Psychmet 2 1.

Importance of Statistics in Psychological Testing -Statistics are the primary source of information that are generated through psychological experimentation and observations. Because human behavior is so erratic and unpredictable, psychologists are never able to fully predict the outcome of a given situation. Consequently, they rely on statistics to illustrate the probability instead. Good statistics are the closest thing to empirical data that can be produced and effectively utilized in the psychology field. Otherwise, it would consist of mostly guidelines and theories.

2. 2 Types of Statistics and how they differ.

-There are two Different types of Statistics. 1: Pure or Mathematical Statistics. 2; Applied Statistics. 1: Pure Statistics: It is a branch of Statistics in which laws and rules are generated to study Problems under consideration. 2: Applied Statistics: It is branches of statistics are applied to the real world Problems.
3. What are the diff: nominal vs. ordinal scale, ratio vs. internal scale? - Nominal scale At the nominal scale, i.e., for a nominal category, one uses labels; for example, rocks can be generally categorized as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. For this scale, some valid operations are equivalence and set membership. Nominal measures offer names or labels for certain characteristics. Variables assessed on a nominal scale are called categorical variables; see also categorical data. Stevens (1946, p. 679) must have known that claiming nominal scales to measure obviously nonquantitative things would have attracted criticism, so he invoked his theory of measurement to justify nominal scales as measurement:

the use of numerals as names for classes is an example of the assignment of numerals according to rule. The rule is: Do not assign the same numeral to different classes or different numerals to the same class. Beyond that, anything goes with the nominal scale.

The central tendency of a nominal attribute is given by its mode; neither the mean nor the median can be defined. We can use a simple example of a nominal category: first names. Looking at nearby people, we might find one or more of them named Aamir. Aamir is their label; and the set of all first names is a nominal scale. We can only check whether two people have the same name (equivalence) or whether a given name is in on a certain list of names (set membership), but it is impossible to say which name is greater or less than another (comparison) or to measure the difference between two names. Given a set of people, we can describe the set by its most common name (the mode), but cannot provide an "average name" or even the "middle name" among all the names. However, if we decide to sort our names alphabetically (or to sort them by length; or by how many times they appear in the US Census), we will begin to turn this nominal scale into an ordinal scale.

Ordinal scale Rank-ordering data simply puts the data on an ordinal scale. Ordinal measurements describe order, but not relative size or degree of difference between the items measured. In this scale type, the numbers assigned to objects or events represent the rank order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) of the entities assessed. A Likert Scale is a type of ordinal scale and may also use names with an order such as: "bad", "medium", and "good"; or "very satisfied", "satisfied", "neutral", "unsatisfied", "very unsatisfied." An example of an ordinal scale is the result of a horse race, which says only which horses arrived first, second, or third but include no information about race times. Another is the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, which characterizes the hardness of various minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer one, saying nothing about the actual hardness of any of them. Yet another example is military ranks; they have an order, but no welldefined numerical difference between ranks. When using an ordinal scale, the central tendency of a group of items can be described by using the group's mode (or most common item) or its median (the middle-ranked item), but the mean (or average) cannot be defined. In a critique of psychometrics, Stevens argued that many of the measurements used by the field only measure relative order, not comparative magnitude, of variables such as intelligence: As a matter of fact, most of the scales used widely and effectively by psychologists are ordinal scales. In the strictest propriety the ordinary statistics involving means and standard deviations ought not to be used with these scales, for these statistics imply a knowledge of something more than the relative rank order of data (1946, p.679). Psychometricians like to theorise that psychometric tests produce interval scale measures of cognitive abilities (e.g. Lord & Novick, 1968; von Eye, 2005) but there is little prima facieevidence to suggest that such attributes are anything more than ordinal for most psychological data (Cliff, 1996; Cliff & Keats, 2003; Michell, 2008). In particular, although some psychologists say otherwise,[2] IQ scores reflect an ordinal scale, in which all scores are only meaningful for comparison, rather than an interval scale, in which a given number of IQ "points" corresponds to a unit of intelligence.[3][4][5] Thus it is an error to write that an IQ of 160 is just as different from an IQ of 130 as an IQ of 100 is different from an IQ of 70.[6][7] In mathematical order theory, an ordinal scale defines a total preorder of objects (in essence, a way of sorting all the objects, in which some may be tied). The scale values themselves (such as labels like "great", "good", and "bad"; 1st, 2nd, and 3rd) have a total order, where they may be sorted into a single line with no ambiguities. If numbers are used to define the scale, they remain correct even if they are transformed by any monotonically increasing function. This property is known as the order isomorphism. A simple example follows:
Judge's score Score minus 8 Tripled score Cubed score x x-8 3x x3 Alice's cooking ability 10 Bob's cooking ability 9 Claire's cooking ability 8.5 Dana's cooking ability 8 Edgar's cooking ability 5 2 1 0.5 0 -3 30 27 25.5 24 15 1000 729 614.125 512 125

