specific sites on the enzyme carrier inside the cell while two K+ ions are bound to a site on the same enzyme

CELL BIOLOGY AND CELLULAR BIOCHEMISTRY_SBBI4103 LANNDESA

facing the exterior of the cell. Binding of the substrates causes structural changes in the carrier molecule such that both sodium and potassium ions are translocated across the membrane. During this process ATP is split, releasing the ADP. After translocation, changes in the binding sites cause the release of sodium outside the cell and potassium inside the cell. Once the ions are released, the carrier undergoes a structural change again ready to start another round of the cycle. This recovery stage is accompanied by the release of inorganic phosphate, Pi. b) Diffusion is a slow process compared to active transport in cells. Explain why. Diffusion is the tendency of molecules to spread into an available space. This tendency is a result of the intrinsic thermal energy (heat) found in all molecules at temperatures above absolute zero. Without other outside forces at work, substances will move/diffuse from a more concentrated environment to a less concentrated environment. No work is performed for this to happen, as diffusion is a spontaneous process. Diffusion is slower process, its influence by a few factors. i) The movement in the cell is randomly and takes times to equilibrium. ii) Diffusion needs concentration slope while active transports dont. iii) Active transport is helped by carrier protein while diffusion needs a concentration slope. Therefore, the more carrier proteins present, the faster the active transport process happen. iv) The temperature. The increases of temperature, the increases of particles diffusion by the cell. When temperature rise up, the particles collide each other is increases. v) ATP can make active transport happen faster while diffusion does not use ATP. In active transport energy is used to running the process while in diffuse energy is not involved. vi) Active transport is controlled by cell, while diffusion does not.