Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom

2.1 Matter: Matter y Occupies space (has volume) and has mass y Made of very tiny discrete particles therefore there are spaces between these particles. Element y Substance that consist of only one type of atom y Cannot be made into anything simpler by chemical reaction. 1. Atom  Smallest neutral particle of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction 2. Molecule  A neutral particle consist of similar non-metal atoms which are chemically-bonded. Compound y Substance that contains two or more elements that are chemically bonded together. y They have different properties from the elements they contain. 1. Ion  Particle that have postively-charged or negatively charged. 2. Molecule  A neutral particle consist of different atoms which are chemically-bonded. Diffusion 1. Diffusion occurs when particles of a substance move between the particles of another substance. 2. Diffusion occurs from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. 3. Diffusion occurs in a solid, liquid and gas 4. Rate of diffusion of matter depends on :(a) Matter that contain low molecular masses (lighter, smaller) diffuse faster than those with high molecular masses (heavier, bigger). (b) The particles (atoms, molecules or ions) possess kinetic energy. They are in constant motion and constantly collide with each other and with the wall. (c) The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy, as the velocity of the particles in the matter increases. Diffusion in a Gas Diffusion in a Diffusion in a Solid Luquid Experiment CuSO
4

Observation The brown colour of bromine vapour, Br2spreads quickly throughout the two jars. LOY/F4/BIO/C2

The purple colour of solid potassium manganate (VII),

The blue colour of copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4 spreads very slow throughout the gel

Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom

Conclution

Diffusion occurs fastest in gases. There is larger space in between the particles of a gas than liquid. Particles in a gas are further apart.

KMNO4 spreads slowly throughout the water. Diffusion occurs faster in a liquid. There is larger space in between the particles of a liquid than solid. Particles in a liquid is closed with each other.

Diffusion occurs slower in a solid.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter States of matter Arrangement of particles Solid Closely packed Liquid Closely packed but there are more empty spaces between them compared to the solid state. Weaker forces of attraction than solid Gas The particles are very far apart from each other.

Forces of attraction between particles

Strong forces of attraction so particles are held in fixed positions.

Volume and shape

Fixed shape and volume

Type of movement Kinetic energy of particles Compressibility

Vibration and rotation Low Very difficult to be compressed because the particles are packed closely Very Low

Fixed volumedon t have fixed shapes but take the shapes of the containers Vibration, rotation and translation High, on Average Not easily compressed because the particles are packed quite closely Average

Very weak forces of attraction so that particles move randomly in all directions at great speed Don t have fixed shapes or volume

Vibration, rotation and translation High and move at high speed Easily compressed because the particles are further apart. Very High

Rate of diffusion

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Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom

The Changes in the State of Matter 1. The changes in the states of matter are caused by heating or cooling. 2. The kinetic theory of matter is used to explain the changes in states of matter. Melting Boiling When a solid is heated, the particles in the When a liquid is heated, the particles of the solid gain kinetic energy and vibrate more liquid gain kinetic energy and move faster as vigorously. the temperature increases. The particle vibrate faster as the temperature Eventually, the particles have enough energy increases until the energy they gain is able to to completely break the forces holiding them overcome the forces that hold them at their together. fixed positions. The particles are now able to move freely and At this point, the solid become a liquid far apart. The temperature at which this happens is A gas is formend. The temperature at which this happens is called the boiling point. called the melting point. The melting point is the temperature at which Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas at a particular a solid changes into a liquid at a pariticular pressure. pressure.

Freezing Condensation When a liquid is cooled, the particles in the When a gas is cooled, the particles in the gas liquid lose energy and move slower. lose energy and move slower. As the temperature continues to drop, the As the themperature drops, the gas particles particles continue to lose more energy until lose energy and move more slower they do not have enough energy to move As the temperature drops, the gas particles freelt. lose energy and move more slowly. At this point, the liquid changes into a sloid. Eventually, the movements of the particules The temperature at which this happens is become slow enough for the gas to change called the freezing point into a liquid Freezing point is temperature at which a liquid This chage occurs at the boiling point of the substance. changes into a soild at a particular pressure Sublimation Sublimation is a process by which a solid changes directly into a gas without passing trought the liquid state and vice versa

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Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom

The Explanation for the Cooling Process of Matter 1. The cooling curve of naphthalene (graph got some prob d)

2. When the liquid is cooled, the particles in the liquid lose energy and move slower, As the energy is release to the surrounding the state of matter will change. Point State of Matter Explanation Pto Q Liquid Heat is release to the surrounding by the particles in the liquid naphthalene, the particles in the liquid lose their kinetic energy and move slower. The temperature decrease. Q to R Liquid = Solid Heat is release to the surrounding by the particlesin the liquid napthalene is balanced by the heat energy released as the particles attract one another to form a solid. The temperature remains constants.**** R to S Solid The pariticles in the solid naphthalene releases heat and vibrate slower. The temperature decrease. 3. The constant temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid is called freezing. During the freezing process, the temperature remains unchanged because the heat release to the surrounding is balance by the heat realsed whien the liquid particles rearrange themselves to become a solid.

