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Binary Logic and Gates Boolean Algebra Standard Forms Map Simplification Tabulation Method NAND and NOR Gates Exclusive-OR Gates Integrated Circuits
Binary Logic
Deals with variables that take on two discrete values and with operation that assume logical meaning. The manipulation and processing of binary information. Uses values, variables and operations:
True is represented by the value 1 (ON). False is represented by the value 0 (OFF).
Binary Logic
Digital circuits are implemented using transistors and interconnections in complex semiconductor devices called integrated circuits. Each basic circuit is referred to as a logic gate.
OR
Represented by a plus (+) symbol Will yield 1 if at least one of the inputs is 1
NOT
Represented by a bar or prime () It will complement the input
NOR
Performs the complement of OR Will yield 0 if at least one of the inputs is 1
Buffer
Retains the input value
XNOR
Will yield 1 if the inputs are the same Opposite of XOR
Binary Logic
Variables are represented by letters and can have one of two values, either 0 or 1. Operations are functions of one or more variables.
AND is represented by X.Y OR is represented by X + Y NOT is represented by X'
Switching Circuit
LAMP
1 SW1
1 2 1 SW2
AND gate
Switching Circuit
LAMP
1 2 1
SW1 2 2
1 SW2
OR gate
Switching Circuit
LAMP
SW1 2
NOT gate
2 1
Truth Tables
A means of representing the results of a logic function using a table. They are constructed by defining all possible combinations of the inputs to a function, and then calculating the output for each combination in turn.
Truth Tables
AND X 0 0 1 1 Y 0 1 0 1 Z 0 0 0 1 X 0 0 1 1 OR Y 0 1 0 1 Z 0 1 1 1 NOT X 0 1 Y 1 0
Truth Tables
NAND X 0 0 1 1 Y 0 1 0 1 Z 1 1 1 0 X 0 0 1 1 NOR Y 0 1 0 1 Z 1 0 0 0 Buffer X 0 1 Y 0 1
Truth Tables
XOR X 0 0 1 1 Y 0 1 0 1 Z 0 1 1 0 X 0 0 1 1 XNOR Y 0 1 0 1 Z 1 0 0 1
Assignment 2-1
Construct the equivalent switching circuit of the following gates:
NAND NOR Buffer XOR XNOR
Boolean Algebra
It deals with binary variables and logic operations. In honor of George Boole
English mathematician Published a book introducing the mathematical theory of logic in 1854
Boolean Algebra
Duality Principle
The duality principle of Boolean algebra states that a Boolean equation remains valid if we take the dual of the expressions on both sides of the equals (=) sign. To get the DUAL of a Boolean Expression: Interchange:
o OR = AND o1=0
Boolean Algebra
Identities X+0=X X+1=1 X+X=X X + X = 1 X = X Commutative Law X+Y=Y+X Associative Law X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z Distributive Law X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ DeMorgans Theorem (X + Y) = XY (XY) = X + Y X + YZ = (X + Y)( X + Z) X(YZ) = (XY)Z XY = YX X.1=X X.0=0 X.X=X X . X = 0
Examples
X + XY = X XY + XY = X X + XY = X + Y (X + Y)(X + Y) = X X(X + Y) = XY
Consensus Theorem
A consensus or redundant term can be eliminated. Examples:
XY + XZ + YZ = XY + XZ and its dual: (X + Y)(X + Z)(Y + Z) = (X + Y)(X + Z)
Consensus Theorem
Proof:
XY + XZ + YZ = XY + XZ + (X + X) YZ = XY + XZ + XYZ + XYZ = XY (1 + Z) + XZ (1 + Y) = XY + XZ
Boolean Functions
An expression formed with binary variables (0 or 1) and its logical operands (logic gates). Example: F = xyz F = AB + CD F = (wx + y) z
Algebraic Manipulation
Original Function: F = XYZ + XYZ + XZ
2 1 2 13 3 4 5 12 1 2 3 12 13
Y Z
2 1 3 2
Algebraic Manipulation
Simplified Function: F = XY + XZ
X Y Z
2 1 3 2 1 3 2 4 6 5
Complement of a Function
It is obtained from an interchange of 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s for the values of F in the truth table. It can be derived algebraically through the use of DeMorgans theorem. The generalized form is to interchange the AND and OR operations and complement each variable and constant. A simpler method is to take the dual of the function and complement each literal.