Since x-8, 3x, and x3 are all monotonically increasing functions, replacing the ordinal judge's score by any of these alternate scores does not affect the relative ranking of the five people's cooking abilities. Each column of numbers is an equally legitimate ordinal scale for describing their abilities. However, the numerical (additive) difference between the various ordinal scores has no particular meaning. Ratio measurement Most measurement in the physical sciences and engineering is done on ratio scales. Mass, length, time, plane angle, energy and electric charge are examples of physical measures that are

ratio scales. The scale type takes its name from the fact that measurement is the estimation of the ratio between a magnitude of a continuous quantity and a unit magnitude of the same kind (Michell, 1997, 1999). Informally, the distinguishing feature of a ratio scale is the possession of a non-arbitrary zero value. For example, the Kelvin temperature scale has a non-arbitrary zero point of absolute zero, which is denoted 0K and is equal to -273.15 degrees Celsius. This zero point is non arbitrary as the particles that compose matter at this temperature have zero kinetic energy. Examples of ratio scale measurement in the behavioral sciences are all but non-existent. Luce (2000) argues that an example of ratio scale measurement in psychology can be found in rank and sign dependent expected utility theory. All statistical measures can be used for a variable measured at the ratio level, as all necessary mathematical operations are defined. The central tendency of a variable measured at the ratio level can be represented by, in addition to its mode, its median, or its arithmetic mean, also its geometric mean or harmonic mean. In addition to the measures of statistical dispersion defined for interval variables, such as range and standard deviation, for ratio variables one can also define measures that require a ratio, such as studentized range orcoefficient of variation. Interval scale Quantitative attributes are all measurable on interval scales, as any difference between the levels of an attribute can be multiplied by any real number to exceed or equal another difference. A highly familiar example of interval scale measurement is temperature with the Celsius scale. In this particular scale, the unit of measurement is 1/100 of the difference between the melting temperature and the boiling temperature of water at atmospheric pressure. The "zero point" on an interval scale is arbitrary; and negative values can be used. The formal mathematical term is an affine space (in this case an affine line). The Likert scale, which is one of the most common scales used in survey research, would be a popular example and practical application of the 'interval scale'. Variables measured at the interval level are called "interval variables" or sometimes "scaled variables" as they have units of measurement. Ratios between numbers on the scale are not meaningful, so operations such as multiplication and division cannot be carried out directly. But ratios of differences can be expressed; for example, one difference can be twice another. The central tendency of a variable measured at the interval level can be represented by its mode, its median, or its arithmetic mean. Statistical dispersion can be measured in most of the usual ways, which just involved differences or averaging, such as range, interquartile range, and standard deviation. Since one cannot divide, one cannot define measures that require a ratio, such as studentized range or coefficient of variation. More subtly, while one can define moments about the origin, only central moments are useful, since the choice of origin is arbitrary and not meaningful. One can define standardized moments, since ratios of differences are meaningful, but one cannot define coefficient of variation, since the mean is a moment about the origin, unlike the standard deviation, which is (the square root of) a central moment.

NEURO PSYCHOLOGY What is Neuropsych? Its history? neuropsychologist? Neuropsychology: the study of the relationships between brain function and behavior observation of changes in thoughts and behaviors that relate to the structural or cognitive integrity of the brain a method of studying the brain by examining its behavioral product

Neuropsychology and neuroscience in general have a history that is quite a bit older than one would think. Written records of the nervous system date back as far as 1700 B.C. But the bulk of knowledge about the brain and its functions did not become known until the 17th century. This is when men like Rene Descartes and Thomas Willis began studying the human nervous system and how it worked.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was the first scholar of note to make inclinations about the brain having an effect on behavior. He proposed that movements and subsequent behaviors were caused by the flow of 'animal spirits' through the nerves. Descartes saw the nerves as hollow tubes that transported the fluid causing muscles to be stimulated. This is known as the mechanistic view of behavior. Descartes got the idea when he saw the animated statues of St. Germaine. These were mechanical statues that operated on water that flowed through tubes in the statues themselves. If you would like to learn more about Descartes and his views go here.