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Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom

The Explanation of Heating process of Matter 1. The heating curve of naphthalene

2. When a solid is heated, the particles move faster and its energy content increases. As heat energy is abosrbed, the state of matter will change. Point A to B State of Matter Solid Explanation Heat energy is absorb by the particles in the solid naphthalene causing their kinetic energy to increase and vibrate faster. The temperature increases. Heat energy absorb by the particles in the liquid naphthalene is used to overcome forces between particles so that solid turn to liquid. The temperature remains constants. Heat energy is absorb by the particle in the liquid naphtalene causing their kinetic energy increase and move faster. The temperature increases. Heat energy absorb by the particles in the gases naphthalene is used to overcome forces between particles. The particles begin to move freely to form a gas. The temperature remains constants. Heat energy is absorb by the particle in the gas causing their kinetic energy increase and move faster. The temperature increases.

B to C

Solid + Liquid

C to D

Liquid

D to E

Liquid + Gases

E to F

Gases

3. The constant temperature at which a solid completely changes to become a liquid is called the melting point. During the melting process, the temperature remains unchanged because heat energy abosrbed by the particles is used to overcome the forces between particels so that the solid change to turn into a liquid. 4. The constant temeprature at which a liquid compelety change to become a gas is called the boiling point. During the boiling process, the temperature remains unchanged because heat energy absorbed by the particle is used to overcome the forces between particles so that the liquid change to turn into a gass Rough Concept *** A substance is in solid state if the temperature of the substance is below melting point. A substance is in liquid state if the temperature of substance is between melting and boiling point. A substance is in gas state if the temperature of the substance is above boiling point. LOY/F4/BIO/C2

Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom

2.2 The Atomic Structure The historical development of atomic models Model Characteristic Dalton s atomic model Atom was imagined as a small indivisible ball simalr to a very tiny ball. Thomson s atomic model J.J Thomson discovered the electron, a negatively-charged particle. Atom was described as a sphere of positive charge embedded with electrons. Rutherford s atomic Ernest Rutherford discovered the proton, a positively-charged particle in model an atom. Central region of an atom has a very small positively-charged nucleus, which contains almost all the mass of the atom. This nucleus is tiny and the rest of the atom is mostly empty space. Sufficient electrons surround the nucleus of anatom to balance the charge of the nucleus. This atomic model was discovered through the bombardment experiment of alpha particles on gold foil. Bohr s atomic model Electrons in an atom move in shells around the nucleus which contains protons. Chadwick s atomic model James Chardwick proved the existence of neutrons, the neutral particles in the nucleus. Nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons, and the nucleus is surrounded by electrons. Neutrons contribute approximately to half the mass of an atom. Subatomic particles of an atom 3. Atoms are made up of three tpes of smaller particels, namely protons, neutrons and electrons. These particles known as subatomic particles. 4. Proton and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom while electrons surround the nucleus. (a) As the masses of protons and neutrons are greater than electrons, most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus. (b) The nucleus has an overall positive charge due to the positively-charged protons in it (c) An atom consists of an equal number of electrons and protons. Hence, an atom is electrically neutral. Proton number and nucleon number 1) Proton number of an element is the number of protons in its atom. 2) Since atoms are neutral, the proton number is also the number of electrons in the atom. 3) Necleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutron in its atom. Necleon number is known as the mass number. Rough Concept: *** Proton number = Number of Proton Electron number = Number of Electron Proton number = Electron number (in a neutral atom) Nucleon number = Proton number + Neutron number Symbols of element 1) Each element is given a name and a symbol. 2) Some elements, the symbols come from Latin names. 3) The standard representation for an atom of any element shows the proton number and the nucleon number of the element. It can be written as follows.

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Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom

2.3 Isotopes and Their Importance 5. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. So that the proton number will be the same but different nucleon numbers.

Isotopes      Similarities Proton number Number of protons in an atom Number of electrons in an atom Electron arrangement Chemical properties because they have the same electron arrangement differences  Nucleon number  Number of neutrons in an atom  Physical properties (density, melting point and boiling point)

Uses of isotopes in our daily life i) Medical field - To detect bran cancer. - To detect thrombosis - Sodium-24 is used to measure the rate of iodien absorption by thyriod gland - Cobalt-60 is used to destroy cancer cells. - To kill microorganism in the sterillizing process. ii) In the industrial field - To detect wearing out in machines - To detect any blockage in water, gas or oil pipes - To detect leakage of pipes underground - To detect defects / cracks in the body of an aeroplane. iii) In the agriculture fied - To detect the rate of absorption of phosphate fertilizer in plants. - To sterile insect pests for plants. iv) In the archeology field - Carbon-14 can be used to estimate the age of articfacts.

2.4 Electronic Structure of an Atom 1. For a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. Number of electrons = number of protns 2. The electrons are arranged in shells surrounding the nucleus. 3. The maximum number of electrons in each shell is shown in the figure below. 4. The electrons are filled starting from the 1st shell, the one closest to the nucleus. 5. The occupied shell which is furthest from the nucleus is called the valence shell or outermost shell. The electrons in the outermost shell are callled the valence electrons. 6. Element with the same number of valence electrons will have the same chemical properties.

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