Example
Find the complement of the following functions:
1. F1 = XYZ + XYZ 2. F2 = X (YZ + YZ)
4. 5. 6.
(A + B + AB)(AB + AC + BC) ((A + B) + AB)(CD + CD) + (AC) WX(Z + YZ) + X(W + WYZ)
4. 5. 6.
WX(YZ + YZ) + WX(Y + Z)(Y + Z) (A + B + C)(AB + C)(A + BC) A(BC + BC) + C(BD + (BD))
Standard Forms
It facilitate the simplification procedures and would result in more desirable logic circuits It contain: Product terms (Minterms)
AND operation Example: xyz
Maxterm
A sum term that contains all the variables in complemented or uncomplemented form. Has a value of 0 (uncomplemented).
Example
x 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Input y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Output z 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 F 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 F 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Important Properties
1.
There are 2n minterms (maxterms) for n Boolean variables. Any Boolean function can be expressed as a logical sum of minterms (product of maxterms). The complement of a function contains those minterms (maxterms) not included in the original function. A function that includes all the 2n minterms (maxterms) is equal to logic 1 (0).
2.
3.
4.
Map Simplification
Karnaugh map, or K-map, is a diagram made up of squares, with each square representing one minterm of the function. It is a straightforward procedure for simplifying Boolean functions up to four variables. But cumbersome to use for functions with five to six variables.
Two-Variable Map
y x 0 1 0 m0 m2 (a) 1 m1 m3 x 0 1 y 0 xy xy (b) 1 xy xy
Three-Variable Map
yz x 0 1 00 01 11 10 x 0 1 yz 00 01 11 10
m0 m4
m1 m5
m3 m7
m2 m6
(a)
(b)
Four-Variable Map
yz wx
00
01
11
10
yz wx
00
01
11
10
00 01 11 10
m0 m1 m3 m2 m4 m5 m7 m6 m1 m1 m1 m1 m8 m9 m1 m1
1 0 2 3 5 4
00 01 11 10
0 4 12 8
1 5 13 9
3 7 15 11
2 6 14 10
(a)
(b)
F(x, y, z) = m(2, 3, 4, 5) F(x, y, z) = m(3, 4, 6, 7) F(x, y, z) = m(0, 2, 4, 5, 6) F(w, x, y, z) = m(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14) F(A, B, C, D) = m(0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 15) F(w, x, y, z) = M(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)
Prime Implicants
A prime implicant is a product term obtained by combining the maximum possible number of adjacent squares in the map. If a minterm in a square is covered by only one prime implicant, that prime implicant is said to be essential.
Prime Implicants
F (A, B, C, D) = (0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15)
CD AB
00
01
11
10
CD AB
00
01
11
10
00 01 11 10
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
00 01 11
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
10
Prime Implicants
Selection Rule
Minimize the overlap among prime implicants as much as possible. In particular, in the final solution, make sure that each prime implicant selected includes at least one minterm not included in any other prime implicant selected.
Prime Implicants
Examples:
1. 2.
F(A,B,C,D) = m (0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 13, 15) F(W,X,Y,Z) = WX + WXZ + WYZ + WXY + WXZ
Dont-Care Conditions
Two cases of occurrence:
1. 2.
The input combinations never occur The input combinations are expected to occur, but we do not care what the outputs are in response to these combinations
Functions that have unspecified outputs for some input combinations are called incompletely specified functions. The unspecified minterms of a function are called dont-care conditions.
Five-Variable Map
F (A, B, C, D, E) = (0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 13, 21, 23, 25, 29, 31)
F(W,X,Y,Z) = m (1, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 15) F(W,X,Y,Z) = M (1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14) F(A,B,C) = AB + AC + BC + ABC F(A,B,C,D) = (A+B+D)(A+D)(A+B+D)(A+B+C+D) F(A, B, C, D, E) = m (0, 1, 4, 5, 16, 17, 21, 25, 29)
1. 2.