The first detailed 'Anatomy of the Brain' was by Thomas Willis. It was published in 1664. Willis had a different view of the brain than did Descartes. He felt that the structures of the brain itself had influence on behavior, rather than the cerebral spinal fluid or the ventricles. Thomas also found that there were two types of tissue in the brain; gray matter and white matter. The gray matter made up the outer cortex of the brain while the white matter was the fibrous connective tissue found elsewhere in the brain. Willis did however agree with Descartes about the matter of the spirits. He felt that the white matter was a series of channels used to distribute the spirits that were generated in the gray matter. Even with Thomas' detailed findings, the brain did not come under specific scientific study until the 1800's.

Franz Josef Gall

One particular offshoot of neuroscience that had its heart in the right place was phrenology. Phrenology translates to 'science of the mind' and is the study of the topography of a person's skull in relation to their brain anatomy. This would then allow for psychological diagnoses to be made just from examining a patient's skull. This technique was developed by Franz Josef Gall. Gall was an accomplished scientist who had done experiments and extensive structural analyses of the brain (human and animal). He found that the larger the brain, the more complex, flexible, and intelligent behavior the organism could engage in. He also made the statement that the brain Phrenology bust. was the center of higher mental activity.

This movement was discredited however. It was done through the work of Pierre Flourens, who conducted experiments to show how sections of the brain had different functions than what the phrenologists had proposed. Flourens did this through the process of ablation, or removing parts One important theory that came from the ideas of phrenology is the theory of localization. This theory postulates that there are specific areas of the brain that perform specific jobs. This theory was supported by the likes of Paul Broca (1824-1880). Broca was interested in how damage to the brain affected people. One famous case was dealt with a man named "Tan". He was called this because that is all he could say. After the man died, Broca performed an autopsy and found a portion of the man's frontal cortex on the left side to be damaged by a lesion. From studying Tan's brain, and other like him, Broca found that that specific area of the brain had control over the expression of language. The people with damage to this area can still read and write, but have trouble verbalizing. This area is now called Broca's area.

Brain of patient with damage to Broca's area.

What is Neuropsychologist? Neuropsychologist: "Clinical neuropsychology is a specialty profession that focuses on brain functioning. A clinical neuropsychologist is a licensed psychologist with expertise in how behavior and skills are related to brain structures and systems. In clinical neuropsychology, brain function is evaluated by objectively testing memory and thinking skills. A very detailed assessment of abilities is done, and the pattern of strengths and weaknesses is used in important health areas, such as diagnosis and treatment planning. The clinical neuropsychologist conducts the evaluation and makes recommendations. He or she may also provide treatment, such as cognitive rehabilitation, behavior management, or psychotherapy." (source: Clinical Neuropsychology: A Guide for Patients and Their Families What is Clinical Neuropsychology? written by the Public Interest Advisory Committee, Division 40 American Psychological Association .

With a goal of determining the nature and extent of damage, and the impact upon intellectual and personality functions, the neuropsychologist works to pinpoint the cognitive alterations and lead the individual and his/her family to a better of understanding of how every day performance has changed. Many times these cognitive alterations have no physical or physiological explanations that neurologists or psychiatrists can trace during their own examinations. Based on behavioral observation of the patient, the neuropsychologist's evaluation and guidance assists in providing more effective rehabilitation and, thus, a more complete and successful recovery. What is neuropsychiatry? neuropsychiatrist? Neuropsychiatry is the medical specialty committed to better understanding brain-behavior relationships, and to the care of individuals with neurologically based cognitive, emotional, and behavioral disturbances. What is a neuropsychiatrist? A neuropsychiatrist is a physician (M.D. or D.O.) qualified to practice neuropsychiatry by virtue of either 1) primary training in either psychiatry or neurology followed by a period of at least one year of fellowship training in neuropsychiatry/behavioral neurology, or 2) formal residency training in both psychiatry and neurology. Psychiatrists or neurologists with many years of extensive clinical, educational, and scientific experience in the field of neuropsychiatry may also merit this specialty designation. Which patients are best served by neuropsychiatric consultation or treatment? The Neuropsychiatrist treats people with neurologic illness and cognitive, emotional, or behavioral problems; individuals with combined psychiatric illnesses and neurologic conditions; and individuals with atypical or refractory primary psychiatric disorders in which there is concern that an underlying neurological condition may be causing the "psychiatric" symptoms.

