Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide
Monosaccharidesare carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler carbohydrates Isomers are different compounds with the same molecular formula All monosaccharaides contain a carbonyl group (C=O)

Aldose sugars contain the aldehyde group

Ketose sugars contain the ketone group When a pentose or hexose is dissolved in water, their relatively long chains can bend, causing the carbonyl group to be close enough to react with one of the hydroxyl group. There would always be a carbon molecule sticking out of the carbon ring Glucose can exist in two possible ring forms, -glucose and -glucose. In -glucose, the hydroxyl group on carbon 1 projects below the ring In -glucose, the hydroxyl group on carbon 1 projects above the ring -glucose and -glucose are interconvertible in aqueous solution. Function of monosaccharides: y y Trioses (3) o They are intermediates in respiration and photosynthesis Pentoses (5), like ribose, deoxyribose o They are involved in the synthesis of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) o They are involved in the synthesis of ATP Hexoses (6), like glucose and fructose and galactose o They are a source of energy o They are involved in the synthesis of disaccharides o Glucose is used to synthesize polysaccharides

Disaccharides

Done by Nickolas TeoJia Ming, CG 12/11

Disaccharides are sweet and readily soluble in water Disaccharides are formed by a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides The bond formed between the two monosaccharaides is a 1-4glycosidic bond The 1-4 glycosidic bond is normally formed between carbon atom 1 and carbon 4 of neighboring monosaccharaides units, between the OH molecules (condensation reaction) The monosaccharides are now called residues The glycosidic bond can be broken by hydrolysis There are three disaccharides: maltose, lactose and sucrose y y y Maltose is commonly produced as a product of the digestion of starch, by the enzymes amylases Lactose is found exclusively in milk, and is an important source of energy for young mammals Sucrose is the most abundant disaccharide in nature and is non-reducing. It is found commonly in plants, and is used as a medium to transport food. This is because it is very soluble (allowing it to be moved efficiently in high concentrations) and chemically relatively unreactive

Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the addition of water to the molecules to split it into two smaller molecules Hydrolysis can occur though enzymatic orchemical means y y Enzymatic method: Incubate the disaccharide with enzyme at room temperature Chemical method: Incubate the disaccharide with dilute acid at 100oC

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharaides, and are non-reducing There are two groups of polysaccharides, storage and structural y Storage polysaccharides are starch and glycogen. o They are large molecules and are thus insoluble in water.  This allows them to be stored in large amounts without having any great effect on the water potential of cells  They also cannot diffuse out of the cells easily, preventing them from getting lost. o They also fold into compact shapes  Allowing a large amount to be stored in a fixed volume (the cells) o They are easily hydrolyzed to monosaccharaides  Can quickly provide energy when required

Done by Nickolas TeoJia Ming, CG 12/11

Structural polysaccharides is cellulose

Starch
Function: As a storage carbohydrate in plant cells (not produced by animal cells), where it is a major fuel store. Humans manly consume starch from wheat, rice and corn, and we possess enzymes to hydrolyze the starch into glucose for cellular uses Structural features: y It is a large molecule made up of many glucose units o Causing it to be insoluble in water  This allows them to be stored in large amounts without having any great effect on the water potential of cells  They also cannot diffuse out of the cells easily, preventing them from getting lost. It is folded into compact shapes o Allowing large amounts to be stored within a fixed volume o They can accumulate to form starch grains, which are made of layers of starch

Components: y Amylose o It has a straight chain structure consisting of several thousand glucose residues joined by (1-4) glycosidic bonds o The (1-4) glycosidic bonds result in the chain coiling helically into a more compact shape  The helix is a cylinder with most of the OH groups projecting inwards , which are capable of forming cross linkages (Hydrogen bonds)  There are six glucose units for every complete turn of the helix o There is no cross-linking between chains Amylopectin o It has a highly branched structure, causing it to be compact. o The branches are formed by (1-6) glycosidic bonds  It is formed by joining (though a condensation reaction) glucose molecules to amylose  This causes it to be both branched and coiled o It has twice as many glucose residues as amylase o There is no cross-linking between chains

Glycogen
Function:It is a storage carbohydrate in liver and muscles of vertebrate animals and in may fungi

Done by Nickolas TeoJia Ming, CG 12/11

Structural features: y It is a large molecule made up of many glucose units o Causing it to be insoluble in water  This allows them to be stored in large amounts without having any great effect on the water potential of cells  They also cannot diffuse out of the cells easily, preventing them from getting lost. It is folded into compact shapes o Allowing large amounts to be stored within a fixed volume It is similar to amylopectin, but shows more branching [ (1-6) glycosidic bonds]

y y

Cellulose
Function: It is a good structural material in the plant cell wall, and provides mechanical support for the plant Structural features: y Cellulose is a linear, unbranched polymer of -glucose molecules linked by (1-4) glycosidic bonds o The OH group on carbon 1 of one glucose molecule lines up alongside the OH group on carbon 4 of another glucose molecule, after one of the molecules is flipped vertically  This is because the OH group on carbon 1 projects above the ring, whereas the OH group on carbon 4 projects below the ring  This rotation of alternate glucose molecules is the reason why cellulose has a different structure to starch o The (1-4) glycosidic bonds, formed though a condensation reaction, makes the chain straight, unlike the (1-4) glycosidic bonds that causes curving The hydroxyl groups from carbon 2 of each glucose residue projects outwards from each chain in all directions, forming hydrogen bonds with neighboring chains, giving rise to cross-linkages between neighboring chains o The chains associate into groups (~80 molecules) to form large bundles called microfibrils, which then combine to form macrofibrils that have great tensile strength (Amount of stress it can withstand before breaking)  This prevents the plant cells from bursting when endosmosis occurs, as the cell wall is elastic Cellulose is also permeable to water and solutes yet insoluble in water, allowing it to perform its function without interfering with diffusion.

Done by Nickolas TeoJia Ming, CG 12/11