Decimal 1, 9 (8) 4, 6 (2) 6, 7 (1) 7, 15 (8) 11, 15 (4) 8, 9, 10, 11 (1, 2) 1 / / XYZ WXZ WXY XYZ WYZ / WX 1, 9 4, 6 6, 7 7, 15 11, 15 8,9,10,11 / X
W 0 0 1 1 4 X
X 0 1 1 1 0 6 X X
Y 0 1 1 1 7
Z 1 0 1 1 8 9 X
X X X X X / X / X / X X
F (A, B, C, D, E) = m (0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 13, 21, 23, 25, 29, 31) P(A,B,C,D,E,F) = m (6, 9, 13, 18, 19, 25, 27, 29, 41, 45, 57, 61)
2.
(XY)'' = XY
AND X
1 2 1 3 2 1 2
(X'Y')' = X + Y
OR
1 3
X'
NOT
(XY)'
X'
(b) NOT-OR
4.
Simplify the function and express it in sum-ofproducts form. Draw a NAND gate for each product term of the expression that has at least two literals (1st level). Draw a single gate using the AND-NOT or the NOT-OR graphics symbol at the 2nd level, with inputs coming fro outputs of 1st level gates. A term with a single literal requires a NOT at the first level. However, if the single literal is complemented from its original appearance it can be connected directly to an input of the 2nd level NAND gate.
1. F = XY + XY + Z 2. F = (AB + AB)E(C + D)
X Y' X' Y Z
1 3 2 4 6 5 2 1 3
F = XY + XY + Z
F
X Y' X' Y
1 3 2 4 6 5 5 4 6
1 3 2 4 6 5 2 1 3
Z' F
General Procedure
Convert all AND gates to NAND gates with AND-NOT graphic symbols. 2. Convert all OR gates with NOT-OR graphic symbols. 3. Check all the bubbles in the diagram. For every bubble that is not counter-acted by another bubble along the same line, insert a NOT gate or complement the input literal from its original appearance.
1.
1 3 2 4 6 4 6 5 1 3 2 10 9 8 12 11 13 5
1 3 2 4
F = (AB + AB)E(C + D)
6 5 6 12 11 3 13 4
4 5 1 3 2
9 8 10 1 2
1 3 2 12 11 4 6 5 12 11 13 10 12 11 13 9 8 13 12 11 12 11 13 13
X'
X'
Inverter X Y
2 1 3 1 2
(X + Y)'' = X + Y
OR X
1 2 2 1 3 1 2
(X' + Y') = XY
AND
X'Y' = (X + Y)'
(b) NOT-AND X Y
2 1 3
(X + Y)'
(a) OR-NOT
1 3 2 4 6 5 2 1 3
2 1 3 5 4 6 2 1
F = (A + B)(C + D)E
3
2 1 3 5 4 6 1 2 13
12
1 3 2 4 6 4 6 5 1 3 2 10 9 8 12 11 13 5
1 3 2 4 6 4 6 5 1 3 2 10 9 8 1 2 12 11 13 5
2 1 3 11 13 5 4 6 9 8 10 9 3 2 1 6 5 4 12 8 10
F = (AB + AB)E(C + D)
Exclusive-OR Gates
XOR is a logical operation that performs the function F = X + Y = XY + XY Equal to 1 if exactly one variable is equal to 1.
Exclusive-OR Gates
XNOR is the complement of the XOR function. Expressed by the function F = X + Y = XY + XY Equal to 1 if both X and Y are equal to 1 or if both are equal to 0. Also known as the equivalence.
Exclusive-OR Gates
Identities:
X+0=X X+X=0 X+Y=X+Y X+1=X X+X=1 X+Y=X+Y
Properties:
Commutative Associative
Even function is a function that has a value of 1 if the number of 1s in the input is EVEN.
Example: XNOR
P=X+Y+Z
X Y Z P
1 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 2
C=X+Y+Z+P
Integrated Circuits
Levels of Integration
1.
2.
Integrated Circuits
Levels of Integration
3.
4.
TTL
Widely used for decades Declining rapidly in use
ECL
Advantageous in systems requiring high-speed operation Rapidly overtaken by CMOS
MOS
For circuits that need high component density
BiCMOS
Combines CMOS with a bit of TTL Used in cases in which CMOS cannot provide adequate current or the necessary speed
GaAS
Used selectively for very high speed circuits
Quiz #2 Coverage
Simplification of Boolean functions
Boolean algebra Karnaugh map Tabulation method