DISORDERS
Other neuropsychological disorder?

Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease and Mad Cow Disease

A viral infection, CJD comes in two forms: Variant CJD has been linked with mad cow disease which has claimed a number of lives in the United Kingdom. The other strain, typical CJD, has a 30-year incubation period, so normally occurs in older people.

Generalized seizures

Involve the entire brain, either by gradual building or simultaneously, perhaps from a focus in the thalamus. Grand mal seizures o Tonic-clonic convulsion o Loss of consciousness and balance o Hypoxia from excessive excitatory amino acids

Partial seizures

Affect only part of the brain at a time May be simple or complex o Simple partial (Jacksonian) seizures: Spreading sensory or motor or combined effects o Complex partial seizures or temporal lobe epilepsy begin with an aura and lead to a psychomotor attack: automatisms with consciousness but no recollection. Most common variety: 50% of all cases.

Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease, Parkinson's, idiopathic parkinsonism, primary parkinsonism, PD, orparalysis agitans) is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system. It results from the death of dopamine-containing cells in thesubstantia nigra, a region of the midbrain; the cause of cell-death is unknown. Early in the course of the disease, the most obvious symptoms are movement-related, including shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement and difficulty with walking and gait. Later, cognitive and behavioural problems may arise, with dementia commonly occurring in the advanced stages of the disease. Other symptoms include sensory, sleep and emotional problems. PD is more common in the elderly with most cases occurring after the age of 50.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), also called Alzheimer disease, senile dementia of the Alzheimer type, primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer's type, or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of dementia. This incurable, degenerative, and terminal diseasewas first described by German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer in 1906 and was named after him.[1] Most often, it is diagnosed in people over 65 years of age,[2] although the lessprevalent early-onset Alzheimer's can occur much earlier. In 2006, there were26.6 million sufferers worldwide. Alzheimer's is predicted to affect 1 in 85 people globally by 2050 Epilepsy (from the Ancient Greek (epilpsa) "seizure") is a common chronic neurological disorder characterized byseizures.These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms of abnormal, excessive or hypersynchronous neuronal activity in the brain.About 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, and nearly two out of every three new cases are discovered in developing countries.Epilepsy is more likely to occur in young children, or people over the age of 65 years; however, it can occur at any time.As a consequence of brain surgery, epileptic seizures may occur in recovering patients. Epilepsy is usually controlled, but not cured, with medication. However, over 30% of people with epilepsy do not have seizure control even with the best available medications. Surgery may be considered in difficult cases.Not all epilepsy syndromes are lifelong some forms are confined to particular stages of childhood. Epilepsy should not be understood as a single disorder, but rather as syndromic with vastly divergent symptoms but all involving episodic abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Multiple sclerosis (abbreviated MS, also known as disseminated sclerosis or encephalomyelitis disseminata) is an inflammatory disease in which the fatty myelin sheaths around the axons of the brain and spinal cord are damaged, leading to demyelination and scarring as well as a broad spectrum of signs and symptoms.Disease onset usually occurs in young adults, and it is more common in women.[1] It has aprevalence that ranges between 2 and 150 per 100,000.MS was first described in 1868 by Jean-Martin Charcot. MS affects the ability of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord to communicate with each other. Nerve cells communicate by sending electrical signals called action potentials down long fibers called axons, which are wrapped in an insulating substance called myelin. In MS, the body's own immune system attacks and damages the myelin. When myelin is lost, the axons can no longer effectively conduct signals.The name multiple sclerosis refers to scars (sclerosesbetter known as plaques or lesions) particularly in the white matter of the brain and spinal cord, which is mainly composed of myelin.Although much is known about the mechanisms involved in the disease process, the cause remains unknown. Theories include genetics or infections. Different environmental risk factors have also been found.

Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited disease that causes certain nerve cells in the brain to waste away. People are born with the defective gene, but symptoms usually don't appear until middle age. Early symptoms of HD may include uncontrolled movements, clumsiness or balance problems. Later, HD can take away the ability to walk, talk or swallow. Some people stop recognizing family members. Others are aware of their environment and are able to express emotions. There is no cure. Medicines can help manage some of the symptoms, but cannot slow down or stop the disease.